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Model Curriculum
for Diploma in
Seaweed Farming and
Entrepreneurship Model Curriculum
for Diploma in
Seaweed Farming and
Entrepreneurship NITI Aayog (2024). Model Curriculum for Diploma in
Seaweed Farming and Entrepreneurship
Photo Credits: ICAR-CMFRI & NIOT
Published: October 2024
ISBN Number: 978-81-967183-1-2
DR. NEELAM PATEL
Senior Adviser, NITI Aayog
SHRI PAREMAL BANAFARR
Young Professional, NITI Aayog
MR. SUDHANSHU JANGIR
Director, Indian Institute of Sustainability
Authors iii iiiMODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Message by the
Hon’ble Minister
(Fisheries) v vMODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Message by the Hon’ble
Member (S&T),
NITI Aayog vi viMODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP vii viiMODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Message by the
CEO,
NITI Aayog ix ixMODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Message by the
Secretary (DARE)
& Director General
(ICAR) x xMODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

MkW- fgeka’kq ikBd
DR. HIMANSHU PATHAK
lfpo (Ms;j) ,oa egkfuns’kd (vkbZlh,vkj)
Secretary (DARE) &
Director General (ICAR)

Hkkjr ljdkj
d`f”k vuqla/kku vkSj f’k{kk foHkkx ,oa
Hkkjrh; d`f”k vuqla/kku ifj”kn
d`f”k ,oa fdlku dY;k.k ea=ky;] d`f”k Hkou] ubZ fnYyh&110 001

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION (DARE)
AND
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH (ICAR)
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FARMERS WELFARE
Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi 110 001

Tel: 23382629 / 23386711 Fax: 91-11-23384773
E-mail: dg.icar@nic.in

MESSAGE

NITI Aayog recently developed the
Strategy for the Development of Seaweed Value
Chain
. NITI Aayog also prepared Model Curriculum for Diploma Course in Seaweed Farming
and Entrepreneurship
to strengthen capacity-building programs for the youth of India with
new career opportunities. This
Model Curriculum has been designed by incorporating the
scientific techniques and principles of seaweed farming. The comprehensiveness of the
model curriculum is evident from its module progression that touches various arenas of
the seaweed value chain from planting material preparation, cultivation techniques, and
management of farms, to products derived from seaweed, processing techniques, and
economic feasibility studies and marketing. It has also incorporated the various product
development, industrial practices and economic feasibility studies for business model
initiatives. It is required to adopt the model curriculum to initiate diploma courses in
agricultural universities. Universities should also design curriculum suited for graduate and
post-graduate levels as well. The universities are encouraged to introduce further
innovation in their teaching methodologies and expand the scope of this model curriculum
to augment the employability of the youth in future.

I compliment the efforts of Agriculture and Allied Sectors Vertical of NITI Aayog in
bringing out this publication and hope that the model curriculum will be useful for
universities, aspiring youths, entrepreneurs and other stakeholders.

(Himanshu Pathak)
Dated the 28
th
August, 2024
New Delhi xi xiMODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Acknowledgements by the
Senior Adviser,
Agri & Allied Sectors,
NITI Aayog xiii xiiiMODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Table of Contents
Authors��i
Message by the Hon’ble Minister (Fisheries)��iii
Message by the Hon’ble Member (S&T)��v
Message by the CEO, NITI Aayog��vii
Message by the Secretary (DARE) & Director General (ICAR)��ix
Acknowledgements by the Program Director��xi
Table of Contents��xiii
List of Figures��1
List of Tables��2
List of Abbreviations / Acronyms��3
Course Details��4
Module I - Introduction to Seaweed Cultivat ion��5
1.1 Seaweed Types��6
1.2 Benefits of Seaweed Cultivation��7
1.3 Value Chain of Ceaweed��11
1.4 Seaweed Cultivation in India��11
1.5 Seaweed Diversity��12
1.6 SWOT Analysis of Seaweed Cultivation in India15
Readings��16
Module II - Basics of Seaweed Cultivation��22
2.1 Principles of Seaweed Farming��23
2.2 Tools, Equipment, and Materials Required for Seaweed Cultivation��27
2.3 Key Steps Involved in the Cultivation of Seaweed��28
Readings��31
Module III - Economics of Seaweed Cultivation��34
3.1 Economics of Important Seaweed Species��35
3.2 Seaweed Farming Using High-Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) Raft Based
Tube Net Method In Rough Sea Conditions��37
3.3 Economics of Other Seaweed Species��40
Readings��44 xiv xivMODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Module IV - Planting of Seaweed��45
4.1 Preparation of Planting Material��46
4.2 Different Methods of Plantation of Seed Stock��46
Readings��50
Module V - Different Techniques of Seaweed Cultivation��52
5.1 Different Techniques of Seaweed Cultivation��53
5.2 Net technique��55
5.3 Floating Bamboo Technique��55
5.4 Bottom Monoline Technique��56
5.5 Other Cultivation Techniques��58
5.6 Good Management Practices in Seaweed Cultivation��59
Readings��67
Module VI - Harvesting and Post-Harvest Handling of Seaweed��69
6.1 Harvesting Cultivated Seaweeds��70
6.2 Post Harvest Handling of Seaweed��73
Readings��75
Module VII - Products Derived from Seaweed & Market��79
7.1 Market Segmentation��80
7.2 Identification and Generation of Market for Seaweed��81
7.3 Products Derived from Seaweeds��81
7.4 Product Forms of Seaweed��86
Readings��87
Module VIII - Seaweed Processing for Diversified Products��89
8.1 Single Stream and MUZE Processing of Seaweed��90
8.2 Product Diversification��92
8.3 Seaweed for Human Consumption��104
Readings��107
Appendix A - Additional Readings and References��109
Appendix B - Expert Committee Office Memorandum��122
List of Contributors��125 1MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 (i) Green seaweeds; (ii) Brown seaweeds; (iii) Red seaweeds��6
Fig. 1.2 Value chain of seaweed��11
Fig. 2.1 Dimensions of sustainability in seaweed farming��26
Fig. 2.2 Tools required for seaweed cultivation.��27
Fig. 4.1. Raft seeded with K. alvarezii��47
Fig. 4.2. K. alvarezii grown on raft��47
Fig. 4.3. Seedling development facility: Marine nursery model��49
Fig. 5.1 Floating bamboo technique��55
Fig. 5.2 Mangrove stakes and nets��56
Fig. 5.3 Bottom monoline technique��57
Fig. 5.4 Triangular raft design��57
Fig. 6.1 Storage and transportation of seaweed��75
Fig. 8.1 Comparison of (A) single-stream processing as is prevalent for tropical
red seaweed processing as of 2016 and (B) multi-stream, zero-effuent
processing as it is being applied at present and developed for the
future.��92
Fig. 8.2 Percentage increase in yield of various crops by foliar application of
Kappaphycus alvarezii-based biostimulant as revealed from multi-
institutional multi-crop trials in India��97
Fig. 8.3 Percentage increase in yield of various crops by foliar application of
G. edulis based bio-stimulant��98 2MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Seaweed farming techniques adopted in Tamil Nadu.��30
Table 3.1 Comparison of economics for K. alvarezii and G. edulis��36
Table 3.2 Annual costs and returns for Kappaphycus alvarezii farming in 25
HDPE raft-based tube nets��39
Table 3.3 Basic production data including market value and infrastructure
cost of different agarophytes��41
Table 5.1. (a) Bamboo raft technique��60
Table 5.2 (b) Monoline technique��63
Table 5.3 (c) Tube net technique��65
Table 5.4 Sea cage-based tube net technique��66
Table 8.1 Innovations developed by CSMCRI��93 3MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
List of Abbreviations / Acronyms
Sr. No.SHORT FORM FULL FORM
1) K. alvarezii Kappaphycus alvarezii
2) G. edulis Gracilaria edulis
3) ICAR-CMFRI
Indian Council of Agricultural Research - Central
Marine Fisheries Research Institute
4) CSIR-CSMCRI
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research- Central
Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute
5) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
6) EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
7) IMTA Integrated Multi-tropic Aquaculture
8) HDPE High-Density Polyethylene
9) BCR Benefit-Cost Ratio
10) RFS Raw Fresh Seaweeds
11) IPR Intellectual Property Rights
12) IMTA Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
13) SRC Semi-Refined Carrageenan
14) MUZE Multi-Stream Zero-Effuent
15) IVRI Indian Veterinary Research Institute
16) CARI Clean Air Research Initiative
17) NDRI National Dairy Research Institute
18) ROS Reactive Oxygen Species
19) PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride
20) BFAR Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
21) SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats 4MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Course Details
Pre-requisites for the Course
The candidate should be minimum SSC or equivalent from a recognized
educational institution.
Duration of the Course
The duration of the course shall be 9-10 months, including theory and
practical demonstrations.
Assessments
The faculty is advised to conduct at least 4 theory and 1 practical assessment
through the course, with the practical assessment being 30% in weightage
and theory being 70%. 1
ModuleModule
Introduction
to Seaweed
Cultivation 6MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
At the end of this module, you will be able to understand-
• The diverse types of seaweed
• Nutritional benefits of seaweed
• Value chain of seaweed
• Benefits of seaweed cultivation
• Seaweed cultivation in India
• Seaweed diversity
• SWOT analysis of seaweed cultivation in India
1.1 Seaweed Types
Seaweeds can be classified into three broad groups based on pigmentation:
brown, red, and green (Figure 1.1). Botanists refer to these broad groups
as Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae and Chlorophyceae. Brown seaweeds
are usually large and giant kelp is often 20 m long, leather-like seaweeds
from 2-4 m long to smaller species of 30-60 cm long. Red seaweeds
are usually smaller, generally ranging from a few centimetres to about
1 metre in length; however, red seaweeds are not always red: they are
sometimes purple, even brownish red, but botanists still classify them
as Rhodophyceae because of other characteristics. Green seaweeds are
also small and similar in size to red seaweeds. Seaweeds are also called
macroalgae. This distinguishes them from micro-algae (Cyanophyceae) ,
which are microscopic in size, often unicellular, and are best known by
the blue-green algae that sometimes bloom and contaminate rivers and
streams.

Figure 1.1: (i) Green seaweeds; (ii) Brown seaweeds; (iii) Red seaweeds 7MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1.2 Benefits of Seaweed Cultivation
1.2.1 Nutritional Benefits
(i) Proteins
It is well known that seaweeds have been utilized as a protein
source for several decades, especially in developing countries.
Nowadays, seaweeds have become a cheaper protein alternative
source, mainly due to high-value proteins containing essential
amino acids. The protein content of seaweeds varies according
to the following factors: species, environmental conditions, and
the method applied for determining the protein concentration
(Fleurence, 1999; Lourenço et al., 2002; Fountoulakis and Lahm,
1998). In general, red and green seaweeds have relatively high
protein concentrations, with an average value of 10-30% dry matter
(Mabeau and Fleurence, 1993; Burtin, 2003; Ramos et al., 2000), while
brown seaweeds are low, with an average of 3-15% of dry weight
(Burtin, 2003; Dawczynski et al., 2007). In winter and early spring
months (February to May and November), the highest nitrogen
contents in seaweeds were reported, and the lowest values were
observed in summer and autumn from July to October (Gorham and
Lewey, 1984). The protein content in seaweed is often estimated
by multiplying the total nitrogen value, which is determined by
the Kjeldahl method, by a nitrogen conversion factor of 6.25. Due
to higher amounts of other nitrogen compounds (such as nucleic
acid, free amino acids, nonprotein amino acids, amines, amides,
nitrites, vitamins, phospholipids, and other nonprotein nitrogen
compounds) or smaller amounts of nonprotein nitrogen compounds
in seaweeds, the protein content results might be overestimated or
underestimated. Compared to terrestrial plants and animal-based
foods, seaweeds are rich in some health-promoting molecules and
materials such as dietary fibres, ω-3 fatty acids, essential amino
acids, and vitamins A, B, C, and E. 8MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
(ii) Minerals
Seaweeds contain significant amounts of essential minerals (Na, K,
Ca, and Mg) and trace elements (Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu), which play
an important role in building human tissues and regulating vital
reactions as cofactors of many metalloenzymes due to their cell
surface polysaccharides (e.g., agar, carrageenan, alginic acid,
alginate, salt of alginate acids, and cellulose), enabling them to
absorb inorganic substances from the ambient environment (Leary
et al., 2007; Yoshioka et al., 2007; McCall et al., 2000; Tanaka et
al., 2000). Different mineral element contents in seaweeds vary,
depending on diverse seaweed genera, seasonal differences,
geographic location, light intensity, and seaweed types such as wild
type and cultivated type (Teas et al., 2004; Villares et al., 2002).
(iii) Lipids
Lipids in seaweeds are present in relatively lower contents (1-5 % of
dry matter), and thus they benefit human health as a food energy
source due to low energy. However, almost half of the lipids are
polyunsaturated fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
and arachidonic acid (AA), which can regulate blood pressure,
blood clotting, and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases,
osteoporosis, and diabetes (Maeda et al., 2008). The lipid content
and fatty acid composition are commonly influenced by different
ambient conditions such as light intensity, seawater salinity, and
temperature. For example, the exposure of high salinity to green
seaweed Ulva pertusa resulted in a high content of total fatty acids,
while high light intensity and low salinity conditions resulted in a
decreased level of total fatty acids in the same species (Floreto and
Teshima, 1998).
(iv) Vitamins
Vitamins, called endogenous essential catalysts in humans, must
be obtained from the diet because they are only synthesized to
a restricted extent. It has been reported that seaweeds contain 9MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
many vitamins, such as l-ascorbic acid (VC), thiamine (VB1),
riboflavin (VB2), cobalamin (VB12), folic acid, and its derivatives
(such as 5-metiltetrahydrofolate, 5-formyltetrahydrofolate, and
tetrahydrofolate), tocopherols (VE), and carotenoids (Mišurcová,
2011). Vitamins of the B group, especially thiamine and riboflavin,
are found in most red and brown seaweeds (MacArtain et al., 2007;
Hegedüs et al., 1985). The vitamin E content in brown seaweeds is
generally higher as compared to red and green seaweed (Ortiz et
al., 2006). Carotenoids, strong antioxidants, are also found in brown,
red, and green seaweed (Norziah and Ching, 2000). In general, the
above-reported vitamins are all present in seaweeds, and their
contents vary depending on collecting time, species, seasons, and
environmental conditions, as well as seaweed processing type.
(Lordan et al., 2011).
1.2.2 Ecological Benefits
Seaweed farming represents a climate-resilient form of aquaculture
that offers numerous benefits. Seaweed cultivation is advantageous
as it requires no land, freshwater, or fertilizers. It provides sustainable
and diverse livelihood options along with employment generation
to coastal communities. Moreover, seaweed farming mitigates the
adverse effects of oceanic eutrophication and acidification while
promoting a healthy ecosystem by oxygenating seawater. Seaweed
farming plays a role in carbon sequestration. They release carbon,
which can be either buried in sediments or exported to the deep
sea, effectively acting as a sink for CO
2
. Mariculture seaweed’s
estimated carbon sequestration rates amount to 57.64 tons of CO
2

