International Student Mobility: A Global and Indian Temporal Overview

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Discussion Paper | November 2025
Dr Sonia Pant (Programme Director)
Dr Shashank Shah (Senior Specialist)
Ms Oshin Dharap (Consultant) 
Ms Arunima Goyal and Ms Upragya Kashyap (Young Professionals)
 Education Division, NITI Aayog
 International Student Mobility:
A Global and Indian Temporal Overview 
NITI WORKING PAPER SERIES
Working Paper No. O-15012/29/25-R&N
NITI Working Papers describe research in progress by the author(s). The contents and the views 
expressed therein do not necessarily represent the views of NITI Aayog. 3
Introduction01
Literature Review02
Objectives of the Study04
Methodology and Data Sources 04
International Student Mobility:
Global Overview
05
International Student Mobility:
Indian Overview
12
Key Findings28
Way Forward29
Conclusion32
References33
CONTENTS
TABLE OF LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 International Student Mobility (2001-2022)
Table 2 Top 10 Host Countries for International Students (2004-2024)
Table 3 Top 5 Source Countries for Top 5 Host Countries (2014-2024)
Table 4 International Students as a Percentage of Total Higher Education Enrolment
(2014-2024)
Table 5 Inbound Mobility of Students to India (2000-2022)
Table 6 Top 10 Source Countries of International Students in India (2012-13 to 2021-22)
Table 7 Top 10 States with International Student Enrolment in India (2012–13 to 2021–22)
Table 8 Inbound Students to India: By Stream (2012-13 to 2021-22)
Table 9 Outbound Mobility of Students from India (2016-2024)
Table 10Top 10 Study Destinations for Indian students (2016-2024)
Table 11Total Expenditure by Indian Students on Higher Education in Top 4 Host Countries
(2023-24)
Table 12Top 10 Source States of Indian Students Going Abroad (2016–2020)
Table 13International Student Mobility of India (2016-2022) LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1International Student Mobility (2001-2022)
Figure 2Top 7 Host Countries for International Students (2004-2024)
Figure 3
International Students as a Percentage of Total Higher Education Enrolment
(2014-2024)
Figure 4Inbound Mobility of Students to India (2000-2022)
Figure 5
International Students as a Percentage of Total Higher Education Enrolment in
India (2000-2022)
Figure 6Top 10 Source Countries of International Students in India (2021-22)
Figure 7
Transition in International Student Enrolment Across Top 10 Indian States
(2012-13 to 2021-22)
Figure 8Enrolment of International Students Across Levels (2012-13 to 2021-22)
Figure 9 Inbound Students to India: By Stream (2012-13 to 2021-22)
Figure 10Outbound Mobility of Students from India (2016-2024)
Figure 11Top 5 Study Destinations for Indian students (2016- 2024)
Figure 12
Transition in Top 10 Source States for Indian Students Going Abroad (2016-
2020)
Figure 13Outbound Students from India: By Stream (2021-22)
Figure 14International Student Mobility of India (2016-2022) Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 1
1. Introduction
Internationalisation of higher education has emerged as a defining paradigm in the global knowledge
economy. It is best understood as a transformative framework to enhance the quality and relevance of
teaching, research, innovation, and societal engagement in higher education institutions (HEIs). The
International Association of Universities adopts the following definition of internationalisation of
higher education, “[It is] the intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural or global
dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary education, in order to enhance
the quality of education and research for all students and staff, and to make a meaningful contribution
to society.” (De Wit, H., Hunter F., Howard L., Egron-Polak E. (Eds.) (2015) “Internationalisation of
Higher Education”, European Parliament, Brussels: EU).
In the ancient world, India pioneered the internationalisation of higher education, where global
engagement was a fundamental principle embedded in its academic ethos. World-class institutions
of ancient India such as Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramshila and Vallabhi set the highest standards
of multidisciplinary teaching and research and hosted students from across the globe. This rich
ecosystem of learning produced great scholars who made seminal contributions to world knowledge
in diverse fields. Hence, this the current time is an opportune moment for modern India to reclaim
its position as a leading international hub of knowledge and talent, given its favourable demography,
scale, multidisciplinary expertise and enabling policy frameworks.
Domestically, the policy framework is already conducive. The vision of Viksit Bharat@2047 articulates
India’s aspiration to emerge as a global talent hub and a leader in education, research, innovation
and entrepreneurship. India’s higher education system, the second largest in the world, is undergoing
a seismic shift guided by the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which strongly emphasises
‘internationalisation at home’. NEP envisions a globally integrated higher education system, focusing
on student and faculty mobility, research collaborations, and quality enhancement to create world-
class multidisciplinary teaching and research institutions, while making India a preferred global study
destination.
UGC (Guidelines on the Internationalisation of Higher Education) 2021, UGC (Academic Collaboration
between Indian and Foreign Higher Educational Institutions) 2022 and UGC (Recognition and Grant
of Equivalence to Qualifications obtained from Foreign Educational Institutions) Regulations 2025
are significant milestones in this direction. The International Financial Services Centres Authority
(IFSCA) in GIFT City (Gandhinagar) introduced the Setting up and operation of International
Branch Campuses and Offshore Education Centres Regulations, 2022, which paved the way for the
first International Branch Campuses in India. As of May 2025, 11 Foreign Universities have formally
established their presence in India with 4 in GIFT IFSC and 7 in different parts of the country.
1.1 Fiscal, Trade and Investment Impact
The significance of internationalising Indian higher education lies in its potential to address critical
national priorities and deliver numerous benefits. It enables the development of world ready, globally
competent talent, by ensuring that domestic students have access to globally relevant education
and research. On the economic front, it has the potential to expand employment opportunities
across the skill spectrum, stimulate domestic demand and investments, and drive economic growth.
Furthermore, it can mitigate the growing foreign exchange burden caused by the large number of
Indian students seeking higher education abroad.
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) data reveals a significant upward trend in India’s overseas education
expenditure under the Liberalised Remittance Scheme (LRS) over the past decade. In just one decade, Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 2
annual outward remittances under the ‘studies abroad’ component have increased by over 2,000%
from USD 0.16 billion (INR 975 crore)
1
in 2013-14 to nearly USD 3.4 billion (INR 29,000 crore) in
2023-24. This represents approximately 53% of the Union higher education budget, which stood at
INR 55,000 crore in 2023–24. While the former focuses on about 3% of Indian students who study
abroad, the latter serves large parts of the remaining 97% who study in India. It is also important
to note that RBI records data on outward remittances does not account for the total expenditure
incurred by Indian students on higher education abroad, which includes tuition fees, housing fees and
living expenses amongst others.
Other institutional reports provide insights into the totality of expenses incurred by Indian students
overseas. According to ASSOCHAM, about 4.5 lakh Indian students spent over USD 13 billion (INR
96,500 crore) per annum on higher education abroad as of 2020. The Indian Student Mobility Report
stated that Indian students collectively spent an estimated USD 37 billion (INR 2.6 lakh crore) on
overseas education in 2019 and this rose to approximately USD 47 billion (INR 3.8 lakh crore) in
2022. The report projected that if the sector continues to expand at its current annual growth rate
of 14%, the expenditure on foreign education by Indian students would reach approximately USD 70
billion (INR 6.2 lakh crore) by 2025. This is about 10x of the Government of India’s higher education
budget for 2025-26 and approximately 2% of India’s GDP.
It is important to also present this in the context of India’s international trade situation. India’s overall
trade deficit (including services and merchandise trade) stood at nearly USD 94 billion in FY 2024-
25. Expenditure on foreign education by Indian students in 2025 is, therefore, nearly 75% of India’s
overall trade deficit in FY 2024-25. This trend also underscores the increasing forex burden on the
Indian economy due to student demand for overseas education, thereby reinforcing the imperative
to strengthen internationalisation efforts within the domestic higher education system. In addition
to the obvious advantage of retaining talent, students opting to study in India, curtail forex outflow,
retaining funds within the economy and contributing to national growth.
The Indian higher education sector is also a promising field for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
As per the consolidated FDI Policy 2017, 100% FDI is permitted under the automatic route for
educational institutions. 100% FDI is permitted in the Indian education sector under the automatic
route. As per Invest India, between April 2000 to December 2024, India received USD 9.9 billion FDI
in education.
Moreover, higher education has been positioned as a tradeable commodity under the GATS framework,
with universities becoming providers, educators becoming investors, and students becoming clients
in a market-mediated system. The global landscape of internationalisation manifests through four
primary modes: cross-border supply of services (including MOOCs and e-learning), consumption
abroad through student mobility, commercial presence via branch campuses, and mobility of academic
personnel.