per ha per year, while pond-cultured seaweeds sequester 12.38
tons of CO
2
per ha per year. Globally, seaweed production reached
35.1 million tonnes of wet weight, with a first sale value estimated
at 16.5 billion USD in 2022 (FAO, 2022). Seaweed cultivation
demonstrates remarkable adaptability to changing environmental
conditions, making it a resilient alternative for coastal communities 10MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
contending with climate change impacts. Seaweeds can thrive in
diverse temperature ranges and require minimal freshwater inputs,
reducing the strain on limited freshwater resources.
Specifically, K. alvarezii has been estimated to sequester 19 kg of
CO
2
per day per ton of dry weight, or equivalently 760 kg of CO
2
per
day per ton of dry weight per ha (Johnson et al., 2023a). Furthermore,
seaweeds enhance water quality by absorbing excess nutrients,
thus aiding in improving marine environments. They also serve as
essential habitats and protect a wide range of marine biodiversity,
fostering the preservation of various species and their ecological
interactions.
Seaweed-based bio-stimulants have numerous applications
in climate change. For instance, the biostimulant derived from
Kappaphycus seaweed extract (KSWE) applied at 5% concentration
increased plant and ratoon crop productivity by 12.5 and 8 %,
respectively. When used at a 5% concentration, the KSWE can reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by at least 2.06 kg CO
2
equivalents per
ton of cane produced (Singh et al., 2018). Additionally, it has been
claimed that cattle greenhouse gas emissions can be decreased by
using biostimulants derived from seaweed.
1.2.3 Economic Benefits
Seaweed cultivation diversifies marine production, doubles coastal
farmers’ income, reduces reliance on traditional fishing, and
diversifies coastal communities’ livelihoods. Seaweed farming offers
a sustainable and profitable alternative for economic stability and
growth. Kappaphycus alvarezii farming has a crop duration of 45-60
days, allowing for multiple harvests per year. Farmers can earn Rs.
16/-per kg of fresh seaweed and Rs. 70/-per kg of dried seaweed with
an average dry weight percentage of 10%. Under optimal conditions,
the net revenue from 1 ha (400 rafts) in dry weight might reach up to
Rs. 13,28,000/- per year. A family of two persons can handle around
45 rafts, providing income opportunities. 11MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Besides, seaweed and its products trade can also be good for the
forex accounts of India. Demand for seaweed-derived products,
including biofuels, fertilizers, and food additives, presents income
diversification and expansion opportunities.
1.3 Value Chain of Seaweed
Brief summarization of the entire value chain from seed to different final
products, along with the interim processes, should be discussed (Figure
1.2). This would enable the learner to decide what kind of seaweed they
should be choosing to cultivate to suit the needs of a particular type of
industry that they are targeting, to sell the seaweeds.
Figure 1.2: Value chain of seaweed
1.4 Seaweed Cultivation in India
Seaweed cultivation has enabled households to raise their economic
status significantly, with members contributing substantially to total
household income, and the majority of them are fisherwomen. The higher
and more stable income for fisherwomen will improve the living standards
of their families, education for the children, health, and accessibility to 12MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
better amenities. These accrued benefits would attract more participation
and offer opportunities for the economic empowerment of women
contributing positively towards reducing gender bias. The population
growth is steadily leading to unemployment, persuading the migration
of the younger generation in search of better livelihood prospects to
nearby towns and cities. The establishment of seaweed farming in rural
areas would help to reduce emigration trends. In India, presently, nearly
33,345 tons of wet-weight seaweed per year are being harvested from
natural seaweed beds (species of Sargassum, Turbinaria, Gracilaria and
Gelidiella) by 5,000 families in Tamil Nadu (FRAD, CMFRI, 2022). India, which
has an annual revenue of about Rs. 200 crores, provides less than 1% of
the world’s seaweed production. Among the global seaweed production
through farming, Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum
contribute to 27.8% of the total production (FAO, 2022).
1.5 Seaweed Diversity
India is among the 12 mega-biodiversity nations in the world. India’s
coastline is 8100 km long and has an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of
2.17 million km
2
(equal to 66 % of the total mainland area). Nearly 30 %
of its human population is one way or another, dependent on the rich,
exploitable coastal and marine resources. The Indian coastline, with its
different coastal ecosystems, supports the luxuriant growth of diverse
seaweed populations, having considerable economic importance.
The first report on seaweed diversity was published by Iyengar (1927)
on the flora of Krusadai Island on the Southeastern coast of India.
Subsequently, Boergesen (1928) investigated the seaweeds of the West
Coast and published a new record of Rosenvingea stellate Boergesen.
Later Thivy (1948), Krishnamurthy (1957) and Umamaheswara Rao (1969)
made substantial contributions to increase our knowledge of India’s
seaweed diversity. During 1980-1990, the Central Salt and Marine
Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI), jointly with the Central Marine
Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI), conducted a comprehensive survey 13MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
and estimated the total seaweed standing stocks as 97,400 tons wet
weight from the coast of Tamil Nadu, 7500 tons wet weight from the coast
of Andhra Pradesh and 19,345 tonnes wet weight from the Lakshadweep
islands (Kaliaperumal and Kalimuthu, 1997).
Oza and Zaidi (2001) updated the checklist of seaweed diversity based on
secondary data and reported 844 species of seaweeds, with 434, 194, and
216 species of red, brown, and green seaweeds, respectively. The CSMCRI
team explored the seaweed diversity of the Gujarat and Tamil Nadu coasts
(Jha et al., 2009), known for their relative abundance of seaweeds. These
two maritime states, collectively, are home to 366 seaweed species that
account for nearly half of India’s total seaweed diversity.
1.5.1 Seaweed Diversity of Gujarat Coast
The Gujarat coast, m ore than 1600 km long, is located in northwest
India. The coastline has varied topography, geomorphology, coastal
processes and river discharges into the Arabian Sea and has been
broadly segmented into five regions viz. the Rann of Kachchh, the
Saurashtra coast, Gulf of Kachchh, Gulf of Khambhat and the South
Gujarat coast. Among these regions, the Gulf of Kachchh, extending
over 1000 km, is a wealthy coastline with the Marine National Park and
Marine Sanctuary that includes 42 islands, rocky intertidal regions
and mangrove forests supporting rich seaweed diversity. The Gulf
of Khambhat is a delta region with several major rivers flowing into
the sea, including the Narmada, Tapi and Mahi Sabarmati rivers.
The intertidal region comprises mud and sand flats with minimal
seaweed diversity. The survey documenting the intertidal seaweed
diversity of the Gujarat coast revealed 198 species representing all
three major groups of seaweed; Rhodophyta, 109 species from 62
genera; Chlorophyta, 54 species from 23 genera; Phaeophyceae,
35 species from 16 genera. Seaweed diversity is rich in the Gulf
of Kachchh islands totalling 130 species from Dani, Dhabdhaba,
Kalubhar, Manmarodi, and Narara Islands. Species collected varied
from 93 species from Kalubhar Island to a minimum number of 14
species collected from Narara Island (Jha et al., 2009). 14MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1.5.2 Seaweed Diversity of Tamil Nadu Coast
The Southeast Indian State of Tamil Nadu’s coastline is 1076 km
long with 13 coastal districts and 15 major ports and harbours.
The convergence of the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, and the
Indian Ocean at India’s southern tip is the unique feature of this
coast. Distinct variations are seen in the nature of substratum
in the intertidal and subtidal regions. The northern coastal area
has long, and wide sandy beaches intermittently populated with
flat rocks, boulders and stones in the lower and upper intertidal
regions, experiencing severe surf energy. Species belonging to the
genera Ulva, Chaetomorpha, Bryopsis and Grateloupia inhabit the
rocks and boulders. The central Tamil Nadu coast includes Palk Bay,
which falls within the Cauvery deltaic region. The region’s muddy
intertidal and subtidal coast is due to the confluence of many
rivers flowing to the sea. Several species of Gracilaria, including G.
edulis, G. foliifera, G. verrucosa and G. salicornia are dominant and
commercially harvested in this region.
The Gulf of Mannar, located in the southern part of Tamil Nadu, has a
rich diversity from all three seaweed groups. Intertidal and subtidal
rocks extend up to 1 m deep, and they support abundant growth
of Sargassum, Acanthophora and Hypnea species. The subtidal
coral reefs are populated with Gelidiella, Turbinaria and Sargassum
species. The southern Gulf of Mannar’s rocky intertidal and lower
intertidal regions maintain rich populations of several Ulva species.
Ulva has been collected from all 20 Gulf of Mannar islands supporting
high seaweed diversity with potential economic importance.
Studies carried out to determine seaweed diversity from 42 Indian
coastal stations and 14 Gulf of Mannar islands showed a total of
282 seaweed species (Anon., 2012). Among these, 80 species were
Chlorophyta, 56 species were Phaeophyceae , and 146 species were
Rhodophyta . The genus Caulerpa was represented by the highest
number of species (24) among the green algae, followed by Codium
with seven species and Halimeda and Ulva with six species each. The 15MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
genera Acrosiphonia, Anastomonas, Boergesenia, Dictyosphaeria,
Neomreis, Microdictyon, Struvea, Valonia and Valoniopsis have a
single species each. In brown algae, the genus Sargassum had the
greatest number of species (15), followed by Dictyota with 10 species
and Padina with seven species. The genera Turbinaria, Dictyopteris
and Chnoospora had three species each, and the genera Ectocarpus,
Hormophysa, Hydroclathrus, Iyengaria, Rosenvingea, and Zonaria
were each represented by a single species.
Among the red algae, the genus Gracilaria represented the
highest number of species (20), while the genus Laurencia had
12 species. Other red algal genera found include seven species of
Hypnea, 6 species of Grateloupia and several genera that were
represented by a single species, including Asparagopsis, Bostrichia,
Botryocladia, Chondrococcus, Chondrocanthus, Dasya, Dictyurus,
Digenea, Enantiocladia, Griffithesia, Halichrysis, Helminthocladia,
Neurymenia, Nitophyllum, Peyssonnelia, Tenaciphyllum and
Wrangelia (Anonymous, 2012).
1.6 SWOT Analysis of Seaweed Cultivation in India
1.6.1 Strengths
• Long coastline.
• Vast wasteland belts along the coastline.
• Availability of infrastructure and expertise.
• Availability of resources.
• Low cost of technology.
• Low labour cost.
• Domestic market availability.
• Diversified livelihood options.
1.6.2 Weaknesses
• Lacking advanced technologies in seaweed farming and
processing. 16MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
• Lack of awareness of seaweed farming and its uses.
• Weak industry, R&D institute collaborations and linkages.
• Non-availability of proven technologies for commercialization.
• Limited expertise.
• Absence of technology transfer documents with clear investment,
cost-benefit, and market analysis.
• Inadequate and differential policy guidelines across states.
• Lack of market predictions and technology forecasting.
1.6.3 Opportunities
• Opportunity for exports.
• Reduced import of seaweeds.
• Multiple value-added products.
• Fertilizer savings and organic agriculture promotion.
• Fuel the blue economy and inclusive economic growth in the
country.
• Promote coastal rural prosperity.
• Scope for rural entrepreneurship.
1.6.4 Threats
• Imports of seaweed.
• Climate change and global warming.
• Troubled sea conditions and monsoons.
• Lack of preventive measures for disease control and grazing.
• Free market.
• Conflict with traditional fishermen.
Readings
1. Banerjee, K., Ghosh, R., Homechaudhuri, S., & Mitra, A. (2009).
Seasonal variation in the biochemical composition of red seaweed
(Catenella repens) from Gangetic delta, northeast coast of India.
Journal of Earth System Science, 118(5), 497–505. 17MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
2. Boergesen, F. (1928). On Rosenvingea stellata, a new Indian alga and
on an interesting littoral algal vegetation in which this species is
characteristic constituent. Dansk Botnisk Arkiv, 5.
3. Burtin, P. (2003). Nutritional value of seaweeds. Elec. J. Env. Agri.
Food Chem, 2, 498–503.
4. Dawczynski, C., Schubert, R., Jahreis, G. (2007). Amino acids, fatty
acids, and dietary fibre in edible seaweed products. Food Chemicals.
103, 891–899.
5. Final Report, Council of scientific and industrial research. (n.d.). In
Ministry of Science & Technology, Rafi Marg.
6. Floreto, E.A.T., Teshima, S. (1998). The fatty acid composition of
seaweeds exposed to different levels of light intensity and salinity.
Botanica Marina. 41, 467-482.
7. Food and Agriculture Organization (2012). Introduction to Commercial
Seaweeds, Foods and Agricultural Organization.
8. Fountoulakis, M., Lahm, H.W. (1998). Hydrolysis and amino acid
composition analysis of proteins. National Institute of Health. 826,
109-134.
9. Ganesan, M., Trivedi, N., Gupta, V., Madhav, S., Radhakrishna Reddy,
C. & Levine, I. (2019). Seaweed resources in India - current status of
diversity and cultivation: prospects and challenges. Botanica Marina,
62(5), 463-482. https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2018-0056
10. Ganesan, Meenakshisundaram & Trivedi, Nitin & Gupta, Vishal &
Madhav, S. & Reddy, CRK & Levine, Ira. (2019). Seaweed resources
in India - Current status of diversity and cultivation: Prospects and
challenges. Botanica Marina. 62. 10.1515/bot-2018-0056.
11. Ganesan, Meenakshisundaram & Trivedi, Nitin & Gupta, Vishal &
Madhav, S. & Reddy, CRK & Levine, Ira. (2019). Seaweed resources
in India - Current status of diversity and cultivation: Prospects and
challenges. Botanica Marina. 62. 10.1515/bot-2018-0056. 18MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
12. Gorham, J., Lewey, S.A. (1984). Seasonal changes in the chemical
composition of Sargassum muticum. Botanica Marina. 80, 103-107.
13. Hani, Norziah & Ching, Chio. (2000). Nutritional composition of edible
seaweed Gracilaria changgi. Food Chemistry. 68. 69-76. 10.1016/
S0308-8146(99)00161-2.
14. Hani, Norziah & Ching, Chio. (2000). Nutritional composition of edible
seaweed Gracilaria changgi. Food Chemistry. 68. 69-76. 10.1016/
S0308-8146(99)00161-2.
15. Hegedüs, M., Pedersen, B., & Eggum, B. O. (1985). The influence of
milling on the nutritive value of flour from cereal grains. 7. Vitamins
and tryptophan. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr, 35, 175–180.
16. Home - SNAP. (2022, June 27). SNAP - SNAP; Demo. https://
snapalginate.com/
17. https://www.britannica.com/science/red-algae. Accessed 6 February
2023
18. Integrated Coastal Management in the Seas of East Asia (no date)
SEA Knowledge Bank. Available at: http://seaknowledgebank.net/
Accessed on 18 June 2024.
19. Iyengar, M.O.P. (1927). Krusadai island flora. Bulletin of Madras
Government Museum. New Ser. Nat. Hist. 185-188.
20. Jaikumar, Muthuswamy. (2022). Seaweed potential. Government of
Gujarat 10.1201/9781003184287.
21. Jha, B., C.R.K. Reddy, M.C. Thakur, and M.U. Rao. (2009). Seaweeds
of India: the diversity and distribution of seaweeds of the Gujarat
coast. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 198
22. Jingxiang Xu, Wei Liao. (2023). An Overview on the Nutritional
and Bioactive components of green seaweeds. Food Production,
Processing and Nutrition. https://ourmarinespecies.com/c-seaweed/
green-seaweed/ accessed on 18 June, 2024 19MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
23. Kaliaperumal N., Kalimuthu S., (1997). Seaweed Potential and Its
Exploitation in India. Regional Central Marine Fisheries Research.
Institute, Marine Fisheries
24. Krishnamurthy, V. (1957). The genus Bangiopsis Schmitz from South
India. Phytomorphology Volume (7), 102–112.
25. Leary, S.C., Cobine, P.A., Kaufman, B.A., Guercin, G.-H., Mattman, A.,
Palaty, J., Lockitch, G., Winge, D.R., Rustin, P., Horvath, R., Shoubridge,
E.A. (2007). The human cytochrome c oxidase assembly factors SCO1
and SCO2 have regulatory roles in the maintenance of cellular copper
homeostasis. Cell Metab. (Volume 5), 9-20.
26. Lordan, S., Ross, R. P., & Stanton, C. (2011). Marine bioactives as
functional food ingredients: potential to reduce the incidence
of chronic diseases. Marine drugs, 9(6), 1056–1100. https://doi.
org/10.3390/md9061056
27. Lourenço, Sergio & Barbarino, Elisabete & De Paula, Joel & Pereira,
Luis & Lanfer-Marquez, Ursula. (2002). Amino acid composition,
protein content and calculation of nitrogen to protein conversion
factors for 19 tropical seaweeds. Phycological Research. 50. 233-241.
28. Mabeau, Serge & Fleurence, Joël. (1993). Seaweeds in food products:
Biochemical and nutritional aspects. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 4:
103-107. Trends in Food Science & Technology - Trends Food Science
Technology. 4. 103-107.
29. MacArtain, P., Gill, C.I.R., Brooks, M., Campbell, R., Rowland, I.R. (2007).
Nutritional value of edible seaweed. Nutrition Review. 65, 535–543.
30. Maeda, H., Tsukui, T., Sashima, T., Hosokawa, M., Miyashita, K. (2008).
Seaweed carotenoid, fucoxanthin, as multi-functional nutrient. Asia
Pacific J. Clinical Nutrition. 17, 196-199.
31. Mantri, Vaibhav. (2019). Scope of seaweed farming in India. 10.13140/
RG.2.2.10001.07520.
32. McCall, K. A., Huang, C., & Fierke, C. A. (2000). Function and mechanism
of zinc metalloenzymes. The Journal of nutrition, 130(5S Suppl), 20MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1437S-46S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/130.5.1437S
33. Misurcova, Ladislava & Kracmar, Stanislav & Klejdus, Borivoj & Vacek,
Jan. (2010). Nitrogen content, dietary Fiber, and digestibility in algal
food products. Czech Journal of Food Sciences. 28.
34. Morrisey J, Kraan S., (2001) Nutritional Chart of Seaweed. Bord
Iascaigh Mhara https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0622/1460/2945/files/
Seaweed-Nutritional-Chart.pdf accessed on 18 June, 2024
35. Ortiz, J., Romero, N., Robert, P., Araya, J., Lopez-Hernández, J., Bozzo,
C., Navarrete, C., Osorio, A., Rios, A. (2006). Dietary fiber, amino acid,
fatty acid, and tocopherol contents of the edible seaweeds Ulva
lactuca and Durvillaea Antarctica. Food Chemistry. 99, 98-104.
36. Ortiz, J., Romero, N., Robert, P., Araya, J., Lopez-Hernández, J., Bozzo,
C., Navarrete, C., Osorio, A., Rios, A. (2006). Dietary fiber, amino acid,
fatty acid, and tocopherol contents of the edible seaweeds Ulva
lactuca and Durvillaea Antarctica. Food Chemistry. 99, 98-104.
37. Rajapakse N., Kim S.K. (2011). Nutritional and digestive health benefits
of seaweed. Advantage Food Nutrition Resources. 64:17-28. doi:
10.1016/B978-0-12-387669-0.00002-8. PMID: 22054935.
38. Ramos, M.V., Monteiro, A.C.O., Moreira, R.A., Carvalho, A.F.F.U. (2000).
Amino acid composition of some Brazilian seaweed species. J. Food
Biochemistry. 24, 33–39.
39. Ranjan R. (2021). Seaweed Cultivation and Value Chain Development
in India. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries, Animal
Husbandry & Dairying.
40. Tanaka, T., Kurabayashi, M., Aihara, Y., Ohyama, Y., Nagai, R. (2000).
Inducible expression of manganese superoxide dismutase by
phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate is mediated by Sp1 in endothelial
cells. Arterio. Thromb. Vas. Bio. 20, 392-401.
41. Teas, J., Pino, S., Critchley, A., Braverman, L.E. (2004). Variability of
iodine content in common commercially available edible seaweeds.
Thyroid 14, 836–841. 21MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
42. The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019). “Brown Algae”.
Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/red-algae. Accessed
6 February, 2023.
43. The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019). “Red Algae”. Britannica.
44. Three decades of Kappaphycus Alvarezii (Rhodophyta) introduction.
Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283970777_
Three_decades_of_Kappaphycus_alvarezii_Rhodophyta_
introduction_to_non-endemic_locations Accessed on 18 June 2024.
45. Villares, R., Puente, X., & Carballeira, A. (2002). Seasonal variation
and background levels of heavy metals in two green seaweeds.
Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 119(1), 79–90. https://
doi.org/10.1016/s0269-7491(01)00322-0
46. Yoshioka, Yasunori & Satoh, Hiroyuki & Mitani, Masaki. (2007).
Theoretical study on electronic structures of FeOO, FeOOH, FeO(H2O),
and FeO in hemes: As intermediate models of dioxygen reduction in
cytochrome c oxidase. Journal of inorganic biochemistry. 101. 1410-27.
10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2007.05.018. 2
ModuleModule
Basics of
Seaweed
Cultivation 23MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
At the end of this module, you will be able to understand-
• Principles of seaweed farming
• Tools, equipment, and materials required for seaweed cultivation.
• Key steps involved in the cultivation and harvesting of seaweed.
2.1 Principles of Seaweed Farming
In spite of the thousands of seaweed species distributed around the
world, their presence is typically limited to relatively shallow coastal
waters. This is because they need sufficient sunlight passing through
the water in order to photosynthesize and to be attached to a substrate
to grow. At sea, attachment is normally possible only at the floor or
benthos, thus seaweeds are formally classified as benthic organisms. Also
important, seaweeds do not have true roots but are attached through
their holdfast, a root-like organ in appearance that serves to anchor them
to a substrate but does not supply them with nutrients and water as
roots of land plants do. Seaweeds take up nutrients and water as well as
dissolved gases directly from seawater through their entire body. There
are three exceptions to the shallow water “benthic” nature of seaweeds
that are relevant to farming.
47. The first exception is that two species of Sargassum (S. natans and
S. fluitans), a ubiquitous genus of brown seaweeds, live free-floating at
the surface of the Sargasso Sea and nearby Atlantic areas, where they
comprise millions of tons of biomass (Huffard et al., 2014; Lapointe et al.,
2014) through their many air bladders. However, although Sargassum
species found around the world and many other seaweed species also
have air bladders, only these two Sargassum species are holopelagic (i.e.,
have a completely pelagic life cycle) and, as far as it is known, inhabit only
the Sargasso Sea and nearby areas. For example, free-floating Sargassum
masses in the South China Sea have been shown to be detachments from
benthic growth (Komatsu et al., 2008). Such free-floating, holopelagic
growth, which is in many ways analogous to “green tides,” may have
applications for farming. 24MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
The second exception is the opportunistic growth that occurs when
seaweed propagules are attached to floating structures that provide
a substrate (e.g., a drifting log or a buoy and its ropes). This ability of
seaweeds to attach to floating objects is the basis of seaweed farming.
Just about any propagule of any seaweed can be attached to ropes or
nets and will grow as long as it receives adequate sunlight and nutrient
and gas requirements are satisfied, no matter how deep the sea is
beneath it.
The third exception is when seaweeds are grown without attachment in
tanks or other confined spaces provided adequate circulation (Neori et
al., 2004). This is often referred to as tumble culture. Therefore, it is clear
that seaweeds are not at all obligate benthic organisms and can grow very
well as epipelagic organisms, be they attached or freely floating at the
surface or submerged in seawater of adequate temperature and salinity,
as long as their requirements for water, sunlight, nutrients, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide are adequately provided for.
The cultivation or farming of seaweeds can thus be defined as the
optimized planting of seaweed crops in water for growth. This means
optimizing for photosynthesis, the interception of solar radiation mostly
on an area basis, and the interaction with water for the uptake of
nutrients, gases, and water on a volumetric basis, also related to water
movement. From there on, during the grow-out phase, farming mostly
ensures continued photosynthesis at the optimized rate until yield. This
entails making sure seaweeds stay in place to grow in the desired spatial
arrangement while controlling for hazards to the extent possible.
These include hazards of biological nature, such as herbivory and fouling;
those related to water and climate, such as storms, strong currents, and
changes in salinity and temperature; and those related to other users of
the sea - both humans and animals. However, most of these hazards are
difficult to control, and vulnerability to them must be minimized in the
pre-cultivation periods, particularly by matching seaweed species with
cultivation techniques for each site selected. 25MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Though the availability of water, sunlight, and gases can usually be
taken for granted in the selection of a location for seaweed farming, an
adequate supply of nutrients may be an important consideration. In a
successful farm, the capacity of seawater in the given locality to provide
nutrients through motion or upwelling is matched with or surpasses the
uptake potential of the cultivated seaweed.
Importantly, and at least to date, no pesticides or other chemicals, such
as hormones or antibiotics used in fish farming, are used in seaweed
farming. This not only marks another major difference between agriculture
and fish farming in terms of production cost, but it also adds to the
sustainability and eco-friendliness of seaweed farming, at least at this
stage of its development.
A key aspect of seaweed farming is recognizing a number of biotic and
abiotic stressors (“hazards”) that impinge on yields in terms of both
quantity and quality. Loureiro et al. (2015) consider that “the protocols
that are currently used to mitigate crop losses are rudimentary” and that
“in contrast to land-based agriculture, the nature and epidemiology of
seaweed pathogens is dramatically understudied”.
Biotic stressors are mainly the following:
• Pathogenic microorganisms.
• Fouling organisms, varying from other seaweeds and
cyanobacteria (epiphytes) to a variety of invertebrates that
use the cultivated seaweeds to attach to and grow on them
(zoophytes).
• Invertebrates that feed on tissue, such as snails, sea urchins,
crabs, and copepods; and
• Vertebrates that feed on tissue, such as herbivore fishes and
sea turtles.
Abiotic stressors, which are often considered a more widely occurring
limitation, perhaps due to their severity, are usually the product of
adverse or non-optimal environmental conditions, often happening in a 26MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
short time, such as very low or too high irradiance, water temperature, and
salinity. The effects of abiotic stressors can be direct, promoting a variety
of undesirable responses, including complete disintegration of the crop,
or indirect, by triggering or favouring pathogenicity, like with ice–ice, a
bacterial disease favoured by nonoptimal environmental conditions.
Seaweed production requires nutrients, light for growth, salinity, and
temperatures that are not limiting to the species being cultivated. The
mesotrophic boreal temperate coastal ocean is ideal for growing many
species.
2.1.1 Dimensions of Sustainability in Seaweed Farming
An aquaculture activity is sustainable when three components are
present and fulfilled (Figure 2.1):
i) Social - the ability of a community to persistently achieve good
social well-being.
ii) Economic - requires that a community uses its natural resources
efficiently and responsibly so that it can operate in a sustainable
manner to consistently produce an operational profit; and
iii) Environmental - means that a community lives within the
means of their natural resources ensuring that ecosystem services
of coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass and seaweed communities
are sustainably used. These dimensions of sustainability have to
be considered in evaluating the feasibility of impact investment in
community-based seaweed far ming.
Social
Equitable Bearable
Sustainable
Economic
Viable
Environmental
Figure 2.1: Dimensions of Sustainability in Seaweed Farming 27MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
It is crucial to involve and consult with local communities and
stakeholders throughout the process of introducing and cultivating
seaweed, to ensure that their livelihoods and traditional uses of
the coastal environment are respected and integrated into the
development plan. Seaweed cultivation has the potential to provide
multiple benefits, including food security, income generation, coastal
protection, and climate change mitigation.
2.2 Tools, Equipment, and Materials Required for Seaweed
Cultivation
The faculty should discuss all tools, equipment and materials required for
seaweed cultivation, if possible through a practical demonstration of the
same. The following are some of the key tools required (Figure 2.2):
• Automatic seaweed drum dryer.
• Seaweed cutting machine.
• Seaweed grinding machine.
• Substrate washing equipment.
• Seaweed substrates 6-24 mm.
• Seaweed packing equipment.
• Seaweed conveyor Rolgang with castors.
• Seaweed conveyor Rolgang.
• Seaweed belt conveyor.
(all other tools involved in the value chain may be included). 28MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Figure 2.2: Tools required for seaweed cultivation.
2.3 Key Steps Involved in the Cultivation of Seaweed
2.3.1 Site Selection
The right site(s) must be selected, emphasizing local conditions
in relation to the seaweed species selected. The criteria for
identifying the potential seaweed farming sites have been based
on the suitability of the site for the cultivation of seaweed and the
availability of the site free from any environmental concerns. The
criteria that should be adopted are given below:
i. Near shore areas within 1000 m distance from the lowest low tide
line.
ii. Intertidal and sub-tidal zones with a rocky or sandy bottom.
iii. Previous existence of seaweed farming activity.