2. Literature Review
The literature on internationalisation of higher education is relatively recent compared to other
strands of higher education research. The concept of internationalisation of higher education has
been informed by Jane Knight’s seminal definition, first articulated in the 1990s, which described
internationalisation as “the process of integrating an international or intercultural dimension into
the teaching, research, and service functions of the institution”. Recent research has raised concerns
1 Average annual exchange rate for INR against USD (INR/USD) based on Forbes India data for the years mentioned above: 2014:
60.95, 2019: 72. 15, 2020: 74.31, 2022: 81.62, 2024: 85.56, 2025: 88.73 Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 3
about its narrow scope and implicit biases. Critics have noted that the standard definition of
internationalisation often reflects Western-centric norms and overlooks power imbalances in global
education (Brandenburg & de Wit 2011). In particular, scholars like Stein (2021) argued that Knight’s
definition effectively reinforces a ‘Western-centric paradigm’ and fails to capture the diversity and
complexity of higher education systems around the world. Marginson (2023) called for a decolonised
approach: one that abandons the old one-size-fits-all schema and instead reframes internationalisation
through plural, context-sensitive perspectives.
Early conceptualisations (de Wit, 2002; Knight, 2004) described internationalisation primarily through
the lens of student and faculty mobility, which constrained the understanding of internationalisation
of higher education to quantitative flows across borders. Leask (2015) criticised this narrow scope
and later proposed a process-oriented model of Internationalisation of the Curriculum (IoC)
(2015), emphasising integration of global dimensions into programme design and learning outcomes.
Altbach, Reisberg, and Rumbley (2010) noted that mobility and research collaboration were integral
to the global academic revolution. Beelen and Jones (2015) introduced the influential concept of
Internationalisation at Home (IaH), highlighting that international learning opportunities should
reach the ‘non-mobile majority’ of students. Building on this shift, de Wit et al. (2015) reframed
internationalisation as the intentional integration of international and intercultural perspectives
into higher education’s purpose, function, and delivery, thereby linking it with quality assurance and
societal contribution.
The literature on internationalisation of higher education has been extensive in the Western context
but has remained relatively scanty in India. The study of international student mobility has historically
been dominated by Global North contexts, with USA and UK serving as the principal destinations
for decades (Glass & Cruz, 2023; Pawar, 2022). While literature highlights the South-North flow of
students, recent decades have also seen the emergence of regional and South–South flows, with
Asian nations such as China and South Korea transitioning into major host countries (Chan, 2012;
Gbollie & Gong, 2020).
Within this evolving global structure, India’s position has been asymmetrical. It is one of the largest
source countries of internationally mobile students, but inbound numbers have remained modest,
situating India as a ‘semi-peripheral’ host in the international student mobility hierarchy (Yang,
2022). Early policy analyses identified that India’s internationalisation rationale differs from Western
economies, being driven less by service-export revenues and more by soft power, visibility, and global
reputation (Khare, 2014; 2021). Dahlman and Utz (2005) linked India’s role in international education
to the broader knowledge economy framework, underscoring knowledge as a key determinant
of productivity and growth. Agarwal (2009) highlighted both the opportunities and weaknesses of
Indian higher education, underlining the need for a clear national vision. Yeravdekar and Tiwari (2014)
noted that India has historically attracted students from Asia and Africa, thereby contributing to
regional capacity building through the development of human capital. They stressed that private HEIs
in India have propelled internationalisation, particularly in professional fields such as engineering and
management.
Scholars have further identified structural constraints: uneven quality across institutions, visa
and administrative hurdles, limited part-time work opportunities, and weak branding relative to
competitor hubs (Choudaha, 2017; Pawar, 2023). Consequently, India has not fully leveraged the global
mobility wave. The literature has increasingly advocated diversification strategies, such as targeting
East African markets, supported by frameworks combining GDP growth, demographics, and current
outbound flows (Pawar, 2024). Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 4
In sum, the literature has placed internationalisation as both an opportunity and a challenge for
India. While India has articulated ambitious policy frameworks for global positioning, the literature
underscores a persistent gap between aspirations and outcomes. It highlights the dual challenge of
reducing dependence on a narrow set of neighbours while simultaneously enhancing institutional
readiness and student experience to strengthen India’s claim as an emerging global education hub.
This discussion paper is a part of a larger report by the Education Division of NITI Aayog on
‘Internationalisation of Higher Education in India’, which takes a holistic and comprehensive lens
to internationalisation of higher education and research in India and focuses on patterns, global
approaches, and action strategies to transform India into a leading global destination for higher
education. It in particular adds to the discourse on internationalisation of higher education in India
by capturing the evolving dynamics of inward and outward student mobility, both in India and globally,
and exploring the potential of internationalisation at home within the Indian higher education
system. The genesis of this paper is that detailed temporal analysis of student mobility, especially in
the context of India, is limited. It traces the shifts in inbound and outbound student flows, analyses
regional and disciplinary patterns, and offers comparative insights over the last two decades. It
contributes to the internationalisation literature by highlighting the dual pillars of internationalisation:
‘internationalisation at home’, which seeks to foster global competencies among all students within
domestic HEIs, and ‘internationalisation abroad’, characterised by the physical mobility of students
across borders. The paper concludes by offering policy recommendations to ensure India-centric
internationalisation efforts.
3. Objectives of the Study
This paper seeks to provide an evidence-based understanding of international student mobility
trends by drawing on temporal overview. The objectives of the study are:
a. To analyse global trends in international student mobility, including key host and source
countries over the past two decades.
b. To examine India’s position in the global higher education landscape as a source and host
country of international students.
c. To assess patterns of inbound international student mobility to India by source country,
state, level of study and academic discipline.
d. To evaluate outbound mobility trends of Indian students, including destination countries,
state-level distribution, and preferred fields of study.
e. To measure the inbound-to-outbound international student mobility ratio for India over time
and provide recommendations for improving this ratio towards a more balanced mobility
profile.
4. Methodology and Data Sources
This paper is a part of a larger Policy Report on ‘Internationalisation of Higher Education in India’.
It adopts a data-driven and descriptive approach based on secondary data to examine international
student mobility patterns. Temporal data from the years 2000 to 2024 has been collated from reputed
sources to track changes in student mobility, host-source dynamics, enrolment percentages and
disciplinary preferences. Comparative metrics such as growth rates, percentage share of international
students, inbound-outbound ratios and net flow of students have been used to interpret trends. The
following data sources have been used: Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 5
Source Years Publisher/Agency Key Focus/Content
All India Survey on
Higher Education
(AISHE)
2012-13
to 2021-
22
Department of Higher
Education, Ministry of
Education, GoI
Annual report on India’s higher
education: student enrolment (by level,
discipline, demographics), institutional
data, international student enrolments.
Statistics of Technical
and Higher Education
2008-09
Ministry of Education,
GoI
Official statistics on enrolments,
institutional capacity, and academic
programmes in technical and higher
education; supports state-wise and
discipline-wise trend analysis.
Student Mobility
Data
2016-
2024
Ministry of External
Affairs (MEA), GoI
Annual figures on Indian students
studying abroad, disaggregated by
destination country; captures outbound
mobility patterns.
UGC Annual Report
2000-01,
2004-05
University Grants
Commission (UGC)
Insights into mobility trends, policy
initiatives, regulatory developments,
and performance indicators of HEIs;
governance and internationalisation focus.
UNESCO Institute
for Statistics (UIS)
2001-
2022
UNESCO
Internationally comparable data on
education, including global student
mobility; benchmarks India’s trends
against global averages and leading
countries.
Migration Data Portal
2001-
2022
International
Organization for
Migration (IOM)
Global data on migration, including
student mobility patterns; provides
comparative indicators and
country-specific insights.
Project Atlas
2014-
2024
Institute of
International
Education (IIE)
Tracks international student mobility
globally; details inbound and outbound
flows, useful for cross-country
comparisons of India with major host/
source countries.
5. International Student Mobility: Global Overview
International student mobility has become a pivotal feature of global higher education in the
21st century. As per the 2019 UNESCO Global Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications
concerning Higher Education, mobility refers to the “physical or virtual movement of individuals
outside their country for the purpose of studying, researching and teaching”. This movement of
students and scholars across borders not only reflects the aspirations of individuals seeking quality
education and career prospects but also embodies the growing interdependence among educational
systems worldwide.
Over the past two decades, the global landscape of higher education has witnessed a remarkable
surge in international student mobility, reflecting the rising demand for globally competitive education. Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 6
Table I depicts that there has been 3x increase in the number of internationally mobile students
worldwide, from 22 lakh in 2001 to 69 lakhs in 2022. This upward trajectory underscores the
increasing importance of cross-border education in shaping transnational education and fostering
international collaboration.
Table 1: International Student Mobility (2001-2022)
Year No. of Students (in lakhs) Year No. of Students (in lakhs)
200122201241
200225201343
200326201445
200427201548
200528201651
200629201754
200731201857
200833201961
200935202066
201038202164
201140202269
Source: Migration Data Portal, International Organisation on Migration (IOM)
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period.