iv. Seaweed collection from natural seaweed beds. 29MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
v. Sheltered areas with adequate current and tidal exchange.
vi. Areas with moderate wave action.
vii. Areas free from silt deposits.
viii. Optimum basic water quality parameters:
• Salinity (28-38 ppt),
• Sea Surface Temperature (26-31°C),
• pH (6.5-8.5) and Transparency (2-6 m).
• Besides these, species specific optimum water quality
parameters may be taken into consideration. Also, minimum
water depth (may be considered for various modules of sea
weed farming)
ix. Areas away from fishing harbour / landing centre.
x. No hindrance to existing fishing, fishing space and other allied
activities.
xi. Accessibility for inputs, transportation, marketing, watch and ward.
xii. Areas away from freshwater runoff and domestic or agro-industrial
effluents discharge.
xiii. Apart from these, the following factors may be taken into
consideration while identifying sites suitable for seaweed
cultivation:
• Lower seawater salinity due to heavy influx of freshwater by
rivers and their tributaries
• Adverse current in the inshore area, high turbidity or less
seawater transparency
• Cyclone’s effect (for example, in the state of Odisha).
2.3.2 Selection of Suitable Cultivation Technique
The various techniques of seaweed cultivation are briefly discussed
in Table 2.1. Along the Tamil Nadu coast, bamboo rafts and monoline
seaweed farming technologies are widely used. In coastal states
such as Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, the tube-net approach is
suitable. When the tube-net technique is combined with open sea
cage farming, as in the case of Integrated Multi-tropic Aquaculture
(IMTA), seaweed grows at a faster rate than it does in a tube-net
monoculture. Tube-net seaweed farming has overwhelmingly 30MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
favourable socio-economic advantages as it incorporates the idea
of resource integration and maximum utilization, benefitting fisher
folks. Harvesting species such as Eucheuma spp., Gracilaria spp.,
Kappaphycus spp., and Porphyra spp. have been demonstrated to
benefit diverse communities.
Table 2.1: Seaweed farming techniques adopted in Tamil Nadu.
Bamboo Raft
technique
Monoline methodTube-net x
In calm and shallow
places, the floating
bamboo raft method
(12 × 12 feet bamboo
poles) is ideal.
In places characterized
by moderate wave
action, shallow depth,
and the presence of
less herbivorous fishes,
the monoline method
of seaweed farming is
ideal.
The tube net method
is being adopted in
places with higher wave
actions. 31MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
2.3.3 Maintenance of Seaweed Farm
There are different ways to maintain the seaweed farm, such as
• Management of disease
• Management of epiphytism
• Management during natural calamities
It is very important to make sure that the crop stays in place in the
desired spatial arrangement during the entire cropping period for
biosynthesis to occur while aiding the growth process by maintaining
biotic and abiotic stresses as low as feasible.
Besides these, the faculty should also discuss the different best
management practices from the references.
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A. H. (2007). The need for a balanced ecosystem approach to blue
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Kappaphycus alvarezii: Evaluation of different process strategies.
Biores. Technol. 134, 2013: 257-263.
17. Radulovich, R., Umanzor, S., Cabrera, R., & Mata, R. (2015). Tropical
seaweeds for human food, their cultivation and its effect on
biodiversity enrichment. Aquaculture (Amsterdam, Netherlands),
436, 40–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2014.10.032
18. Siddhanta A. K., Mahesh U. Chhatbar, Gaurav K. Mehta, Naresh D.
Sanandiya, Sanjay Kumar, Mihir D. Oza, Kamalesh Prasad, Ramavatar
Meena. (2011). The cellulose contents of Indian seaweeds. J Appl
Phycol, 23: 2011, 919–923. DOI 10.1007/s10811-010- 9599-2.
19. Yasmin Khambhaty, Kalpana Mody, Mahesh R. Gandhi, Sreekumaran
Thampy, Pratyush Maiti, Harshad Brahmbhatt, Karuppanan Eswaran,
Pushpito K. Ghosh. (2012). Kappaphycusalvarezii as a source of
bioethanol. Biores. Technol. 103, 2012: 180-185.
20. Zacharia.P.U., Kaladharan.P and Rojith.G. (2015). Seaweed farming
as a climate resilient strategy for Indian Coastal Waters., The
International Conference on Integrating Climate, Crop, Ecology -
The Emerging Areas of Agriculture, Horticulture, Livestock, Fishery,
Forestry, Biodiversity and Policy Issues., ISBN:978-81-930585-9-6.,
pg.59-62. 3
ModuleModule
Economics
of Seaweed
Cultivation 35MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
At the end of this module, you will be able to understand-
• Economics of seaweed cultivation
• Seaweed Farming using High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) raft-based
tube net method in rough sea conditions.
• Economics of other seaweed species
3.1 Economics of Important Seaweed Species
The economics of seaweed cultivation differs according to species and
the technique adopted for cultivation. The faculty should discuss the
different techniques and species-wise economics in detail in this part.
The bamboo raft system is preferred for all industrially valuable Indian
seaweeds. Rafts are located at the sub-surface seawater column,
providing adequate sunlight exposure; rafts are easily handled and
relocated to suitable locations free from epiphytes and grazing; and
bottom nets minimize herbivore grazing of algae. Materials for making
rafts (e.g. bamboo, anchor stones, polypropylene rope, etc.) are commonly
available near the farm areas.
The economics of two important species of seaweed, viz. Kappaphycus
alvarezii (K. alvarezii) and Gracilaria edulis (G. edulis) should be discussed
in detail. The crop life of Kappaphycus alvarezii is 45-60 days. Depending
on the climatic conditions, four to six crops or cycles (6 to 9 months) can
be harvested annually. In 45 days, a 150 g seedling grows to 500 to 1000
g. The typical seed required for one raft of 12 ft x 12 ft size is 60 kg, but it
is 15 kg for a tube net of 25 m in length. The harvested seaweed has an
average dry weight percentage of 10%. Farmers currently receive Rs. 16/-
for fresh seaweed and Rs. 70/- for dried seaweed, respectively.
Gracilaria edulis farming takes 45 days to complete. Depending on the
weather, five to six crops or cycles (9 months) can be harvested yearly.
In 45 days, a 50 g seedling can grow to 500 to 1500 g. The typical seed
required for one raft of 12 ft × 12 ft size is 20 kg. The harvested seaweed 36MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
has an average dry weight percentage of 15% (25% moisture). Farmers
can get Rs. 20/- per kg of dried seaweed. A comparison of economics of
Gracilaria edulis vis-à-vis Kappaphycus alvarezii is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Comparison of Economics for K. alvarezii and G. edulis
S. No. Components
Value for
K. alvarezii
Value for
G. edulis
1.
Gross Seaweed production
(wet weight in kg per raft per
year)
1,000 kg2000 kg
2. Number of crops per year 45
3.
Seaweed is to be retained
for usage as seed material
next year
240 kg100 kg
4.
Net seaweed production
(wet weight in kg per raft
per year)(1 minus 3)
760 kg1900 kg
5. Dry weight proportion 10% of wet weight
15% of wet
weight
6. Weight of dry seaweed 76 kg285 kg
7.
Price of seaweed per kg of
dry weight
Rs. 70Rs. 20
8.
Total revenue generated
per year per raft
Rs. 5,320Rs. 5,700
9.
The annual total cost of
production (including capital
costs) per raft
Rs. 2,000Rs. 2,578
10.
Net revenue per raft per
year (8 minus 9)
Rs. 3,320Rs. 3,122
11.
Total Net revenue in dry
weight per year
45 x Rs 3,320
= Rs. 1,49,400/-
(For 45 rafts)
25 x Rs 3,122
= Rs. 78,050/
year
(For 25 rafts)
12.
Net revenue from one
hectare (400 rafts) in dry
weight per year
Rs. 13,28,000/-
1
Rs. 12,48,000/-
2
Native species (Gracilaria) are certainly economically attractive – if the
biomass processed is considered for multiple products. Further, 3m x 3m raft
of K. alvarezii yields an average of 150-250 kg; but 2m x 2m raft produces 15
1. A family of two person can handle an average of 45 rafts (12 ft x 12 ft)
2. A person can handle an average of 25 rafts (12 ft x 12 ft) 37MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
kg of Gracilaria edulis biomass and 30 kg of G. debilis. Thus, it is apparent
that the volume of the feedstock obtained per unit area, say 1 ha is much
higher for K. alvarezii than other seaweeds growing in Indian waters. Thus,
economic feasibility is several folds high for K. alvarezii. However, we have
advocated differential pricing of agarophytes and carragenophytes as the
products obtained from agarophytes are priced relatively higher in the
international market. CSIR-CSMCRI has developed relevant downstream
processing technologies that match global standards. Moreover, given
that the labour involved per unit area for both K. alvarezii and agarophytes
is similar, a higher price, if offered to agarophyte seaweeds, would bring
more and more people to opt for it. The detailed techno-economic analysis
of farming of K. alvarezii (Aquaculture 2022; 551: 737912) and agarophytes
(Aquaculture International 2022; 30: 1505-1525) also revealed this.
3.2 Seaweed Farming Using High-Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE)
Raft-Based Tube Net Method in Rough Sea Conditions
Seaweed cultivation is more difficult in tumultuous waves than in calm
seas. The floating bamboo raft-based monoline approach is popular in
India and best suited for calm, shallow locations with little tidal influence.
This bamboo raft is unsuitable for rough seas. Furthermore, seaweeds
sown in the monoline are immediately exposed to rough waters and are
readily harmed. As a result, a new HDPE raft-based tube net approach
supported by grid mooring is developed for growing K. alvarezii in
harsh climatic circumstances occurring mostly on India’s Northeast and
Northwest coasts. The current approach was tested along the Northeast
coast, off the coast of Visakhapatnam, and could withstand rough
weather conditions.
The square-shaped (3m x 3m) floating raft is made of High-Density
Polyethylene (HDPE) pipes with an outer diameter of 90 mm (PE 100
grade, PN 10). The corners of the pipe are linked using butt fusion welding
at 210
o
C to form the raft’s square shape. The tube net is made from
18-ply (1.25 mm string thickness) HDPE net material with a mesh size of
25 mm (knot to knot). For optimum development of K. alvarezii through 38MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
tube net meshes, a mesh size of 25.0 mm (knot to knot) is recommended
for tube net preparation. Seeds weighing 5.0 kg per tube net are sown
separately in plain rectangular nets. Then, both ends of the net were
braced with 4.0 mm polypropylene (PP) rope to form the tube net. For
even distribution of K. alvarezii across the tube net, a few meshes were
tied at 1.0 m intervals across the length of the net; otherwise, after a few
days of culture, K. alvarezii will congregate in the middle of the net tube
due to growth increment. Seeded tube nets were tied across the length
of the raft, with 10 of these tube nets utilised for each raft.
Raft structures should preferably be moored by a grid mooring system.
However, a single mooring anchoring technique is also advised. To keep
the seeded raft in the water, utilise dead-weight permanent anchors
constructed of concrete cement blocks. The five concrete blocks in each
grid corner are linked by a long-link alloy steel mooring chain (13 mm
diameter, 80-grade quality). This mooring chain should be linked to the
floating HDPE raft at the top using D-shackles. Prior to connecting to the
raft, 200-litre capacity fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) cans filled with air are
linked to the mooring chain at each corner to promote chain flotation, so
stopping the direct downward pulling force on the raft construction.
Each raft structure is linked with 50-litre capacity cans at each corner,
boosting the raft’s buoyancy. The chosen location determines the length
of the mooring chain; nevertheless, a chain length 1.5 times greater than
the water depth is recommended to disperse additional tension. The
suggested mooring system helps to hold the 25 rafts as a single unit.
It has been observed that the seaweed seeded with approximately 5
kg/tube net yields a production of approximately 30 kg. A 300 kg /raft
consisting of 10 tube nets could be obtained. Therefore, K. alvarezii can
be cultured for six cycles in a year, 45 days of culture period/crop. This
culture method will help yield approximately 45000 kg of seaweed/year/
cluster of 25 rafts with a net profit of 1.43 lakhs/year. The annual costs
and returns for K. alvarezii farming in 25 HDPE raft-based tube nets are
given in Table 3.2. 39MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Table 3.2: Annual costs and returns for K. alvarezii farming in 25 HDPE raft-based
tube nets
ParticularsQuantity
Price per
unit (Rs.)
Total Value
(Rs.)
Economic
Life
(Years)
A. Initial Investment
1. Rafts (nos.)25 5000 12500010
2. HDPE Net (nos.)25 500 125002
3. Cement blocks (nos.)20 1000 2000010
4. Mooring Chain (mts.)60 600 360004
5. Buoy (nos.)100 100 100002
6. Mooring buoy (nos.)4 1000 40005
7. Mooring Installation5000 5000
Total Initial Investment (Rs.)212500
B. Fixed Costs
1. Depreciation (Rs.)35550
2.
Interest on investment @ 7% per
annum (Rs.)
14875
Total fixed costs (Rs.)50425
C. Operating Costs (Rs.)
1. Seed material (Kg)1250 16 20000
2.
Labour charges for seeding and
deployment (nos.)
12 600 7200
3. Harvesting (nos.)24 600 14400
4.
Maintenance and Miscellaneous
Expenditure (Rs.)
15000
5.
Interest on working capital @4%
per annum (Rs.)
2264
Total Operating Costs (Rs.)58864
D.
Total cost of production
(Rs. 50425 + Rs. 58864)
109289
E. Returns
Total Production
Gross Revenue (Rs.) Total production
from 25 rafts is 45000 kg fresh weight
(6 cycles @ 300 kg/cycle/raft). Excluding
the seed material, the production is
37500 kg fresh weight (45000-7500
kg). Total production in dry weight is
3750 kg (10%) 40MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
ParticularsQuantity
Price per
unit (Rs.)
Total Value
(Rs.)
Economic
Life
(Years)
Gross revenue @ Rs.70 per kg of
dry weight
262500
2. Net Income (Rs.)153211
Total Production
Gross Revenue (Rs.) Total production
from 25 rafts is 45000 kg fresh weight
(6 cycles @ 300 kg/cycle/raft)
Excluding the seed material, the
production is 37500 kg fresh weight
(45000-7500kg). Total production in
dry weight is 3750 kg (10%)
Gross revenue @ Rs.70 per kg of
dry weight
262500
Net Income (Rs.)153211
3.3 Economics of Other Seaweed Species
The production, profits, and revenue from seaweed differ significantly
due to their characteristics. Not only do these characteristics affect their
economics but also the processing process. In this interest, it becomes
imperative to understand the significance of cultivating a few other
seaweed species. They are mentioned below. The faculty should discuss
the economics of these species as well.
• Gracilaria dura
• Gracilaria debilis
• Gracilaria salicornia
• Hypnea musciformis
• Sarconema filiforme
• Gelidium pusillum
The basic production data, including market value and infrastructure cost
of some of the different agarophytes, is given in Table 3.3. The analysis
is done at the rate of 1 ton per day (1 TPD) and 5 tons per day (5 TPD) dry
biomass with low and high-range yield scenarios. 41MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Table 3.3: Basic production data, including market value and infrastructure cost

of different agarophytes
Para-
meters
G. acerosa (Ganesan et al., 2009)
G. debilis (Veeragurunathan et al., 2019)
G. dura (Veeragurunathan et al., 2015b)
G. edulis (Ganesan et al., 2011a)
1 TPD
5 TPD
1 TPD
5 TPD
1 TPD
5 TPD
1TPD
5 TPD
Yield scenario
Yield scenario
Yield scenario
Yield scenario
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Seed biomass (kg) raft
-1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Yield (kg) raft-1

@ 90 days

Ge. acerosa

@ 45 days G. debilis, G. dura, G. edulis
5
6
5
6
14
43
14
43
2
10
2
10
6
28
6
28
Yield after deducting seed material for subsequent crop raft
-1

(kg)
4.5
5.5
4.5
5.5
11
40
11
40
1
9
1
9
5
27
5
27
Dry to fresh weight ratio (Water content)
4
4
4
4
8
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
10
10
10
10
Dry weight (kg)
1.12
1.38
1.12
1.38
1.38
5
1.38
5
0.14
1.29
0.14
1.29
0.5
2.7
0.5
2.7
Number of rafts required for @ 1 TPD or @ 5 TPD
889
727
4,444
3,636
727
200
3,636
1,000
7,000
778
35,000
3,889
2,000
370
10,000
1,852 42MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Para-
meters
G. acerosa (Ganesan et al., 2009)
G. debilis (Veeragurunathan et al., 2019)
G. dura (Veeragurunathan et al., 2015b)
G. edulis (Ganesan et al., 2011a)
1 TPD
5 TPD
1 TPD
5 TPD
1 TPD
5 TPD
1TPD
5 TPD
Yield scenario
Yield scenario
Yield scenario
Yield scenario
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Number of people required for seeding

@ 2 rafts day
-1

person
-1
444
364
2,222
1,818
364
100
1,818
500
3,500
389
17,500
1,944
1,000
185
5,000
926
Number of rafts growth cycle
-1
@ 90 days Ge. acerosa@ 45 days G. debilis
,
G. dura, G. edulis
80,000
65,455
4,00,000
3,27,273
32,727
9,000
1,63,636
45,000
3,15,000
35,000
15,75,000
1,75,000
90,000
16,667
4,50,000
83,333
Area required (ha)
32
26.18
160
130.90
13.09
3.6
65.45
18
126
14
630
70
36
6.667
180
33.33
Total days of farming year-1 @ 3 harvests of 90 days for Ge. acerosa@ 6 harvests of 45 days for G. debilis and
G.
edulis
and 5
harvests of 45 days for

G. dura
270
270
270
270
270
270
270
270
225
225
225
225
270
270
270
270 43MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Para-
meters
G. acerosa (Ganesan et al., 2009)
G. debilis (Veeragurunathan et al., 2019)
G. dura (Veeragurunathan et al., 2015b)
G. edulis (Ganesan et al., 2011a)
1 TPD
5 TPD
1 TPD
5 TPD
1 TPD
5 TPD
1TPD
5 TPD
Yield scenario
Yield scenario
Yield scenario
Yield scenario
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Low Range
High Range
Total days of obtaining harvest
180
180
180
180
225
225
225
225
180
180
180
180
225
225
225
225
Total produce year
-1
(tons)
180
180
900
900
225
225
1125
1125
180
180
900
900
225
225
1125
1125
The market value of biomass tons
-1
as
prevailing rates (Million USD)@ USD 1603 for