0
20
40
60
80
2001 2005 2010 2015 2020 2022
International Students (in lakhs)
Year
Figure 1: International Student Mobility (2001-2022) Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 7
Figure 1 depicts the number of international students globally between 2001 and 2022, reflecting a
214% rise over 22 years. Between 2001 and 2010, the number rose from 22 to 38 lakhs, an increase
of approximately 73%, driven by the early 2000s wave of globalisation and the expansion of higher
education systems. From 2010 to 2015, growth continued steadily, reaching 48 lakhs in 2015, a
26% increase over five years aligned with the internationalisation strategies at the government and
institutional levels. The period from 2015 to 2020 saw further growth, with numbers rising from 48
to 66 lakhs, a 37.5% increase over five years, reflecting continued global demand.
During the COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2021), the growth rate slowed from 66 to 64 lakhs, indicating
a minor decline due to travel restrictions, health concerns and campus closures. However, 2022
marked a strong recovery with student numbers rising to 69 lakhs, a 7.8% increase from the previous
year. This is one of the sharpest annual increases of the entire period and can be attributed to pent-up
demand, resumption of cross-border mobility and universities adopting hybrid and flexible models.
5.1 Top 10 Host Countries for International Students: A Two-Decade Analysis
International student mobility has undergone significant transformation with shifts in the global
higher education landscape influencing where students choose to study. Host countries play a crucial
role in this dynamic shaped by factors such as quality of education, immigration policies, cultural
openness, affordability and employment opportunities. Traditional education destinations have
faced growing competition from emerging players that have strategically positioned themselves as
attractive alternatives. As students increasingly weigh long-term prospects alongside academic and
research quality, the global map of top host countries continues to evolve, reflecting broader political,
economic and social trends.
Table 2: Top 10 Host Countries for International Students (2004-2024)
Year 200420142024
RankCountry
No. of
Students
Country
No. of
Students
Country
No. of
Students
1 USA 5,72,509 USA 9,74,926 USA 11,26,690
2 UK 3,00,050 UK 4,93,570 Canada 8,42,760
3 Germany 2,46,136 China 3,77,054 UK 7,58,855
4 France 2,45,298 Germany 3,01,350Australia4,37,485
5 Australia1,51,798 France 2,98,902 France 4,12,100
6 Japan 1,17,302 Australia2,69,752Germany 3,67,578
7 China 1,10,844 Canada 2,68,659 Russia 3,21,845
8 Russia 75,786 Japan 1,39,185
South
Korea
2,08,962
9 Canada 66,576 Netherlands90,389 China 2,00,892
10
South
Africa
49,979
New
Zealand
46,659 Spain 1,49,279
Source: Gosende, R. & Gürüz, K. (2007); Project Atlas 2014, 2024
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period. Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 8
0
2,00,000
4,00,000
6,00,000
8,00,000
10,00,000
12,00,000
USA Canada UK Australia France Germany China
Country
200420142024
Figure 2: Top 7 Host Countries for International Students (2004-2024)
Figure 2 reveals the leading host countries for international students over two decades with USA,
Canada and UK emerging as the top three destinations in 2024. Other significant destinations
include Australia, France, Germany and China, each attracting a globally mobile student population.
The USA has consistently remained the top destination with international student numbers rising
from 5.73 lakhs in 2004 to 9.75 lakhs in 2014 and reaching 11.27 lakhs in 2024. This sustained lead
underscores the enduring appeal of American higher education, driven by enhancing the quality of
higher education, building national reputation and competitiveness, promoting knowledge creation
and innovation, preparing students for the global workforce and supporting long-term national
economic development.
The UK showed steady growth, with student numbers increasing from 3 lakhs in 2004 to 4.94 lakhs
in 2014 and rising further to 7.59 lakhs in 2024. This reflects continued efforts to internationalise,
as well as policy shifts like introduction of graduate visas. Canada, which was not among the top
five in 2004, made remarkable gains to host 2.69 lakh students in 2014 and 8.43 lakhs by 2024. This
rapid growth of ~14 times over 20 years can be attributed to several factors, including Canada’s
recent International Education Strategy (2019–2024), which focuses on diversifying source countries,
supporting Canadian students studying abroad, and building sustainable global partnerships, aligning
with the country’s broader commitment to equity and global citizenship.
Though their relative rankings declined, Germany and France showed consistent yet slower growth,
hosting over 3.68 and 4.12 lakh students respectively by 2024. Australia demonstrated significant
expansion, growing from 1.52 lakh students in 2004 to 4.37 lakh in 2024, bolstered by targeted
recruitment and regional partnerships. China, a top host in 2014, experienced a relative decline by
2024, while new entrants such as South Korea and Spain reflect evolving student preferences for
studying abroad.
5.2 Source Countries of International Students: Leading Places of Origin for Top
5 Host Countries
The patterns of international student mobility are also deeply influenced by the source countries
from which students originate. Host countries often receive students from specific regions based on
historical ties, language, bilateral agreements and migration networks. While countries like China and Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 9
India have traditionally been major sources due to their large youth populations, shifts in economic
development, domestic education capacity and geopolitical factors have led to diversification in
student origins.
Table 3: Top 5 Source Countries for Top 5 Host Countries (2014-2024)
Year20142024
Rank
Top
Host
Country
Top 5
Source
Coun-
tries
No. of
Students
from Top
5 Source
Coun-
tries
% of To-
tal Inter-
national
Students
from Top
5 Source
Coun-
tries
Top Host
Country
Top 5
Source
Countries
No. of
Students
from Top
5 Source
Coun-
tries
% of
Interna-
tional
Total
Students
from Top
5 Source
Coun-
tries
1 USA
China, In-
dia, South
Korea,
Saudi
Arabia,
Canada
5,27,44854.1 USA
India, China,
South Ko-
rea, Cana-
da, Taiwan
7,04,30462.5
2 UK
China,
USA, India,
Nigeria,
Germany
1,78,61036.1Canada
India, China,
Nigeria,
Philippines,
France
5,53,22065.6
3 China
South Ko-
rea, USA,
Thailand,
Russia,
Japan
1,40,68137.3 UK
India, China,
Nigeria,
Pakistan,
USA
4,57,03060.2
4Germany
Turkey,
China,
Russia,
Austria,
Italy
99,43132.9Australia
China, India,
Nepal,
Vietnam,
Pakistan
3,00,95168.7
5 France
Morocco,
China,
Algeria,
Tunisia,
Italy
1,07,20135.8 France
Morocco,
Algeria,
China, Italy,
Senegal
1,38,19333.5
Source: Project Atlas 2014, 2024
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period. Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 10
As depicted in Table 3, the decade from 2014 to 2024 reflects a diversification in the landscape of
international student mobility across major host countries with respect to their source countries.
In 2014, USA led as the top host country, with China, India, South Korea, Saudi Arabia and Canada
accounting for 54.1% of its international students. By 2024, the USA remained the largest host, but
with a change in source countries. India overtook China as the leading sender, alongside South Korea,
Canada and Taiwan, raising the share of the top five countries to 62.5%.
The UK, which earlier drew its largest cohorts from China, USA, India, Nigeria and Germany, was
overtaken by Canada as the second-largest destination by 2024. Canada’s international student intake
grew substantially, with India, China, Nigeria, Philippines and France forming 65.6% of its students.
Meanwhile, China is out of the list of top 5 host countries. The UK rose to the third place in 2024,
primarily hosting students from India, China, Nigeria, Pakistan and USA, accounting for 60.2% of its
total.
Australia emerged as the fourth major host, attracting students from China, India, Nepal, Vietnam, and
Pakistan, who together made up 68.7% of its international cohort. France remained in the top five
across both years, but the profile of its student inflows shifted slightly, with Morocco, Algeria, China,
Italy and Senegal making up 33.5% of its total in 2024. The trend reflects the rising dominance of
India and China as key source countries and an increasing concentration of international enrolments
coming from a narrower group of sending nations.
5.3 International Students as a Percentage of Total Higher Education Enrolment:
Leading Countries and India
International student enrolment as a percentage of total higher education enrolment is a key indicator
of a country’s global engagement in the academic sector. It reflects how attractive a nation’s higher
education system is to students from around the world. A higher proportion of international students
brings numerous benefits, including enhanced cultural diversity, enriched classroom learning, robust
research collaboration and significant economic contributions.
Table 4: International Students as a Percentage of Total Higher
Education Enrolment (2014-2024)
Year20142024
Rank Country
% of
Students
Country
% of
Students
1 UK22Canada39
2 Australia 21Australia 31
3 Ireland 16UK27
4 Canada 14 Netherlands 16
5 Netherlands 13 France, Finland & Hungary14
6 Denmark 12.5 Germany13
7 France 12 New Zealand 12
8 Germany 11 Denmark & Sweden 11
9 New Zealand 10.5 Spain & Poland 9
10 Norway 10 South Korea 7
11 India 0.12 India (2022) 0.10
Source: Project Atlas 2014, 2024; India’s data from AISHE 2014-15, 2021-22 Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 11
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Canada Australia UK NetherlandsFrance GermanyNew ZealandDenmark India
% of International Students
20142024
Figure 3: International Students as a Percexntage of Total Higher Education Enrolment (2014-2024)
Figure 3 indicates that Canada witnessed a dramatic rise in international students as a percentage
of total higher education enrolment from 14% to 39% between 2014 and 2024, making it the top-
ranking country in this category in 2024. This surge reflects Canada’s deliberate efforts to attract
global talent through supportive immigration policies and globally ranked institutions. Australia
demonstrated significant growth from 21% to 31% over the same period, remaining a preferred
destination due to its strong academic offerings, student support systems and strategic positioning
in the Asia-Pacific region.
While the UK continues to benefit from its historic academic reputation and globally recognized
universities, recent shifts in visa policies and competition from other English-speaking countries has
moderated its growth from 22% in 2014 to 27% in 2024. The Netherlands witnessed a smaller but
steady increase, from 13% to 16%, aided by the growing availability of English-taught programmes
and concerted internationalisation strategies. Similarly, France and Germany experienced modest
increases from 12% to 14% and from 11% to 13% respectively, particularly due to affordable tuition
fees and research opportunities. In contrast, New Zealand’s share grew marginally from 10.5% to
12%, while Denmark’s declined from 12.5% to 11%, indicating a loss of momentum in attracting
international students.
India, however, remains an outlier with a negligible percentage of international students and a decrease
from 0.12% in 2014 to 0.10% in 2022. Despite its ambitions to become a global higher education
destination, India’s share of international students remains minimal due to challenges such as limited
branding, communication and outreach of its higher education system abroad, infrastructure gaps and
regulatory barriers that hinder international mobility. This trend underscores the urgent need for
reforms to strengthen India’s global visibility and institutional capacity. Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 12
6. International Student Mobility: Indian Overview
In recent decades, India has aimed to position itself as a preferred destination for learners worldwide
with its expanding academic infrastructure, growing emphasis on quality, commitment to affordability,
and policy enablers. At the same time, it continues to be a significant contributor to outbound
student flows.
6.1 Inbound Mobility of Students to India: A Two-Decade Analysis
India’s inbound student mobility has undergone significant changes over the past two decades, marked
by three broad phases: a gradual build-up in the early 2000s, a sharp rise between 2012 and 2019 and
a period of mild fluctuation post-2020. Figure 5 displays the inbound mobility trajectory from 2000-
01 to 2021-22 revealing a steady expansion in India’s higher education footprint and progression in
attracting international students.
Table 5: Inbound Mobility of Students to India (2000–2022)
Academic
Year
No. of International
Students Studying in India
No. of Students Enrolled
in Higher Education (in
crores)
International Students as a
% of Total Higher Education
Enrolment in India
2

2000-01 6,8960.840.08
2004-05 13,2671.04 0.12
2008-09 21,7782.160.10
2012-13 34,7743.02 0.11
2013-14 39,5173.230.12
2014-15 42,2933.420.12
2015-16 45,4243.460.13
2016-17 47,5753.570.13
2017-18 46,1443.660.12
2018-19 47,4273.740.12
2019-20 49,3483.850.12
2020-21 48,0354.130.11
2021-22 46,8784.330.10
Source: Yeravdekar, V. R. (2016); UGC Annual Report 2000-01, 2004-05; Statistics of Technical and Higher Education 2008-09;
AISHE Report 2012-13 to 2021–22
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period.
2 Calculation: Percentage = (x ÷ y) × 100, where x = number of international student enrolments in a given year, and y = total number
of students enrolled in higher education in that year Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 13
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
2000-20012004-20052008-20092014-20152021-2022
Number of foreign students
Academic Year
Figure 4: Inbound Mobility of Students to India (2000–2022)
Table 5 indicates that India hosted just 6,896 international students in 2000–01. This number noted
modest but consistent growth in the early years of the 21
st
century, reaching 21,778 by 2008–09.
The momentum picked up more clearly from 2012–13 onwards, with enrolment jumping to 34,774
students and then steadily increasing year-on-year. Between 2012 and 2019, India experienced a
42% increase of inbound international students peaking at 49,348 in 2019-20. This growth phase can
be attributed to a mix of pull factors, including affordable tuition, a wide range of English-medium
programmes, government-led scholarship schemes and quality of education at leading Indian HEIs.
India’s long standing educational and cultural ties with South Asia and parts of Africa also contributed
to sustained flows.
The period 2020-22 witnessed stagnation and mild decline due to the global COVID-19 pandemic’s
impact on student mobility. Numbers dipped to 48,035 in 2020-21 and 46,878 in 2021-22, a reversal
from the pre-pandemic high. This disruption coincided not only with international travel restrictions
but also with domestic changes like declining preference for engineering courses, which historically
attracted many international students. Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 14
Figure 5: International Students as a Percentage of Total Higher Education
Enrolment in India (2000-2022)
The inbound mobility of international students to India has historically remained a small fraction of
total higher education enrolment. Figure 5 depicts international students as a percentage of total
higher education enrolment in India from 2000-01 to 2021-22, showing a generally stable but modest
trend with a slight decline in the latter years. In 2000-01, international students constituted only
0.08% of total enrolments. The early 2000s recorded modest percentages, with a rise to 0.12% by
2004-05, reflecting nascent internationalisation efforts and limited global appeal of Indian HEIs at the
time.
By the mid-2010s, there was a gradual rise in the proportion of international students. From 0.11%
in 2012-13, the share grew to a peak of 0.13% in 2016-17. This period corresponds with increased
efforts by Indian institutions and policymakers to attract international students, improvements in
institutional quality and expanding bilateral educational ties. Between 2017-18 and 2019-20, the
percentage of international students hovered around 0.12%, indicating gradual growth in international
student numbers aligned with an expanding overall higher education sector.
However, from 2020-21 onwards, there is a noticeable dip in the share of international students,
falling to 0.11% in 2020-21 and further to 0.10% in 2021-22, reflecting the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic which disrupted international travel, created uncertainty in cross-border mobility and
affected global student flows. While the total number of students in India’s higher education system
continued to grow during these years, the international student population did not keep pace, leading
to a reduced proportion.
6.1.1 Top 10 Source Countries of International Students in India: A Decadal
Analysis
Over the past decade, India has witnessed evolving patterns in the inflow of international students,
reflecting broader geopolitical, economic and educational shifts. This section presents a decadal Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 15
analysis of the top source countries sending students to India, offering insights into regional trends and
emerging partnerships. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for shaping future internationalisation
strategies.
Table 6: Top 10 Source Countries of International Students in India (2012-13 to 2021-22)
Year 2012–20132017-182021–2022
RankCountry
No. of
Students
Country
No. of
Students
Country
No. of
Students
1 Nepal 7,167 Nepal 11,521 Nepal 13,126
2 Bhutan 2,468 Afghanistan 4,378 Afghanistan 3,151
3Afghanistan2,330 Sudan 2,220 USA 2,893
4 Iran 2,109 Bhutan 1,999 Bangladesh 2,606
5 Malaysia 1,874 Nigeria 1,866 UAE 2,287
6 Iraq 1,747 Bangladesh 1,566 Bhutan 1,562
7 Sudan 1,649 Iran 1,558 Nigeria 1,387
8 Rwanda 1,027 Yemen 1,471 Tanzania 1,264
9 Sri Lanka1,001 USA 1,418 Zimbabwe 1,058
10 USA 852 Sri Lanka 1,248 Sudan 982
Source: AISHE Report 2012-13, 2017-18 & 2021-2022
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period.
Figure 6: Top 10 Source Countries of International Students in India (2021-22) Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 16
Table 6 illustrates the changing profile of international students in India over the decade from 2012-
13 to 2021-22. Nepal has consistently been the leading source country, with student numbers
increasing steadily from 7,167 in 2012-13 to 13,126 in 2021-22. This reflects strong historical, cultural
and educational ties, geographical proximity and favourable bilateral arrangements between the two
countries. Afghanistan also featured prominently throughout the period, rising from 2,330 in 2012-13
to 4,378 in 2017-18 but witnessed a decline to 3,151 in 2021-22 influenced by domestic instability
and evolving migration dynamics.