Ge. acerosa,@ USD 601 for
G.
debilis @ USD 534 for

G. edulis and @ USD 1336 for
G. dura
0.29
0.29
1.44
1.44
0.14
0.14
0.68
0.68
0.24
0.24
1.20
1.20
0.12
0.12
0.60
0.60
Infrastructure cost (Million USD) @ USD 8.016 raft
-1
0.64
0.52
3.21
2.62
0.26
0.07
1.31
0.36
2.52
0.28
12.65
1.40
0.72
0.13
3.61
0.69
Total investment (Million USD)@ 50% subsidy from Fisheries Department Government of Tamil Nadu
0.32
0.26
1.60
1.31
0.13
0.04
0.66
0.18
1.26
0.14
6.30
0.70
0.36
0.07
1.80
0.34 44MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Readings
1. Gurunathan, Veera & Prasad, Kamalesh & J.M, Malar & Singh, Nripat
& Meena, Ramavatar & Mantri, Vaibhav. (2019). Gracilaria debilis
cultivation, agar characterisation and economics: Bringing new
species in the ambit of commercial farming in India. Journal of Applied
Phycology. 31. 10.1007/s10811-019-01775-z.
2. Kavale M. G, Meena R, Veeragurunathan V, Persis, M. (2022). Effect
of duration of culture period on the agar yield and gel strength of
Gracilaria dura C. Agardh (Gracilariaceae, Rhodophyta) at Saurashtra
coast, Gujarat, India. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1613162/v1
3. Patel, N., Banafarr, P., Ramachandran, P., Ghosh, A., B, J., & G, D.
(2024). Strategy for the Development of Seaweed Value Chain. NITI
Aayog. ISBN 978-81-967183-2-9
4. Seaweed cultivation - dof.gov.in (2020). Available at: https://dof.gov.
in/sites/default/files/2020-07/Seaweed_Cultivation.pdf (Accessed:
March 15, 2023). 4
ModuleModule
Planting of
Seaweed 46MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
At the end of this module, you will be able to understand-
• Preparation of planting material
• Different methods of plantation of seed stock
4.1 Preparation of Planting Material
The capacity to produce propagules of the desired species or cultivar in
sufficient number and quality whenever required is a key aspect of any
farming operation. This is particularly important for seaweed species or
locations because abundant material for vegetative propagation is not
always available, and sexual or asexual reproduction is often complex
and requires expertise to be implemented (Lin et al.,2008).
Seed stock of seaweeds is traditionally collected from natural waters
along the southeastern coast. However, continuous, indiscriminate,
and unorganized harvesting has resulted in the depletion of natural
resources. Careful selection of seedlings is necessary. Healthy, strong
branches should be chosen. Good seedlings are usually found at the
centre and near the tip of a healthy plant. To prepare the seedlings
following procedure needs to be followed:
• Use a clean and sharp stainless knife to cut the branches in
order to leave a smooth surface.
• Never cut the branch in a slant position.
• Do not produce seedlings with any cuts on their branches.
4.2 Different Methods of Plantation of Seed Stock
In seaweed farming, primarily vegetative fragments or reproductive cells
(spores or gametes) from seaweeds are used as a source of seedlings
(propagules) for propagation in the sea.
4.2.1 Vegetative Propagation
The vegetative propagation has undoubtedly been successful
for those seaweed species with higher proliferation potentials of
vegetative fragments, as in the case of Kappaphycus, Gracilaria,
Gelidiella and Gelidium etc. 47MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Seedling fragments are directly planted on 3 mm (dia.) polypropylene
rope of appropriate length at regular intervals. Each rope is held
floating in the water column below the surface with appropriate size
floats at regular intervals as shown in Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 4.1. Raft seeded with K. alvarezii
Anchor stones (suitable weight) are used at each end to hold the
seedling rope steadily in the water column. The seedlings grown for 40-
45 days attain their full growth. These lines, ready to harvest, are towed
ashore, and the ropes are detached and brought to the beach, where
the materials are pulled out from the lines manually. The K. alvarezii
grown on the rafts finally is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.2. K. alvarezii grown on raft 48MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
4.2.2 Spores
In the majority of cases, spores have been used as a source of
seeding material for farming these seaweed species. The following
species, namely Porphyra, Pyropia, Ulva, Monostroma, Saccharina,
Undaria, etc., had greater reproductive potentials. Spores are seeded
on artificial substrata and cultured in a land-based seedling-rearing
facility under controlled conditions until a suitable plantlet size is
needed for transplantation. Following the seeding operations, the
ropes with growing plantlets were out-planted in the open sea for
field cultivation.
Due to adaptational behaviour, many seaweed species naturally
tend to disintegrate totally after reproduction or in response
to seasonal or other drastic or rapid changes. For example, cold
winter may damage the crop, and the shortening of day length may
trigger undesirable reproductive changes (Vásquez, 1995). Russell
(1986) described the process of selecting infertile plants of the red
seaweed Chondrus crispus, which tend to disintegrate when they
reach reproductive maturity, as the basis for developing cultivars
for farming. If unaccounted for, this type of behaviour may represent
a hindrance to farming, not only for propagation but also in terms
of obtaining yields. Based on this, for the main temperate zone
seaweeds, Saccharina, Undaria, and Pyropia, propagation through
spore formation has occurred (Hurd et al., 2014).
For subtropical and tropical farmed species, fragments of thalli are
often sufficient as vegetative propagules. While all of Eucheuma and
Kappaphycus production is based on simple vegetative propagation
obtained from the previous harvest (Teitelbaum, 2003; Valderrama
et al., 2013), for Gracilaria and Sargassum vegetative propagation is
the most common method, although they are also reproduced by
spore formation (Redmond et al., 2014a,b).
Nursery procedures have been developed to produce clean and
healthy propagules at commercial scale, including sexual or asexual 49MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
spore formation. Tip culture (vegetative micropropagation) is also
growing as an advanced means of vegetative propagation. There are
more than 85 species of seaweeds for which tissue culture has been
reported (Reddy et al., 2008). A depiction of a model for sustainable
production of seedlings for large scale farming in marine nursery is
shown in Fig. 4.3.
Fig. 4.3. Seedling development facility: Marine nursery model
Laboratory-produced spore propagules attach themselves directly
to ropes or nets or to strings that are then attached to ropes and
nets and planted for the growing season. Nursery tanks are often
necessary to keep a selected vegetative stock for reproduction and
planting when seasonal changes do not allow continuous farming
throughout the year, also reducing natural stands. An advantage of
nursery or laboratory reproduction is that high-quality and uniform
propagules from selected vigorous and healthy parental lines can
be used, promoting higher yields and quality. However, when simple
vegetative propagation is feasible, dependence on laboratories to
supply propagules may initially inhibit farming and increase costs
until it becomes competitive with vegetative reproduction at the
proper scale. 50MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Although the use of vegetative propagules obtained from the last
seaweed crop is advantageous for production at a small scale
and with low investment through selecting, cutting, and attaching
vegetative propagules of 20-150 g each spaced at 0.2-0.25 m apart
to ropes or nets is very time-consuming (Breton, 2006). Vegetative
propagules are attached either by tying them (tie-tie system) or
inserting them in the rope fabric. Using vegetative propagules also
requires seaweed biomass in the order of one to several tons per
hectare, up to one-fourth of the harvest, several times a year.
Readings
1. Breton, Y. (Ed.) (2006). Coastal Resource Management in the Wider
Caribbean: Resilience, Adaptation and Community Diversity. Ian
Randle Publishers, IDRC, Kingston, Ottawa.
2. Hurd, C.L., Harrison, P.J., Bischof, K., Lobban, C.S. (2014). Seaweed
Ecology and Physiology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
3. Indian centre for climate and societal impacts research (ICCSIR).
(n.d.). Iccsir.org. Retrieved June 18, 2024, from https://www.iccsir.org/
seaweed_cultivation.html
4. Reddy, C. R. K., Jha, B., Fujita, Y., & Ohno, M. (2009). Seaweed
micropropagation techniques and their potentials: an overview. In
Nineteenth International Seaweed Symposium (pp. 159–167). Springer
Netherlands.
5. Redmond, S., Lindsay, Yarish, C., & Jang Neefus, C. (2014). New
England Seaweed Culture Handbook.
6. Russell, G., & Barnes, H. (1986). Variation and natural selection in
marine macroalgae. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 24. Oceanography and Marine
Biology: An Annual Review, 24, 309–377.
7. Teitelbaum. A. (2011). Farming Seaweed in Kiribati: A Practical guide
for Seaweed Farmers. Secretariat of the Pacific Community
8. Valderrama, Diego & Cai. (2015). The Economics of Kappaphycus
Seaweed Cultivation in Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis 51MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
of Farming Systems. Aquaculture Economics & Management. 19. 251-
277. 10.1080/13657305.2015.1024348.
9. Valderrama, Diego & Cai. (2015). The Economics of Kappaphycus
Seaweed Cultivation in Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis
of Farming Systems. Aquaculture Economics & Management. 19. 251-
277. 10.1080/13657305.2015.1024348.
10. Vasquez J. (1995). Ecological Effects of Brown Seaweed Harvesting.
Botanica Marina 5
ModuleModule
Seaweed
Cultivation
Techniques 53MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
At the end of th is module, you will be able to understand -
• Different techniques of seaweed cultivation such as-
(i) Tube net technique,
(ii) Floating bamboo technique and
(iii) Bottom monoline technique
The faculty should dis cuss these techniques through practical
demonstrations.
5.1 Different Techniques of Seaweed Cultivation
After obtaining or producing propagules, planting is done using the main
cultivation techniques, which are variations in many ways determined by
the species being farmed and the distance to the shore and to the sea
floor.
5.1.1 Shallow Waters
Wooden pegs, posts, or poles buried in the sea floor are used. Pegs
(e.g., 0.7 m long) are sufficient to hold off-bottom plantings. Poles of
varying lengths are used for plantings at midwater or the surface.
A modality in areas where tides fluctuate moderately is to take
advantage of the fixed depth allowed by poles to subject the
planting to varying depths of water to the point that at some hours
of the day, the whole planting is exposed to air. This does not usually
affect the seaweed yet substantially decreases the load of fouling,
parasites, and herbivores.
5.1.2 Deeper Waters
Waters varying from 3 m to 10 m depth or more during low tide,
which represent the vast majority of the marine environment, to
expand farming, a spatial arrangement based on anchors and buoys
is necessary, similar to shallower sites. Anchors vary in cost and
individual capacity, from burlap sacks filled with sand to concrete
blocks weighing a ton or more. Buoys vary from reused plastic bottles,
jugs, and barrels to factory-sourced buoys. For floating rafts, the 54MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
shape of the structure is given by the rigid frame. The shape and
tensional integrity of floating line plantings are obtained through the
push-pull of the properly matched interactions between the sinking
and buoyancy provided by water and the opposite effects from
buoys and anchors. The number and characteristics of the different
types of anchors and buoys depend on various conditions for each
operational unit. For example, small buoys are placed along lines
and larger ones at key structural points. Currents play a significant
role, and, to the extent that the distance to the bottom is varied,
waves and tides require a “sagging” of extra rope length from the
structure or raft to anchoring. This sagging is particularly noticeable
at low tides and tends to disfigure the spatial arrangement to an
extent.
Cultivation techniques are mostly based on the use of ropes and
nets. These are some of the most widely used techniques currently,
including variations such as supporting nets with bamboo framing.
After attaching the right number or density of propagules of desired
characteristics to ropes or nets (“seeding”), planting consists of
placing these at sea at a given depth in a predetermined spatial
arrangement based on an optimized density of many plants per
area. Density is determined for each species based on the expected
size at harvest and other considerations by establishing the number
of plants within and between rows for ropes or the equivalent
parameters for nets. Both ropes and nets provide an adequate
substrate for the cultivation of seaweeds, though their success in
this role often depends on the type of fabric being used.
They are a customizable component of farming infrastructure, and
their use allows for varying lengths and widths of plots for a variety
of situations, both floating and submerged. They are also accessible,
being generally available, low cost, and light yet durable and flexible
- critical characteristics for withstanding deployment in the marine
environment. The desired spatial arrangement of “seeded” ropes - 55MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
or lines- and nets is obtained by holding them in place and depth
through two main methods, depending on the depth to the floor or
the bottom.
5.2 Net Technique
It is the first commercially adapted technique of seaweed farming. The
planting unit is a rectangular net measuring 2.5m × 5m with a diagonal
meshwork having a 25 cm bar length. The net is made up of monofilament
nylon or stranded polypropylene lines (110-150 lbs test) for the margin
and 30-100 lbs test for the meshwork. The nets are installed horizontally
their corners, provided with loops, are tied to stakes or wire stretched
between the stakes. Each net unit has 127 mesh intersections. Seedlings
are tied at these places using soft plastic straws (tie-tie). The net farming
method has the advantage of intensive production because more plants
can be grown in a given area.
5.3 Floating Bamboo Technique
Tie each corner of a 2.5m × 5m net to a with an evelon cord so that the
net is stretched tightly. Cut a one-meter piece of bamboo and tie one
piece to each corner of the net. Add an additional net to the previously
constructed one (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1: Floating bamboo technique 56MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Optionally, you may install a mangrove stake bipod and tripod 6 meters
apart in rows with 11 bipods or tripods in each row (Figure 5.2). The rows
should be 6 m apart (11 rows can hold 20 nets) (BFAR Handouts). Attach
2.5m × 5m net to the bipods and tripods. Make sure all nets are stretched
tightly and are at least 2 feet above the bottom but below the lowest tide
level.
Figure 5.2: Mangrove stakes and nets
5.4 Bottom Monoline Technique
This is cheaper to establish, easier to maintain and not so prone to
surface weather conditions as compared to the raft method. This method
consists of modules which are units of planting in a hectare. A module has
28 monolines (single line), each measuring 30 ft (9.8 m) in length. About 36
plants can be tied to a monoline. A hectare of 35 modules consequently
contains 35,000 plants, with about 1000 plants per module. A typical
bottom monoline is shown in Figure 5.3.
Procedures followed in the construction of monoline:
• Using a mallet, drive wooden posts to the bottom one meter
apart in rows and 10 meters between rows.
• Tie nylon monolines at both ends of the posts, parallel to each
other. 57MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
• The distance of the line from the bottom should be about 20-25
cm (8-10 inches).
Figure 5.3: Bottom monoline technique
Technological interventions in seaweed farming are low as compared to
crop plants. There is ample opportunity for technological interventions
in seaweed farming in India, not only for harvesting but also for farming
technologies and seeding practices as well. A triangular raft design
(Figure 5.4) to achieve higher yield is one such intervention. The study
(Mantri et al., 2015) describes the utility of triangular raft design and the
cluster arrangement in improving the yield of commercially important
agarophytes Gracilaria edulis. This simple modular design is cost-effective,
expandable, requires no specialized skills to assemble and could be easily
practiced at the individual level.
Figure 5.4: Triangular raft design 58MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Although the average daily growth rate achieved in the triangular raft (5.01
± 0.64 % per day) was quite comparable to conventional square rafts (4.58
± 0.25 % per day), the biomass yield per square meter in the former was
considerably higher (68.77 %) than the latter. The mean drag coefficient
values were 1.726 and 2.51 for triangular and rectangular configurations,
respectively. Thus, the triangular configuration was subjected to less
force on the front face (more stable) than the rectangular configuration.
Changing the orientation of the raft helps in augmenting yield during the
lean period. Altering the positioning of rafts from horizontal to vertical
alignment improved the growth and yield under open sea conditions at
two different locations along the southeastern coast of India.
5.5 Other Cultivation Techniques
Other cultivation techniques include planting directly on the sea bottom
in a manner similar to planting on land, such that farms resemble natural
kelp forests and seaweed prairies. Given the distinct tendency of kelp-
type seaweeds to grow several meters tall in temperate waters, the term
“forest” is used to describe their occurrence; however, most seaweeds
that cover extensive bottom surfaces are much shorter and resemble
prairies more than forests. While this approach is limited to shallow coastal
waters where sufficient sunlight reaches the bottom, its proponents
argue that cultivated seaweed forests and prairies can act as carbon
sinks and provide additional ecosystem services (Chung et al., 2013).
Other bottom-planting modalities include rock-based culture practiced
with Eucheuma spinosum on western Indian Ocean coasts, tying seaweed
cuttings with an elastic band to rocks, which after a few weeks establish
their own fixation points (De San, 2012), and planting seaweed propagules
directly on the seabed or using artificial substrates placed on the floor, as
has been described for Gracilaria farming in Chile (Hernández-Rodríguez
et al., 2001). Tank and pond seaweed culture, often considered small-scale
though intensive, can have large-scale applications. Schemes for very
large marine seaweed farms in deserts by the sea have been proposed
(FAO, 2010). One of the more ambitious ones is The Green Desert Project
(GDP), a concept for regreening coastal flatlands of deserts (Garcia Reina, 59MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
2010; FAO, 2010) that consists of IMTA modules that can include fish,
seaweeds, shrimp, microalgae, molluscs, cyanobacteria, worms, halophytic
land plants, and other organisms, depending on market considerations,
local species, and local conditions in each farm (Shpigel, 2013).
To take advantage of extensive ocean areas, it makes sense to consider
seaweed production on the open sea on a much larger scale. Large adrift
culture rafts for free-floating cultivation have been proposed (Notoya,
2010), whether resembling growth on the Sargasso Sea or using an
unanchored structure that holds shape on its own with seaweeds seeded
on ropes or nets. This can be implemented particularly in gyres, where
the farms will be largely kept in place by currents and /or to clean and
recover hypoxic ocean areas. If structures that hold shape on their own
are utilized, then single-point moorings can be used, possibly regardless
of the depth to the bottom.
Seaweed nutrition can be enhanced by artificial upwelling (e.g., as in
Maruyama et al., 2011). Issues such as dewatering and processing at sea
are under development. Energy conversion processes, able to make use
of wet biomass, have also been proposed, such as anaerobic digestion to
methane, fermentation to ethanol or butanol, and several processes of