Countries such as the UAE, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania entered the top 10 list by 2021-22,
indicating broader outreach and India’s increasing appeal as a higher education destination. Conversely,
some countries that were once among the top contributors such as Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, Rwanda
and Sri Lanka no longer appear in the latest rankings, suggesting shifts in geopolitical contexts and
student preferences. Despite some fluctuation, nations like USA, Bhutan, and Sudan maintained a
presence throughout the decade, reflecting enduring educational linkages. The marginal increase
in share suggests a steady if not accelerated growth, potentially through exchange programmes,
research collaborations or niche interests.
A significant observation is that many of India’s top source countries like Afghanistan, Sudan, Nigeria
and Yemen have experienced prolonged political or economic instability. While India has served as
an important higher education haven for students from conflict-affected regions, a more balanced
strategy would involve expanding its internationalisation efforts toward stable and emerging
economies across Southeast, Central and West Asia, Anglophone Africa, Europe and Oceania. This
would strengthen India’s global academic reputation and reduce volatility in enrolment trends.
6.1.2 Inbound International Student Trends: State-wise Overview
The State-wise distribution of international students in India between 2012 and 2022 reveals regional
variations in international student concentration, with certain States emerging as consistent leaders
in attracting inbound mobility. These patterns point to the influence of factors such as institutional
capacity, regional connectivity and targeted State-level policies.
Table 7: Top 10 States with International Student Enrolment in India (2012–13 to 2021–22)
Year 2012-132017-182021-22
Rank State
No. of
Students
State
No. of
Students
State
No. of
Students
1Karnataka 13,182 Karnataka 11,947 Karnataka 5,954
2Tamil Nadu 4,323 Maharashtra4,297 Punjab 5,847
3Maharashtra 3,841 UP 4,371Maharashtra 4,818
4 Telangana 2,700 Punjab 3,719 UP 4,231
5 UP 1,829 Tamil Nadu 3,532 Tamil Nadu 3,866
6 Delhi 1,803 Telangana 2,802 Gujarat 3,422
7 Punjab 1,397 Delhi 2,165 AP 3,106 Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 17 Year 2012-132017-182021-22
8West Bengal 790 AP  2,087 Delhi 2,727
9 AP 679 Haryana 2,012 Odisha 2,320
10 Gujarat 555 Gujarat 1,682 Haryana 1,689
Source: AISHE Report 2012-13, 2017-18, 2021-22
1RWH7KHGDWDUH?HFWVVWRFN?JXUHVRYHUWKHVSHFL?HGWLPHSHULRGIRU8*3*03KLO3K''LSORPD 3*'LSORPDFRXUVHV 
Figure 7: Transition in International Student Enrolment Across Top 10 Indian States
(2012-13 to 2021-22)
1RWH%UDFNHWHG?JXUHVUHIHUWR?XQEUDFNHWHGWR? Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 18
Table 7 displays data on international student enrolment in Indian States from 2012-13 to 2021-22
highlighting important trends in international student preferences and institutional outreach in India.
One of the most striking observations is the significant decline in overall international enrolment
numbers in States that were previously major hubs. For instance, Karnataka experienced about 55%
decrease from 13,182 students in 2012–13 to 5,954 in 2021-22. This may be attributed to increased
competition and a plateau in institutional capacity to attract international students. Similarly, Tamil
Nadu’s enrolment declined from 4,323 to 3,866 over the same period, suggesting a need for renewed
internationalisation efforts.
In contrast, some States witnessed a sharp rise in international student numbers, indicating emerging
hubs for international education. Punjab experienced a 300% increase from 1,397 students in 2012-
13 to 5,847 in 2021-22 with enhanced outreach and better alignment of courses with international
demand. Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat also recorded strong growth in enrolments,
reflecting a wider dispersion of international students across India. Traditional destinations like Delhi
and Maharashtra have a relatively stable overall presence.
States like Odisha and Haryana notably emerged as new and important destinations by 2021-22,
pointing to the growing role of State-level higher education policies and institutional development in
attracting international students. Despite the presence of top HEIs in Kolkata and Hyderabad, West
Bengal and Telangana have dropped out of the top 10 States for international student enrolment
between 2012-13 and 2021-22, indicating shifting regional dynamics.
6.1.3 Inbound International Student Trends: Analysis by Level & Stream (2012-13
to 2021-22)
An analysis of international student preferences by academic levels and streams offers valuable insights
into how global learners are navigating choices in higher education, showing both continuity and
transformation in enrolment patterns. Emerging shifts in stream preferences could be understood by
examining enrolment patterns across levels such as PhD, M.Phil., Undergraduate and Postgraduate,
Diploma and PG Diploma, Certificate and Integrated in disciplines such as engineering, business,
health sciences, social sciences and humanities amongst others.
Figure 8: Enrolment of International Students Across Levels (2012-13 to 2021-22)
Source: AISHE Report (2012-13, 2021-22) Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 19
Figure 8 shows international student enrolments across levels such as PhD, M.Phil., Undergraduate
and Postgraduate, Diploma and PG Diploma, Certificate and Integrated courses in the years 2012-
13 and 2021-22. It is observed that the undergraduate programmes have attracted the highest
number of international students over the past decade. According to AISHE Report 2021-22, there
are 13 programmes with 1,000+ enrolment of which the highest number of students are enrolled
in Bachelor of Technology (11,461), followed by Bachelor of Business Administration (3,346) and
Bachelor of Science (3,289) programmes.
Table 8: Inbound Students to India: By Stream (2012-13 to 2021-22)
Year B.TechBBA B.Sc.B.E.PhDB.PharmB.Com B.A.MBA BCA MBBSOthers
2012-132,7331,6681,8491,591832 2,6252,1572,6231,0562,0102,28913,341
2013-144,1322,1202,2041,864917 2,5832,3182,2441,0202,2162,73411,209
2014-154,4782,8032,6231,8811,1422,6832,5983,4501,2702,2272,35714,362
2015-165,9413,2282,9132,3321,1392,7622,7763,1131,4452,4782,16415,124
2016-176,8184,1923,1522,4531,4822,5262,6912,7581,4392,2621,85315,335
2017-187,61035,893,0022,4901,4932,6291,99226,591,3302,6671,71913,886
2018-198,8613,3543,3202,5761,5602,4981,7342,2261,5741,8731,42914,098
2019-209,5033,2903,9642,5961,6142,4511,9282,2951,7071,820177913,620
2020-2111,2453,3143,4392,5411,4442,0212,6051,8172,0991,91894412,661
2021-2211,4613,3463,2892,9782,0121,9541,9351,7981,7171,51784012,840
Source: AISHE Report 2012-13 to 2021-2022
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period.
Figure 9: Inbound Students to India: By Stream (2012-13 to 2021-22) Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 20
Table 8 displays notable shifts in the academic preferences (by stream) of international students
coming to India between 2012-13 and 2021-22. Programmes like B.Tech., B. Pharma, B.A. and MBBS
were the most popular in 2012-13, with B.Tech. enrolments rising over 4x from 2,733 in 2012–13
to 11,461 in 2021–22. This strong performance reflects India’s reputation for cost-effective, English-
medium technical education. The sharp growth of B.Tech. suggests a broader market preference for
specific institutions or formats of engineering education.
Business and Management programmes such as BBA and MBA experienced steady and moderate
growth. BBA enrolments grew from 1,668 to 3,346 and MBA numbers rose from 1,056 to 1,717 over
the decade, reflecting growing interest in industry-oriented and globally transferable managerial skills.
Science and humanities disciplines such as B.Sc. and B.A. maintained consistent appeal, though their
numbers fluctuated year to year. Interestingly, MBBS enrolments declined from 2,289 in 2012–13
to just 840 in 2021–22 due to regulatory hurdles and rising competition from other destination
countries.
The data also highlights a gradual rise in interest in applied and vocational disciplines such as B.Pharm,
BCA, and PhD programmes. While absolute numbers in these streams remain modest, their stability
suggests a broadening of India’s appeal beyond traditional STEM fields. Additionally, the large and
fluctuating ‘Others’ category ranging from 11,209 to over 15,000 students across the years points to a
growing number of students opting for diploma, certificate or non-conventional courses. This evolving
trend indicates that while Engineering remains a cornerstone of India’s inbound education market,
international students are increasingly drawn to a more diverse array of academic opportunities
aligned with global employment trends.
6.2 Outbound Mobility of Students from India: A Decadal Analysis
The outbound mobility of Indian students has shown a sharp and sustained upward trend over the
past decade, reflecting India’s transformation into the world’s largest source of international students.
This analysis seeks to understand the dynamics behind this surge in outbound mobility, including
shifts in destination countries and emerging patterns such as preference for specific programmes,
institutions and geographies.
Table 9: Outbound Mobility of Students from India (2016-2024)
Academic Year No. of Outbound Students % Change (YoY) in Outbound Mobility
3
20166,84,823-
20178,06,32617.74
20186,20,156-23.08
20196,75,5418.93
20206,85,0971.41
202111,58,70269.09
20229,07,404-21.72
202313,18,95545.35
202413,35,8781.28
Source: Ministry of External Affairs; data.gov.in
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period.
3 Calculation: Percentage change in Outbound Mobility = [(n1 - n2) ÷ n2] × 100 where n1 = no of outbound students in present year
and n2 = no of outbound students in previous year Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 21
Figure 10: Outbound Mobility of Students from India (2016-2024)
Table 9 provides year-wise data of the number of Indian students pursuing education abroad from
2016 to 2024, along with the corresponding percentage change (YoY) in outbound mobility. In
2016, 6,84,823 Indian students went abroad. This number increased significantly in 2017 to 8,06,326,
marking a 17.74% rise. However, 2018 recorded a sharp decline to 6,20,156 students, a 23.08%
decrease from 2017. The count recovered modestly in 2019 to 6,75,541 students, up by 8.93% and
edged up again in 2020 to 6,85,097, a marginal rise of 1.41%. The most dramatic shift came in 2021,
with a jump to 11,58,702 students, translating to a 69.09% surge likely driven by post-pandemic
reopening. However, 2022 experienced a significant dip to 9,07,404. This was followed by a strong
recovery in 2023, which recorded 13,18,955 outbound students, an increase of 45.35%. In 2024, the
number increased to 13,35,878, suggesting a potential plateau or stabilization after years of volatility.
The outbound student mobility from India recorded a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of
8.84% between 2016 and 2024.
4
6.2.1 Outbound International Student Trends: Top 10 study destinations of Indian
students
There has been a significant transformation in the landscape of international higher education for
Indian students over the past decade. With globalization and increasing aspirations for quality higher
education, the number of Indian students pursuing studies abroad has surged. A comparison of
data from 2014 and 2024 illustrates a dramatic shift not just in volume but also in preferred study
destinations.
4 Calculation of CAGR: Percentage change in Outbound Mobility = (E/B)^(1/N)-1 where E = ending year value, B = beginning year
value and N = no of years Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 22
Table10: Top 10 Study Destinations for Indian students (2016-2024)
Year 201620202024
Rank
Host
Country
No. of
Indian
Students
Host
Country
No. of Indian
Students
Host
Country
No. of Indian
Students
1 USA 4,23,863Canada 1,79,480 Canada 4,27,000
2 Canada 94,240 USA 1,67,582 USA 3,37,630
3 Australia78,103 Australia1,15,137 UK 1,85,000
4 UK 16,559 UK 90,300 Australia1,22,202
5 Ukraine 10,963 Germany 35,147 Germany 42,997
6 Germany 10,820 Ukraine 18,429 UAE 25,000
7 Philippines8,500 Russia 14,370 Russia 24,940
8 Russia 6,903 Philippines13,227 Kyrgyzstan 16,500
9 France 3,291 Georgia 5,992 Georgia 16,093
10 Georgia 3,000 Italy 4,634 Philippines9,665
Source: Ministry of External Affairs; data.gov.in
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period.
0
1,00,000
2,00,000
3,00,000
4,00,000
5,00,000
CanadaUSAUKAustraliaGermany
Country
201620202024
Figure 11: Top 5 Study Destinations for Indian students (2016-2024)
Table 10 presents data on the top study destinations for Indian students from 2016 to 2024 revealing
trends that reflect changing geopolitical dynamics, immigration policies and students’ evolving
priorities regarding affordability, post-study work opportunities and quality of education. USA
consistently remained a top destination, leading with 4.24 lakh Indian students in 2016, 1.68 lakh in
2020 and 3.38 lakh in 2024. Canada showed a remarkable increase of 350% in popularity, climbing Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 23
from 94,240 students in 2016 to top position in both 2020 and 2024, hosting 1.79 lakh and 4.27 lakh
students respectively. Australia held third place in both 2016 with 78,103 students and 2020 with
1.15 lakh students, but slipped to fourth despite a modest increase to 1.22 lakh students in 2024.
The UK witnessed a dramatic rise in Indian student numbers, growing from just 16,559 in 2016
to 90,300 in 2020 and further to 1.85 lakh by 2024. This significant upward trajectory indicates
renewed interest possibly due to changes in visa policies and the introduction of post-study work
opportunities. Germany has also experienced consistent growth with 10,820 students in 2016 to
35,147 students in 2020, reaching 42,997 by 2024.
Beyond the top five destinations, other countries such as UAE, Russia, Georgia, Philippines, Ukraine
and Kyrgyzstan have consistently featured among the top choices for Indian students, though at
significantly lower volumes. These trends suggest a diversification in the choice of study destinations
among Indian students, with a growing preference for countries offering affordable education,
particularly in medicine and technical fields. While these countries do not yet rival the major
Anglophone destinations in scale, they are increasingly catering to niche demands and specific
academic interests.
UAE presents an interesting case, overtaking Canada in 2021 to be at the top with 3.25 lakh students.
However, the number decreased to 25,000 in 2024, indicating that its attractiveness may have been
temporary and more linked to pandemic-era travel restrictions and regional preferences than to
long-term academic factors.
According to the Indian Student Mobility Report, almost 8.5 lakh students are pursuing their higher
education in just four countries: Canada, USA, UK and Australia spending approximately USD 34
billion (~INR 2.9 lakh crores) in the year 2023-2024. Table 11 represents the country wise details
for total expenditure incurred by Indian students on higher education in four leading host countries,
which is 48% of the total forex expenditure on education by Indian students in 2025.
Table 11: Total Expenditure by Indian Students on Higher Education in Top 4 Host Countries (2023-24)
Canada USA UK Australia
Academic Fees
USD 6 bn
(~INR 51,000
crores)
USD 7.2 bn
(~INR 61,000
crores)
USD 3.4 bn
(~INR 29,000
crores)
USD 1.68 bn
(~INR 14,000
crores)
Accommodation
USD 3 bn
(~INR 25,000
crores)
USD 2.9 bn
(~INR 24,000
crores)
USD 1.3 bn
(~INR 11,000
crores)
USD 0.99 bn
(~INR 8,000
crores)
Living Expenses
USD 2.7 bn
(~INR 23,000
crores)
USD 2.4 bn
(~INR 20,000
crores)
USD 1.2 bn
(~INR 10,000
crores)
USD 1.22 bn
(~INR 10,000
crores)
Total
USD 11.7 bn
(~INR 1 lakh
crores)
USD 12.48 bn
(~INR 1.06
lakh crores)
USD 5.9 bn
(~INR 50,000
crores)
USD 3.9 bn
(~INR 33,000
crores)
Source: Indian Student Mobility Report 2023-24
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period. Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 24
6.2.2 Outbound Indian Student Trends: State-wise Overview
India has long been a major source of international students, with lakhs of students seeking higher
education opportunities abroad. A state-wise analysis of outbound student mobility offers valuable
insights into regional trends, priorities and socio-economic factors driving international education.
Table 12: Top 10 Source States of Indian Students Going Abroad (2016–2020)
Year 201620182020
Rank State
No. of
Students
State
No. of
Students
State
No. of
students
1 AP 46,818 AP 62,771 AP 35,614
2 Maharashtra45,560 Punjab 60,331 Punjab 33,412
3 Punjab 36,743 Maharashtra58,850 Maharashtra29,079
4 Tamil Nadu 27,518 Gujarat 41,413 Gujarat 23,156
5 Delhi 27,016 Tamil Nadu 38,983 Delhi 18,482
6 Gujarat 24,775 Delhi 35,844 Tamil Nadu15,564
7 Chandigarh 18,916 Karnataka 26,918 Kerala 15,277
8 Kerala 18,428 Kerala 26,456 Chandigarh13,988
9 Karnataka 17,719 Chandigarh 26,211 Karnataka 13,699
10 UP 13,776 UP 20,246 UP 8,618
Source: Ministry of External Affairs
Note: The data reflects flow figures over the specified time period as per students’ place of issuance of passport. Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 25
Figure 12: Transition in Top 10 Source States for Indian Students Going Abroad (2016-2020)
Note: Bracketed figures refer to 2016; unbracketed to 2020.
Table 12 presents a State-wise analysis of the top ten Indian States sending students abroad during
the years 2016, 2018 and 2020. Andhra Pradesh (AP) consistently emerged as the leading source of
outbound students across all three years. The number of students from the State rose from 46,818
in 2016 to 62,771 in 2018, before declining sharply to 35,614 in 2020 likely due to the onset of the
pandemic. Punjab followed a similar trajectory, moving from third position in 2016 to second in 2018
and maintaining that position in 2020, though its student numbers dropped from 60,331 in 2018
to 33,412 in 2020. Maharashtra, which was the second-largest contributor in 2016, slipped to third
in subsequent years, with its numbers decreasing from 45,560 in 2016 to 29,079 in 2020. Gujarat
showed upward mobility, climbing from sixth place in 2016 to fourth in 2018 and 2020. Tamil Nadu
and Delhi also remained significant contributors. Southern States such as Karnataka and Kerala
featured consistently in the top ten. Uttar Pradesh (UP), while present in all three years, consistently Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 26
had the lowest numbers among the top ten States and experienced a significant decline from 13,776
students in 2016 to just 8,618 in 2020.