thermal decomposition (Pickett et al., 2008 & Roesijadi et al., 2010).
5.6 Good Management Practices in Seaweed Cultivation
The faculty should discuss in this part, in detail, the dos and don’ts of
seaweed cultivation. This should be preferably demonstrated practically
on the site, if possible. The faculty should also emphasize a detailed
reading of the references in this section. The various good management
practices for the techniques discussed above are given in Tables 5.1 to
5.4. 60MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
(a) Bamboo raft technique
Table 5.1: (a) Bamboo raft technique
Hollow bamboo poles of 3-4”
diameter for a 3.6m x 3.6m main
frame and 1.2m x1.2m diagonals
must be chosen and attached using
4 mm rope.
Bamboo with natural holes, fissures,
and so on must be rejected.
3 mm or 3.5 mm polypropylene
twisted rope can be cut into 20 bits
each ranging in length from 4.0 - 4.5
m for seeding.
HDPE fishing nets that have been
damaged must be rejected. 61MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Cut the long braider into 20 pieces
(for 20 plantation ropes) so that 400
pieces of HDPE braider with a length
of 25 cm each can be made.
Damaged ropes have to be rejected.
Each braider should be twined at
15 cm intervals (on the 4.5 m length
polypropylene twisted plantation
rope). This allows 0.5 m on either
side for fastening on the pole.
Damaged braiders have to be
rejected.
To keep seaweeds from grazing, a
used HDPE fishing net 4x4 m must
be fastened to the raft bottom using
2mm rope.
Unhealthy seeds should be rejected. 62MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Seeding should be done on the
beach or on land, ideally in the
shade.
Seed material should not be placed
in open places which are exposed
to direct sunlight, rain, temperature,
and humidity fluctuations. This
would impact the quality of seed
material.
A cluster of five rafts is connected by
6 mm rope. The cluster is positioned
at near shore region having depth
of 1.0 to 1.5. This is done using a 30
kg anchor tied with 12-14 mm rope.
400 rafts of 12 x 12 feet size are
excellent for one hectare of land.
This allows for adequate space
between the rafts for proper
seawater circulation, maintenance,
and other farm operations.
Seedlings brought from other
districts/states should be placed in
a clean net bag and stored at the
bottom of the sea (1-2 m depth) for a
few days before planting.
Total of 150-200 gm of seaweed
fragments are tied at 15 cm intervals
throughout the length of the rope.
A total of 20 seaweed fragments
are linked together in a single rope,
and 20 of these ropes are strung
together in a raft. The seed needed
for this is 60-80 kg.
Source: Johnson et al., 2023a 63MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
(b) Monoline technique
Based on the location, the dimensions of the monoline units will vary.
The procedure followed in the Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu is
depicted below in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Monoline technique
Casuarina/eucalyptus poles of 3-4” in
diameter and 10 feet in length, free
of natural holes, fissures, and so on,
should be chosen.
Poles with natural holes, fissures,
and other damage should be
refused.
Four casuarina poles of the above
dimensions are placed at 10-20 feet
intervals in each corner for one unit.
The seaweed seedling rope is
linked on two sides with a 6 mm
rope.
Total of 150-200 gm of seaweed
fragments are tied at 15 cm intervals
throughout the length of the rope
(6.75m).
Each rope has floats tied to it to
increase its floatability. 64MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
The total seed consumption per
monoline unit is 60-80 kg.
A single rope is made up of 40
seaweed bits.
The monoline is oriented parallel to
the water movement or beach. This
protects seaweeds and casuarina
poles. It also reduces the attachment
of floating debris.
One segment (120 feet long and
20 feet wide) equals ten monoline
units (in terms of production, one
monoline unit equals one raft).
Source: Johnson et al., 2023a 65MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
(c) Tube net technique
Table 5.3: (c) Tube net technique
Tube nets (25 m length, 10 cm
diameter) can be produced from HDPE
food-grade nets (1.5 cm mesh size).
Damaged nets should be rejected.
The tube nets are held floating in
the water column below the surface.
A sufficient number and size of
floats are placed at regular intervals.
Anchor stones (about 30 kg) are
used at each end to hold the tube
nets steady in the water column; if
required, additional anchors can be
fixed in between.
A 15 kg fresh-weight seed material is
put into the tubes using a 1.0 - 1.5 m
long plastic pipe that acts as a funnel or
hopper. For efficient seeding, the pipe
diameter should be slightly smaller than
that of the tube net. The plastic pipe
is inserted into the tube net, and the
entire tube is pulled down so that the
mouth of the plastic pipe stands out
of the tube. The tube net is carefully
pushed down from the bottom of the
plastic pipe, so that seedling material is
placed into the tube sequentially, with
no gaps between the seedlings. This
technique is repeated until the entire
tube net has been seeded with algal
biomass. The tube nets are closed at
both ends with rope to prevent material
from being lost. 66MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
(d) Sea cage-based tube net technique
The first activity involves site selection and installation of sea cages by
stocking them up with marine finfish species. Preparation of the tube net
for installation in the cage should be done using fishing nets of square
mesh (10 mm) of 5 m length and 12-15 cm diameter. An average of 1000 gm
of good-quality seed material can be placed in each net tube. PVC pipe
cut-outs are placed at regular intervals of 45 cm to maintain the firmness
of the tube net structure. The ends of the tube nets should be tied to
the cage rings to hold the structure steady in the water column. A total
of 5 tube nets of 5 m in length for one sea cage of diameter 6 m can be
installed. The process is depicted in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Sea cage-based tube net technique
Selection of seaweed planting
material.
Tube-net preparation in
process.
Installation of prepared tube-net
inside the cage.
Tying of the ends of the tube
net to the cage ring. 67MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Readings
1. B Johnson, G. Tamilmani, D. Divu, Suresh Kumar Mojjada. Sar
Megarajan, Shubhadeep Ghosh, Mohammed Koya, M. Muktha, Boby
Ignatius and A. Gopalakrishnan (2024). Analysis of bycatches from
mid-water trawl fishery targeting ribbonfish Trichiurus lepturus
on the north-west coast of India. ISSN 0972-2351, CMFRI, Special
Publication No. 148.
2. B. Johnson, R. Narayankumar, A.K. Abdul Nazar, P. Kaladharan and G.
Gopakumar(2018), Economic analysis of farming and wild collection
of seaweeds in Ramanthapuram District, Tamil Nadu. ICAR- Central
Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi-682018, Kerala, India.
3. CMFRI Bulletin. 1987. Seaweed Research and Utilization in India,
PSBR James, 128p
4. Economic analysis of farming and wild collection of seaweeds in
Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu (2018) B. Johnson, R. Narayana
Kumar, A. K. Abdul Nazar, P. Kaladharan and G. Gopakumar, ICAR-
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi - 682 018, Kerala,
India.
5. FRAD, CMFRI. (2022). Marine Fish Landings in India 2021. Technical
Report, CMFRI Booklet Series No. 26/2022. Published by Dr. A
Gopalkrishan, ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute,
Kochi.
6. Godaro L. Juanich. (2020). Manual of Running Water Fish Culture,
Regional Fisherman’s Training Centre, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources Region VII https://dof.gov.in/sites/default/files/2020-07/
Seaweed_Cultivation.pdf
7. Gopalakrishnan, A., C. N. Ravishankar, P. Pravin and J. K. Jena.
(2020). “ICAR Technologies: High-Value Nutraceutical and Nutritional
Products from Seaweeds”. Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi, India. 22 p. 68MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
8. Johnson, B., Divu, D., Jayasankar, Reeta, Ranjith, L., Dash,
Gyanaranjan, Megarajan, Sekhar, Edward, Loveson, Ranjan, Ritesh,
Muktha, M., Xavier, Biji, Rajesh, N., Ratheesh Kumar, R., Anuraj, A.,
Suresh Babu, P. P., Ramkumar, S., Chellappan, Anulekshmi, Nakhawa,
A. D., Koya, Mohammed, Ghosh, Shubhadeep, Loka, Jayasree,
Jayakumar, R., Nazar, A. K. A., Asokan. (2023). Quantitative Screening
of Phytochemicals of five Red Seaweeds from the Northern Kerala
Coast, India. Published by P. Anantharaman, DOI: 10.56557/
upjoz/2023/v44i23379, pp 302-311.
9. Mantri, V. A., Ashok, K., Saminathan, K., Rajasankar, J., & Harikrishna,
P. (2015). Concept of triangular raft design: Achieving higher yield
in Gracilaria edulis. Aquacultural Engineering, 69, 1–6. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.aquaeng.2015.08.002
10. National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS). (2003). “Seaweed
Cultivation and Utilization”. Published by M. Vijaya Kumar, policy
paper: 22, 5 p.
11. P. K., Kaladharan, P., Rohit, Prathibha, Mojjada, Suresh Kumar, Satish
Kumar, M., Ignatius, Boby, Singh, V. V. and Gopalakrishnan, A. (2020).
“Preliminary estimates of potential areas for seaweed farming along
the Indian coast”. Marine Fisheries Information Service, Technical
and Extension Series, 246. pp 14-28.
12. Post, A. (2021). Technological Interventions in seaweed farming in
India. Aqua Post.
13. Ricardo Radulovich, Amir Neori, Diego Valderrama, C.R.K. Reddy, Holly
Cronin, John Forster, (2015). “Farming of seaweeds”. Brijesh K. Tiwari
Declan J. Troy (Eds.), Seaweed Sustainability Food and Non-Food
Applications, P. 27-59. 6
ModuleModule
Harvesting and
Post-Harvest
Handling of
Seaweed 70MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
6
At the end of this module, you will be able to understand-
• Harvesting of seaweed- partial and total harvests
• Commercial harvest of seaweeds along the Southeast Indian Coasts
• Post-harvest handlinzg of seaweed
6.1 Harvesting of Cultivated Seaweeds
Harvesting cultivated seaweeds and bringing them to land is a key and
relatively costly aspect of sea farming. Harvesting the product and
bringing it to land or processing it at sea site should be discussed here
for different seaweed species. Depending on the scale of the operation,
the methods employed vary substantially, from manually bringing in an
armful load on foot from intertidal off-bottom plantings to mechanized
harvesting of floating line plantings from large barges in deeper waters.
In many ways, farmed seaweed harvesting is analogous to harvesting
from agriculture operations - varying according to the crop being farmed
and its intended use, the scale of the operation, available technology,
and sea and weather conditions.
6.1.1 Harvesting of Seaweed- Partial and Total Harvests
Depending on the crop being produced or the cultivation technique,
harvesting may be total or partial. Total harvests include ropes
or nets and the seaweed material, as is done with Saccharina,
Eucheuma, and Kappaphycus.
In partial harvests, only new growth from the initial planting or the
previous harvest is taken, leaving behind sufficient material from
each plant for regrowth, allowing for multiple harvests, as is done
with several species, including Pyropia (Porphyra), Gracilaria, and
Sargassum (Hurd et al., 2014).
Differences in harvesting techniques occur for several reasons. A
total harvest may be required at the end of the growing season
when maximum growth has been achieved and /or to avoid the
crop suffering negative effects from seasonal changes. Another
reason, as applied to Eucheuma and Kappaphycus , is that although 71MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
harvesting may occur at 45-60 day intervals throughout the year,
the highest accumulations of carrageenan are normally found in
older tissue. Harvested lines holding these seaweeds are often
passed through a hole (line stripper), where all material is removed
from the rope. Therefore, taking all the seaweed material, rather
than just new growth, makes sense to obtain all the older tissue
(Valderrama et al., 2013).
Partial harvest, in contrast, allows for several harvests of up to 4
years with Sargassum (Redmond et al., 2014a) without replanting,
substantially decreasing farming costs. Partial and frequent
harvesting also allows farmers to count on several crops per year,
avoiding complete losses of a single crop while decreasing the
compounding effects of epiphytic and epizootic fouling and other
biotic stresses.
Frequent harvests also allow farmers to take advantage of varying
market conditions by managing the supply of produce when demand
is high, although seaweed maturity considerations are important
(Barta, 2008).
When farming for food, tender tissue obtained by clipping off
new growth often has better gastronomic characteristics than
older tissue; “hard” seaweed pieces were a common negative
comment from testing panels trying different seaweed food recipes
(Radulovich et al., 2015).
Hand harvesting produces the highest quality material, partly
because of the opportunity for on-site removal of sea-borne
contaminants (fouling, opportunistic animals and epiphytes, sea
debris). Although machine harvesting is faster, it may require more
careful off-site separation of undesired material from the harvested
crop before use or processing.
Large seaweed farming operations use a variety of mechanical
harvesters, including winches and cranes, mounted on large boats 72MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
or barges to remove the complete planting setup or just the desired
new growth from lines and nets. Some harvester barges bring
several ropes aboard at a time or one or two nets, through either
motorized or hand operation, scraping most of the growth by hand
or through mechanical cutters and placing the lines or nets back for
regrowth. Once the boat or barges reach shore, cranes may be used
to unload the harvested material, including lines or nets in total
harvest operations, placing it on carts, trucks, or conveyor belts to
bring it to facilities for cleaning and processing.
6.1.2 Commercial Harvest of Seaweeds along the Southeast
Indian Coasts
According to FAO (2014), global seaweed harvests from wild stocks
varied between 1.0 and 1.3 million tonnes from 2000 to 2009.
Unlike Southeast Asian countries, Indian seaweed industries rely
heavily on wild harvests for phycocolloid production. Gelidiella
acerosa (Forsskal) Feldmann & Hamel, and Gracilaria edulis (S.G.
Gmelin) P.C. Silva are harvested for agar production. At the same
time, Sargassum spp. and Turbinaria spp. are the source material for
alginate production.
The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay coasts are highly productive
regions for commercially collecting agarophytes and alginophytes. A
long and wide coral reef (140 km length), running along the southern
side of the 20 islands of the Gulf of Munnar, supports luxuriant
growth of seaweeds, especially Sargassum spp., Turbinaria spp. and
G. acerosa. Similarly, the shallow and silty Palk Bay coast harbours
rich growth of Gracilaria salicornia (C. Agardh) and G. edulis.
Harvesting techniques include cutting erect fronds from mono-
specific patches of the targeted seaweed. Harvesting takes
approximately 12 days per month during spring tides. In the Gulf of
Mannar, 1555 fisherfolk from 14 coastal villages are known to harvest
seaweeds, including 1270 women and 285 men. 73MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Along the Palk Bay coast, 670 fisherfolk from 24 villages harvest
seaweeds. Among them, 460 are women and 210 are men. In India,
seaweed gathering is traditionally considered a job for women and
teenagers. They earn an average annual income of US $1000.
Seaweed harvesting is seasonal work and helps people earn
additional income for their families. Once the seaweed collection
season ends, fisherfolk shift their efforts towards fishing and
allied jobs. Harvested seaweeds are dried on the shore and sold
to industry buyers. Gelidiella acerosa is USD $1800 per dry tonne;
Gracilaria spp, Sargassum and Turbinaria value is approximately US
$800 per dry tonne.
The harvested seaweeds are used to produce hydrocolloids,
including agar and alginates, by 33 industrial firms. Harvesting of
Gelidiella acerosa and Gracilaria edulis from 2005 to 2016 resulted in
a gradual depletion of natural resources due to over-exploitation,
whereas Sargassum spp. and Turbinaria spp. landings exhibited an
irregular value trend.
Over-harvesting of seaweeds directly affects marine biodiversity,
particularly in the abundance of motile invertebrates, fish and other
animals occupying higher trophic levels (Migné et al. 2014; Phillippi
et al. 2014).
Over-harvesting can negatively impact recruitment and reduce
contributions to the marine carbon cycle (Levitt et al. 2002). Intertidal
and subtidal seaweeds dominate the habitat and strongly influence
community recruitment (Thompson et al., 2010).
6.2 Post-Harvest Handling of Seaweed
Seaweeds are ready for harvest in 45 days. The harvested seaweed rafts/
monolines must be placed over the tarpaulin sheets to avoid contamination
by sand/silt. To limit contamination, drying gathered seaweeds on sand
should be avoided. Seaweed harvested must be dried on raised drying
platforms. Impurities such as stones, shells, and other foreign matter can 74MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
be cleansed when drying. Harvested and dried seaweeds must be covered
with tarpaulin sheets during rainy seasons. After drying, seaweeds can
be put in sacks and stored in a clean, dry environment. Deep or wet
seaweeds are shipped to industries for commercial use.
6.2.1 Storage and Transportation of Seaweed
The factors affecting seaweed during storage and transportation
will be discussed here. They are as follows:
Personal health and hygiene - Personnel should be healthy when
handling seaweed for human consumption. Personnel feeling ill and
potentially contaminating the product should not be handling the
seaweed. Personnel should maintain good hygiene while handling
products and equipment and wash hands frequently.
Washing - Seaweed should be rinsed at harvest with filtered
seawater to remove debris and marine life that could result in
product deterioration.
Exposure - Seaweed should be covered to avoid excessive
exposure to wind and sun and prevent premature drying, which
could increase quality deterioration.
Storage - Seaweed should not be packed tightly into storage
containers; it should be kept “fluffy” with room for air circulation.
Blanching - Seaweed should be stabilized by blanching or drying
as soon as possible, ideally within 48 hours of harvest.
• Packaging and storage.
• Place the seaweed in the sack after drying.
• Never mix seaweed of different varieties in one sack.
• Weigh the sacked seaweed to keep a record and put markings
on the sacks.
• Store seaweed in a dry, well-ventilated storage area [2].
Transport - Before delivery and selling, weigh the sacked seaweed
and contact prospective buyers about the current buying price.
Look for a buyer who is trustworthy and dependable. Avoid contact
of dried seaweed with water (rain or seawater) during transport, as
this reduces seaweed quality. 75MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Besides, the faculty should also discuss the equipment and facilities
required for storing and transporting seaweed and the measures to
be taken during storage and transport to ensure the quality of the
harvested seaweed. The correct practices of stacking, storing and
transporting the harvested and dried seaweed are given in Figur e
6.1.
Figure 6.1: Storage and transportation of seaweed
Readings
1. Barta, P. (2008). Indonesia got soaked when the seaweed bubble
burst. Wall St. J., October 21. Retrieved from: http://online.wsj.com/
news/articles/SB122454073909251775. On 18 June 2024
2. Breton, Y. (Ed.) (2006). Coastal Resource Management in the Wider
Caribbean: Resilience, Adaptation and Community Diversity. Ian
Randle Publishers, IDRC, Kingston, Ottawa.
3. Caam, C. D. (2016). Seaweed Farming, Post Harvest and Production.
https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12263109_05.pdf
4. Chung, I.K., Oak, J.H., Lee, J.A., Shin, J.A., Kim, J.G., Park, K.S. (2013).
Installing kelp forests/seaweed beds for mitigation and adaptation
against global warming: Korean project overview. ICES J. Marine Sci.
70, 1038-1044. 76MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
5. Ciaramella, M. (2022). Best Practices for Maintaining Quality in