The data reflects both regional concentrations in outbound student numbers dominated by southern
and western States and a general decline across all States in 2020, highlighting the disruptive impact
of the global pandemic on international student mobility.
6.2.3 Outbound Indian Student Trends: Analysis by Stream (2010-11 to 2020-21)
An analysis of outbound international student trends by academic stream reveals how students from
India are making strategic decisions about their global higher education journeys. Tracking enrolment
patterns across disciplines such as Engineering, Business, Health Sciences, Social Sciences and the
Humanities between 2018 and 2022 highlights both persistent preferences and evolving aspirations.
These trends offer insights into how Indian students respond to global academic opportunities,
labour market signals and shifting geopolitical contexts.
Figure 13 depicts the trend in outbound Indian student enrolment by field of study in 2020-21. It
reveals a strong preference for STEM and career-oriented disciplines. Engineering (16.4%), and Math &
Computer Science (15.7%) together account for over one-third of students, reflecting India’s strong
interest in technical education and the global demand for IT and engineering professionals. Business
& Management (12.6%) is also a major draw, given the popularity of MBAs and related programmes
as pathways to international careers. In contrast, fields like Social Sciences (6.6%), Fine & Applied Arts
(4.4%), and Communication & Journalism (1.8%) remain less pursued. Health professions (2.8%) also
attract a relatively small share, likely due to high costs, stringent licensing requirements, and sufficient
domestic options.
Figure 13: Outbound Students from India: By Stream (2010-11 to 2021-22) Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 27
6.3 International Student Mobility: Overall Trend Analysis of India
India’s international student mobility trends between 2016 and 2022 reveal an increasingly outward-
bound trajectory, with outbound student numbers significantly outpacing inbound flows. This pattern
underscores India’s growing footprint in global higher education markets while also indicating
challenges in attracting international students domestically. Table 13 provides insights into annual
trends, net outflows and fluctuations in the balance of mobility, reflecting both global disruptions and
domestic policy responses.
Table 13: International Student Mobility of India (2016-2022)
Year Inbound (i) Outbound (o) i:o Ratio
5
Net Outflow
6
2016 45,424 6,84,823 1:15 6,39,399
2017 47,575 8,06,326 1:17 7,58,751
2018 46,144 6,20,156 1:13 5,74,012
2019 47,427 6,75,541 1:14 6,28,114
2020 49,348 6,85,097 1:14 6,35,749
2021 48,035 11,58,702 1:24 11,10,667
2022 46,878 9,07,404 1:19 8,60,526
Source: AISHE Report 2016-17 to 2021-22; Ministry of External Affairs
Note: The data reflects stock figures over the specified time period
Figure 14: International Student Mobility of India (2016-2022)
5 Calculation: Inbound to Outbound Ratio = i ÷ o, where i = inbound mobility of students to India, and o = outbound mobility of
students from India in a given year
6 Calculation: Net Outflow (n) = o-i, where i = inbound mobility of students to India, and o = outbound mobility of students from
India in a given year Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 28
Figure 14 depicts India’s international student mobility from 2016 to 2022, revealing a clear divergence
between inbound and outbound trends. The number of international students coming into India
remained relatively stable from 45,424 in 2016 to 46,878 in 2022, indicating a stagnant growth
trajectory in attracting international students. In contrast, the number of Indian students going
abroad for higher education displayed significant variation and overall growth from 6.84 lakh in 2016
to 11.58 lakh in 2021. The trend indicates a strong and increasing demand among Indian students for
international higher education opportunities.
The imbalance between inbound and outbound mobility is clearly reflected in the i:o ratio. In 2016,
for every international student coming to India, 15 Indian students went abroad. This imbalance
intensified over time, peaking at a ratio of 1:24 in 2021. Although the ratio slightly narrowed to 1:19
in 2022, it still underlines a significant outflow of students with minimal corresponding inflow. The
persistent skew in the ratio points to challenges in India’s ability to retain and attract international
talent. The net outflow of students i.e. difference between outbound and inbound mobility mirrors
the trends in the i:o ratio. It increased from approximately 6.39 lakh in 2016 to over 11.10 lakh in
2021, before declining to 8.60 lakh in 2022.
7. Key Findings
The internationalisation of higher education has witnessed substantial changes globally and within
India over the last two decades. The patterns of international student mobility explored in this paper
reflect the evolving aspirations of students, strategic priorities of nations and growing interdependence
of the global higher education system. The global overview of international student mobility shows a
214% increase in the number of mobile students over the last 25 years, rising from 22 lakh in 2001 to
69 lakh in 2022. While the COVID-19 pandemic temporarily slowed this growth, numbers rebounded
strongly by 2022, reflecting resilience and continued appeal of cross-border higher education.
An analysis of top host countries reveals sustained leadership by USA, UK and Canada, with Canada
showing the most rapid recent growth due to favourable immigration and work policies. Countries
like Germany, France and Australia recorded steady increases, while others such as South Korea and
Spain are emerging destinations. Top source countries have also shifted, with India overtaking China
as the largest sender of international students by 2024. The global spread of outbound students is
diversifying, though English-speaking countries continue to dominate as destinations.
For India, the inbound mobility remains modest while the outbound mobility has surged with India
being the world’s leading source country for international students. India’s inbound international
student trends show an increase in total numbers from 6,896 in 2000–01 to 49,348 in 2019–20,
followed by a slight decline in the subsequent years due to the pandemic. South Asian and African
nations continue to be the main contributors. State-wise data reveals a decline in international
student numbers in traditional hubs like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, while Punjab, Uttar Pradesh
and Gujarat have seen growth. Stream-wise analysis indicates continuing interest in Engineering and
Business programmes, but also a rise in applied and non-conventional fields like pharmacy, computer
applications, and niche programmes.
India’s outbound student mobility displays strong growth from 6.8 lakhs in 2016 to 13.35 lakhs in 2024,
despite fluctuations due to the pandemic. USA, Canada, UK and Australia remain top destinations, with
UK and Canada seeing significant increases in Indian enrolments. State-wise outbound trends identify
Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Maharashtra as leading contributors. At the disciplinary level, there is a
decline in Engineering and Business, and rising interest in Social Sciences, Arts and interdisciplinary Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 29
fields. The combined trend analysis reveals a consistent imbalance between inbound and outbound
mobility. In 2022, for every 1 international students coming to India, 19 Indian students went abroad,
highlighting the need for a more balanced and strategic internationalisation approach at the systemic
and institutional levels.
8. Way Forward
The world is currently witnessing a reverse brain drain globally. Due to domestic policies and funding
cuts in leading host countries of international students such as the USA, scholars and scientists
are seeking opportunities in other parts of the world. Other countries are seizing the moment
by introducing new policies to attract World Class Talent. European nations have acted as first
responders by introducing timely talent attraction policies to attract talent. For e.g., France has
promptly introduced the “Choose France for Science” initiative, and the Netherlands has established
targeted funds to recruit foreign researchers. These programmes reflect a broader international
strategy by several countries to capitalize on the tectonic and geopolitical shifts of America’s retreat
from leadership in science and innovation.
To capitalise on these geopolitical opportunities and for addressing the significant imbalance between
outbound and inbound student mobility and the rising forex burden, the following evidence-based
strategies have been proposed for making India an emerging global destination for higher education:
8.1 Set Student Mobility Targets
The inbound-to-outbound (i:o) student ratio may be improved from the current level of approximately
1:19 (as of 2022) to 1:10 by 2030. This target may be integrated into national higher education
and internationalisation strategies, including NEP 2020 implementation plans. Additionally, targets to
increase international student enrolment to at least 1.5 lakh by 2030 would be helpful. This could be
achieved by focusing on key source regions such as Southeast, Central and West Asia, Anglophone
Africa, Europe and Oceania. Annual growth targets of 10% for high potential States and 5% for INIs
(top 100 NIRF) to increase international student enrolment may be provided.
8.2 Promote Reciprocal Student Mobility
Bilateral Agreements that include provisions for reciprocal student exchange quotas with at least 15
countries may be initiated by 2027. Additionally, internationally benchmarked academic programmes
may be introduced across Leading Indian HEIs, particularly in fields that drive high outbound mobility
such as STEM courses. The Top 100 Indian HEIs may be encouraged to institutionalise two-way
exchange programmes with global universities through joint, dual and twinning degree programmes
by 2030 so that Indian students desirous of global exposure can gain immersive experience in other
geographies for at least a semester/term. Aligning course content with global standards through
international accreditations and faculty collaboration with foreign institutions may be encouraged to
achieve this. India may also launch a prestigious international fellowship programme modelled after
global benchmarks. This fellowship would enable inward and outward student researcher mobility at
entry and mid-career levels, collaborative research projects, and short- and long-term visiting scholar
programmes at global partner universities. It would also attract high quality talent and strengthen
academic diplomacy. Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 30
8.3 Create customised Branding, Communication and Outreach (BCO) strategies
A comprehensive communication, branding and outreach strategy is a sine qua non for establishing
India as a leading hub for higher education. This strategy should play multiple roles. Firstly, country-
specific needs and preferences of students may be studied to design customised BCO plans for
different geographies—Europe and the Americas, East, Central and West Asia, Anglophone Africa,
reflecting region-specific interests and student migration trends. The current focus is primarily on
African nations. However, market research may inform these strategies. Secondly, India’s strengths in
affordable education, interdisciplinary curricula, cultural diversity, innovation and entrepreneurship
potential, low-cost high-impact research experience, and its distinctive value proposition may
be communicated to foreign academic institutions, professors, researchers, and students. Thirdly,
a systematic brand building campaign about Indian HEIs and alumni that have made a mark on
international platforms may be undertaken using ICT and social media. This could showcase the
achievements of eminent alumni of Indian HEIs and thereby highlight the innate potential of Indian
HEIs. Fourthly and most importantly, it must convey the massive transformation in India in terms of
access to infrastructure, connectivity, digitalisation and good quality of life. These are factors often
not communicated or miscommunicated by the international media and play a vital role in enabling
students to take decisions about international education, in addition to the quality of the HEIs. Local
languages of the target nation may be extensively used during the communication and outreach
processes.
8.4 Strengthen Institutional Capacity through International Alumni Collaboration
A key challenge for many Indian HEIs is developing strategies to deliver quality programmes
consistently and at scale. To address this, creation of a network of leading alumni of prestigious
Indian HEIs that have excelled in their spheres and sectors can be immensely helpful. These experts
would have the dual advantage of the firsthand experience of their Alma Mater’s strengths and
limitations and the global expectations from higher education. They could share practical knowledge
with their Indian Alma Maters on various aspects institutional capacity that would help them attract
international students. Additionally, they could act as ambassadors of Indian HEIs in their respective
countries and also be used by Indian Embassies and Missions in their BCO endeavours.
8.5 Build Regional Networks in STEAM3 Areas
Establish networks with universities in Asia and Anglophone Africa, particularly in STEAM3 courses i.e.
Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, Mathematics, Management, and Medicine. Creating specialised
consortia of Indian universities in these disciplines would facilitate greater exchange of research and
pedagogical ideas and innovations. A focused effort, led by prominent Indian HEIs, could significantly
bolster the prospects of India’s regional academic partnerships.
8.6 Promote Exposure to India’s low-cost high impact R&D and Innovation
Ecosystem
Indian R&D Centres have made a mark in terms of pursuing cutting-edge research of the highest
quality at the lowest cost. ISRO’s success with Missions Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan have established
India as a leading player in space tech research. Similarly, India has achieved success in as diverse
areas as health tech, fintech, biotech and agri tech. Drawing from India’s success in technological
and process innovation and scaling cost-efficient solutions, would benefit international students
from developing economies, especially those from the Global South. The development challenges Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 31
of the coming decades—climate technology, sustainability and renewable energy, and adaptation to
frontier technologies —require urgent solutions. Top Indian HEIs like the IITs, NITs and IIITs are
well-positioned to lead research programmes in these areas, attracting students and researchers
from the Global South.
8.7 Leverage Immersive Experience in India’s Start-up Ecosystem
India has emerged as the third largest startup ecosystem in the world with nearly 1.6 lakh startups
and over 120 unicorns. Many of these have either been a product of the incubator ecosystem
within Indian HEIs including several IITs, IIMs and Central Universities or founded by alumni of these
HEIs. This ecosystem provides a unique opportunity to international students to gain an immersive
experience and understand how a high potential startup ecosystem operates. It would also help them
work with the best minds from academia and industry and develop scalable solutions addressing
challenges faced by their home countries in a variety of areas such as improving agricultural supply
chains, providing affordable healthcare, expanding financial inclusion to underserved communities,
among others.
8.8 Integrate Industry and Rural Internship Experience with all Programmes
Studying in India can provide valuable internship opportunities to international students and gain
exposure to consumer behaviour, complex supply chains and people diversity in one of the world’s
largest markets. Top global universities teach courses on Indian companies and Indian economy in
their undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. Hence, studying in India and gaining firsthand
experience in India can be a distinctive advantage for international students to get jobs in MNCs.
Additionally, rural immersion opportunities can help international students gain exposure to impactful
innovations that have contributed to an inclusive and sustainable developmental model through
last mile service delivery in a variety of sectors leading to improvement in the quality of life of
people in Rural India. The population of Rural India is equal to the population of Continental Europe.
Hence, exposure to local governance and socioeconomic transformation in a complex demographic
and geographic system can be an insightful experience for city-bred international students. Rural
internships can help them replicate ideas in their home countries that have similar socioeconomic
profile. Hence all undergraduate and postgraduate programmes for international students must have
mandatory industry and rural internships as part of their curriculum.
8.9 Create Extended Stipend-based Internships
Post-education employment opportunities play a pivotal role in influencing students’ choice of
destinations to study abroad. Hence, introducing extended stipend-based internships for a duration
of 2 years for the top 10% of international students graduating from leading Indian HEIs can be
considered. Specialised education-linked visa categories with streamlined processes may be developed
for international students and scholars graduating from prestigious Indian HEIs in cutting edge areas
such as frontier technologies, climate change and energy transition, innovation and entrepreneurship,
and humanities to provide them with an opportunity to contribute to the growth of the Indian
economy. This could also include international student entrepreneurs studying in Indian HEIs and
willing to establish their start-ups in the Indian geography. This would not only attract greater foreign
investments in the Indian economy but also create livelihoods within the country.
8.10 Create a Conducive Culture on Campuses of Leading Indian HEIs
To attract international students to Leading Indian HEIs and help them gradually assimilate into
campus culture, two major changes may be considered. Firstly, creating hard infrastructure that Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 32
meets the standards and requirements of international students. This includes housing, catering, and
other facilities that are of an international standard. For this relevant structures and processes may be
designed, and investments made. Secondly, creating an encouraging environment and an open work
culture that encourages Indian students and faculty to proactively engage with international students
and be empathetic towards their approaches to life and living. For this developing multicultural
competence among Indian students, faculty and staff is important. On-campus counselling and
mentorship facilities for international students can also play a major role.
8.11 Develop a Mobility Dashboard and Publish Annual Mobility Scorecard
A National Student Mobility Dashboard may be developed to publish data on international student
mobility (inbound/outbound), annual i:o ratios, mobility by State, discipline, and destination/origin
country supporting evidence-based policy modifications and institutional benchmarking. A Mobility
Scorecard every year summarising international student mobility trends may be published.
8.12 Ease of Regulation
Administrative procedures need to be streamlined to enable seamless movement of students
and researchers across borders. This includes simplifying visa processes, reducing documentation
burdens, and addressing regulatory bottlenecks that impede international academic and research
collaborations and student mobility.
9. Conclusion
In a world reshaped by post-pandemic realities and geopolitical flux, internationalisation should
be pursued not as a symbolic aspiration but as a strategic imperative: one that fosters academic
excellence, global citizenship and resilient knowledge economies. Internationalisation, when pursued
as a means rather than an end, offers a powerful tool to elevate academic quality, promote cross-
cultural understanding and build global networks of knowledge exchange. As countries recalibrate
their higher education policies in a post-pandemic world marked by geopolitical shifts and digital
transformation, fostering a balanced, inclusive and purposeful internationalisation agenda will be key
to ensuring long-term academic excellence and mobility.
Building on this foundation, India’s strategic emphasis on ‘internationalisation at home’ will be
instrumental in realising the aspirations of ViksitBharat@2047. By embedding global perspectives
within domestic institutions and enabling internationalisation of higher education, India can equip
itself with world ready human capital and become a leading hub for talent, innovation and knowledge.
This approach will not only enhance the quality and relevance of Indian higher education but also
ensure that its graduates are prepared to lead and collaborate by providing innovative solutions to
global challenges. By nurturing a world class and globally reputed higher education ecosystem, India
can emerge as a key contributor to shaping the future of higher education and research. Internationalisation of Higher Education in India:
A Temporal Overview 33
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