Seaweed. https://seagrant.sunysb.edu/Images/Uploads/PDFs/
rapidresponse/Seafood-Guide-Seaweed-II.pdf
6. De San, M. (2012). The Farming of Seaweeds. Indian Ocean Commission,
Mauritius.
7. FAO (2010). Algae-based biofuels: applications and co-products.
Climate, Energy and Tenure Division Publication 44. FAO, Rome, Italy.
8. Garcia Reina, G.B. (2010). Green Desert Project. Retrieved from: www.
aquafuels.eu. On 18 June 2024.
9. Hernández-Rodríguez, A.C., Alceste-Oliviero, R., Sanchez, D., Jory,
L., Vidal, M., Constain Franco, L.F. (2001). Aquaculture development
trends in Latin America and the Caribbean. In: Subasinghe, R.P.,
Bueno, P., Phillips, M.J., Hough, C., McGladdery, S.E., Arthur, J.R.
(Eds.), Aquaculture in the Third Millennium. Technical Proceedings
of the Conference on Aquaculture in the Third Millennium. Bangkok,
Thailand. NACA, Bangkok and FAO, Rome, pp. 317-340.
10. Hurd, C.L., Harrison, P.J., Bischof, K., Lobban, C.S. (2014). Seaweed
Ecology and Physiology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
11. Indian centre for climate and societal impacts research (ICCSIR).
(n.d.). Iccsir.org. Retrieved June 18, 2024, from https://www.iccsir.org/
seaweed_cultivation.html
12. Levitt, G.J., R.J. Anderson, C.J.T. Boothroyd and F.A. Kemp. (2002).
The effects of kelp harvesting on its re growth and the un destroyed
benthic community at Danger Point, South Africa, and a new method
of harvesting kelp fronds. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 24: 71–85.
13. Maruyama, S., Yabuki, T., Sato, T., Tsubaki, K., Komiya, A., Watanabe,
M., Kawamura, H., Tsukamoto, K. (2011). Evidence of increasing primary
production in the ocean by Stommel’s perpetual salt fountain. Deep
Sea Res. Oceanogr. Res. Pap. 58, 567-574.
14. Migné, A., C. Golléty and D. Davoult. (2014). Effect of canopy removal 77MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
on a rocky shore community metabolism and structure. Mar. Biol. 162:
449-457.
48. Msuya, F. (2011). The impact of seaweed farming on the socioeconomic
status of coastal communities in Zanzibar. Tanzania World Aqua. 42
(3), 45-48.
49. Msuya, F.E., Porter, M. (2014). Impact of environmental changes on
farmed seaweed and farmers: the case of Songo Island, Tanzania. J.
Appl. Phycol. 26, 2135-2141.
50. Notoya, M. (2010). Production of biofuel by macro-alga with preservation
of marine resources and environment. In: Einav, R., Israel, A. (Eds.),
Role of Seaweeds in Future Globally Changing Environments, Volume
15, Part 5 in Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology.
Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 217-228.
51. Phillippi, A., K. Tran, and A. Perna. (2014). Does intertidal canopy
removal of Ascophyllum nodosum alter the community structure
beneath? J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 461: 53-60.
52. Pickett, J., Anderson, D., Bowles, D., Bridgwater, T., Jarvis, P., Mortimer,
N., Poliakoff, M., Woods, J. (2008). Sustainable Biofuels: Prospects
and Challenges. Policy Document 01/08. The Royal Society, London,
UK.
53. Radulovich, R., Umanzor, S., Cabrera, R., & Mata, R. (2015). Tropical
seaweeds for human food, their cultivation, and its effect on
biodiversity enrichment. Aquaculture, 436, 40-46.
54. Reddy, C. R. K., Jha, B., Fujita, Y., & Ohno, M. (2009). Seaweed
micropropagation techniques and their potentials: an overview. In
Nineteenth International Seaweed Symposium (pp. 159–167). Springer
Netherlands.
55. Redmond, S., Green, L., Yarish, C., Kim, J., Neefus, C. (2014b). New
England Seaweed Culture Handbook: Nursery Systems. Connecticut
Sea Grant, USA. 78MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
56. Redmond, S., Lindsay, Yarish, C., & Jang Neefus, C. (2014). New
England Seaweed Culture Handbook.
57. Roesijadi, G., Jones, S.B., Snowden-Swan, L.J., Zhu, Y. (2010). Macro-
algae as a biomass feedstock: a preliminary analysis. Report PNNL-
19944 prepared for the US Department of Energy. Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory, Richland, Washington.
58. Russell, G., & Barnes, H. (1986). Variation and natural selection in
marine macroalgae. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 24. Oceanography and Marine
Biology: An Annual Review, 24, 309-377.
59. Shpigel, M. (2013). Mariculture systems integrated land-based. In:
Christou, P., Savin, R., Costa-Pierce, B., Misztal, I., Whitelaw, B. (Eds.),
Sustainable Food Production. Springer, New York, NY, pp. 1111-1120.
60. Teitelbaum. A. (2011). Farming Seaweed in Kiribati: A Practical Guide
for Seaweed Farmers. Secretariat of the Pacific Community
61. Valderrama, D., Cai, J., Hishamunda, N., Reidler, N., Neish, I.C., Hurtado,
A.Q., Msuya, F.E., Krishnan, M., Narayanakumar, R., Kronen, M., Robledo,
D., Gasca-Leyva, E., Fraga, J. (2015). The economics of Kappaphycus
seaweed cultivation in developing countries: a comparative analysis
of farming systems. Aqua. Eco. Manage. 19, 251-277.
62. Valderrama, Diego & Cai, (2015). The Economics of Kappaphycus
Seaweed Cultivation in Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis
of Farming Systems. Aquaculture Economics & Management. 19. 251-
277. 10.1080/13657305.2015.1024348.
63. Valderrama, Diego & Cai, (2015). The Economics of Kappaphycus
Seaweed Cultivation in Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis
of Farming Systems. Aquaculture Economics & Management. 19. 251-
277. 10.1080/13657305.2015.1024348.
64. Vasquez J. (1995). Ecological Effects of Brown Seaweed Harvesting.
Botanica Marina 7
ModuleModule
Products
Derived from
Seaweed &
Market 80MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
7
At the end of this module, you will be able to understand-
• The different segments of the market.
• Companies marketing seaweeds.
• Different products possible from the processing of seaweed.
• Identification and generation of the market for seaweed.
• Calculate the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) for the seaweed cultivation
operations.
7.1 Market Segmentation
India’s seaweed market is segmented based on type, cultivation method,
form, and application. The market is divided into brown, red, and green
seaweeds. Based on the cultivation method, the market is divided into
single rope floating raft method, fixed bottom long thread method, and
integrated multi-trophic aquaculture. Based on form, the market is divided
into liquid and dry. Based on application, the market is divided into human
consumption and non-human consumption.
Aquagri Processing Pvt Ltd., Sea6 Energy, Tata Chemicals, Coromandel
International Ltd., Mars Petcare Company, HiMedia Laboratories Pvt.
Ltd, Snap Natural and Alginate Products Pvt. Ltd. are the key players
operating in the India seaweed market.
The faculty should teach how to calculate the benefit-cost ratio for
seaweed cultivation based on the economics discussed in earlier
modules. BCR is a means of assessing the degree to which the benefit of
a particular project exceeds the costs.
• BCR<1: the net present value of the project is negative and the
internal rate of return (IRR) of the project is below the discount
rate.
• BCR=1: the project will neither create nor destroy value. The
project’s net present value is zero, and the project’s internal rate
of return (IRR) is the same as the discount rate.
• BCR>1: the project will generate incremental value. The net value
of the project exceeds zero, and the project’s internal rate of
return (IRR) is greater than the discount rate. 81MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
7.2 Identification and Generation of Market for Seaweed
The faculty should provide thorough insights into indigenous seaweed
identification and market generation through effective research and
development (R&D).
7.3 Products Derived from Seaweeds
7.3.1 Agar
Agar is the major cell-wall constituent of certain red algae, especially
the members of Gelidiaceae, Gelidiellaceae and Gracilariaceae. It is
extracted from Gelidiella acerosa, Gracilaria edulis, G. crassa, G. foliifera,
G. verrucosa and species of Gelidium, Pterocladia and Ahenfeltia.
Agar is used for gelling and thickening in the confectionery and
bakery industries and as a stabilizer for the preparation of cheese
and salad dressings. In the fish and meat processing industry, agar
is applied for canned products as a protective coating against the
effect of metal containers and against shaking while transporting
these products. Agar is also a clarifying agent in wines, beer, and
liquors. In the pharmaceutical industry, agar is used as a laxative
for chronic constipation, a drug vehicle, and a medium for bacterial
and fungal cultures. Agar is an ion exchanger and is used in the
manufacture of ion exchange resins. In the cosmetic industry, agar is
a constituent of skin creams and ointments. Agar is also a finishing
and sizing agent in the paper and textile industries.
7.3.2 Carrageenan
Carrageenan is a sulphated galactan polymer obtained from
various red seaweeds belonging to Gigartinaceae, Solieriaceae and
Hypneaceae. It differs mainly from agar in its higher sulphated fraction
and ash content. Chondrus crisous, Gigartina stellata, Iridaea spp.,
Eucheuma spp. and Kappaphycus spp. are the chief raw materials
used to extract carrageenan. In the food industry, carrageenan is
used in bakery, confectionery, and culinary purposes, especially
in preparing condiment products, syrups, whipped creams, ice 82MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
desserts, cheese, etc. Carrageenan is used to clarify beer, fruit
juices, and other beverages. Carrageenan improves the quality
of wheat flour in spaghetti and parotta making. The food sector
accounts for nearly 70% of the world market for carrageenan. In the
pharmaceutical industry, carrageenan is used as an emulsifier in cod
liver oil and emulsions as granulation and binding agents to tablets,
elixirs, cough syrups, etc. It is used extensively in ulcer therapy and
for diseases of blood vessels. Carrageenan is applied as a stabilizer
and thickening agent in toothpaste, skin ointments and solid air
fresheners in cosmetics. In the textile industry, hot water extracts
of carrageenan are used in printing designs with dye and act as
finishing and sizing agents. Carrageenan, also called Painter Moss,
has been used in paint manufacturing as a stabilizer for pigments.
They are also good as film-forming agents.
Carrageenan, which is recognised by its distinctive gelling qualities,
is used as an emulsifier and thickening in a wide range of consumer
products, including toothpaste, cosmetics, and ice cream, as well
as pet meals, drinks, pharmaceuticals, personal care items, and the
dairy industry. This adaptable seaweed-derived product has become
critical in various industries, and its use as an alternative to agar has
considerably increased commercial potential for carrageenophytes,
particularly post World War-II.
Chemically, carrageenan exhibits three major types, each associated
with distinct seaweed species:
• Beta Carrageenan: Produced by Betaphycus gelatinae (also
known as gelatinae in the trade).
• Biota Carrageenan: Produced by Eucheuma denticulatum (also
known as spinosum in the marketplace).
• Kappa Carrageenan: Produced by various species of the
Kappaphycus (trade name cottonii). 83MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Using carrageenan as a substitute for agar has significantly
increased the commercial viability of carrageenophytes, signalling
a fundamental shift in the seaweed sector. Global red seaweed
farming production has increased significantly over the years. In
the year 2000, production stood at 2 million freight tonnes (fr. t),
accounting for 21% of total cultivated seaweed production. By 2010,
this amount had increased dramatically to approximately 9 million
ft, accounting for 47% of total production. However, the increase in
commercial farming practices, particularly in tropical waterways, has
significantly contributed to the increased production of specialised
carrageenophytes. Kappaphycus and Eucheuma combined
production increased from 0.94 million fr. t in 2000, accounting for
48% of red seaweed farming, to an astonishing 5.6 million fr. t in
2010, accounting for 63% of overall production (Cai et al., 2013). This
transformative shift underscores the dynamic nature of seaweed
cultivation, with carrageenan-rich species playing a pivotal role in
shaping the industry’s landscape. The demand for carrageenan
in diverse applications across various sectors has driven the
expansion of carrageenophyte production, making it a cornerstone
in the global seaweed market.
7.3.3 Algin
Algin or alginic acid is a membrane mucilage and a major constituent
of all alginates. The various salts of alginic acid are termed “alginates”
(for example, sodium alginate, calcium alginate, etc.). Algin is used
as a collective name for alginic acid and alginates and as a trade
name for “sodium alginate”. Alginic acid and its salts with divalent
and trivalent metal ions are generally insoluble in water, while alkali
metal salts are water-soluble. Algin is obtained from brown seaweed
species such as Ecklonia, Macrocystis, Undaria, Laminaria and Durvillea
from temperate areas and Turbinaria, Sargassum, Cystoseira and
Hormophysa from the topical areas. The industrial method for the
manufacture of algin should be discussed here from ther references
(Kaliaperumal and Ramalingam, 2000). In the pharmaceutical 84MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
industry, algin is used as an emulsifier in watery emulsions with
fats, oils and waxes, as filler in the manufacture of tablets, pills and
as the base of any ointments. An alginate gauze is used as a blood-
stopping plaster. As a slimming agent, the alginate forms a jelly in the
stomach, producing the feeling of saturation. Ammonium alginate
wool is used as a filter for microorganisms in the laminar flow hood.
In cosmetic, detergent and soap-making industries, alginates serve
as thickening and dispersing agents in the production of ointments,
creams, liquid emulsions, lotions and toothpaste paste, as well as
an additive in hair dye, hair fixing tonics, shampoos, etc. due to the
ability of alginates to form films. Alginates increase the consistency
of shaving and creams; in dental technology, alginates are used
to make denture mouldings and fixatives. In food technology,
alginates improve baking properties, and they are constituents of
baking emulsions. Alginates are used to make sugar glazing, egg,
fruit, and other cream fillings and in confectionery to make imitation
fruits. Jelly products are made with water and insoluble alginates
(calcium alginates). In several countries, alginates are suggested as
a gelating agent for marmalades and jams. Alginates are extensively
used in dairy products such as cheese, creams, and milkshakes
mixed in chocolates, puddings, cold-prepared pudding powder, soft
cheese and custards. Alginates act as stabilizers in milk mixes and
impart uniform viscosity and good whipping ability. In beverages,
alginates are a clarifying agent for making wines and raw liquor of
sugar and molasses. Alginates act as foam stabilizers in lager beer
and malt beer. In the meat and sausage industry, meat and sausage
products are given a longer shelf life with an alginate film. Artificial
casings with an alginate base have been developed to make small
sausages, particularly for vegetarians. An alginate gel is used for
deep freezing of fish, meat, and poultry products, and this has been
patented in many Western countries. Alginate filaments are used
in the production of calcium alginate rayons. In ceramic and leather
industries, the addition of alginate stabilizes the pigment and 85MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
glazing suspensions for ceramic, porcelain, Chinaware, and leather
goods. Alginates have extensive applications in the textile industry,
particularly as a thickening agent for printing dyes and paints that
prevent smudging and promote quick drying and evenness of prints.
7.3.4 Mannitol
Mannitol is an important sugar alcohol of the hexite series found
in brown algae. Mannitol is a constituent of cell sap. It occurs also
as mannitan. The chief raw materials for the extraction of mannitol
are Fucus vesiculosus, Laminaria hyperborea, Ecklonia radiata,
Bifurcaria brassiformis, Sargassum spp , and Turbinaria spp. In the
extraction of mannitol, the dried brown seaweed materials are pre-
treated with dilute HCI (10-15%). The aqueous acid extract, after
neutralization, is evaporated to dryness. Mannitol and soluble
polysaccharides are extracted from this mixture of salts with
boiling methanol for 5 hours in the Hannen and Badum extractor.
The solution containing the extracted material can stand for 24
hours at 5 °C, and the crystalline mannitol precipitate is filtered and
dried before weighing. In the pharmacy, mannitol is used to produce
tablets. Mannitol is also used for making diabetic food, chewing
gum, etc. Mannitol is employed as dusting powder in the paint and
varnish, leather and paper, pyrotechnics, and in making explosives.
In organic synthesis and plastic production, mannitol is used as a
plasticizer for the production of resins.
7.3.5 Iodine
Iodine is extracted in small quantities from brown seaweeds in Japan,
Norway, and France and red seaweeds like Phyllophora nervosa
in Russia. As seaweeds are a good source to meet the dietary
requirement of iodine, goitre disease caused by iodine deficiency is
less prevalent in countries where marine algae form part of the diet.
The iodine occurs in seaweeds in readily available form, superior to
the mineral iodine. Some species of seaweeds, especially red and
brown varieties, can accumulate iodine and have a more concentrated 86MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
source. Laminaria, Phyllophora and Ecklonia are the seaweeds
from which iodine is extracted in Japan, Britain and other countries
(Kaliaperumal et. al., 1987).
7.4 Product Forms of Seaweed
The Raw Dried Seaweeds (RDS) and Carrageenan, either semi-refined
(SRC) or refined (RC), represent the seaweeds typically utilised in an
industrial form. In contrast, raw fresh seaweed (RFS), seaweed chips, and
seaweed noodles are typical of the seaweeds historically distributed in
food forms. Seaweeds have only recently been used as components of
pig and poultry feeds and fertilisers for agricultural crops.
Raw Fresh Seaweeds (RFS): The most fundamental type of seaweed is
RFS. These seaweeds are delivered to wet markets as soon as they are
harvested. RFS is offered raw as a primary element in fresh salads when
consumed as food.
Seaweed-Enriched Food Products: Popular value-added seaweed
products include seaweed chips and noodles. Both are prepared by
cooking flour strips, salt, raw, dried seaweed, and other ingredients.
Yet, the noodles appear considerably longer and thinner. Little packs of
seaweed chips are sold and are largely marketed towards youngsters for
use as snacks.
Raw Dried Seaweeds (RDS): RDS is what seaweed farmers often produce.
These seaweeds must be dried before being sold in the marketplace. They
serve as the main requirement of the carrageenan processing facilities
because they are employed largely for extracting carrageenan.
Carrageenan refined (RC): RDS is changed into RC or SRC. RC is the
name given to the pure hydrocolloid that is obtained by gel pressing
or alcohol precipitation from raw, dried Kappaphycus alvarezii, K.
striatum, and E. denticulatum seaweeds that are marketed as “cottonii”
and “spinosum”, respectively. With all kinds of carrageenan, alcohol
precipitation can be employed. However, the gel technique only works
with kappa-carrageenan. Alcohol-precipitated RC is frequently used in 87MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
relatively high-end applications like jams and meat products that demand
the preservation of the true colour of ingredients or goods. As a result, it
is more expensive than RC, which was gel-pressed.
Semi-Refined Carrageenan (SRC): SRC is a seaweed product produced
from RDS in a way that is significantly faster, whether it is food grade or
pet grade. Carrageenan is not extracted from seaweeds to make SRC;
rather, insoluble residues are acquired by alkali processing. After that,
the leftovers are dried, diced and ground into powder. Because of this,
SRC is significantly less expensive than RC but is mainly used for kappa-
carrageenan. The Philippines pioneered an energy-efficient method
of producing semirefined carrageenan, which is increasingly replacing
refined carrageenan in canned meat and pet meals. Industry dynamics:
over the previous decade, the carrageenan industry has shifted, with
a reduction in dairy applications (40 to 31%) and an increase in meat
processing (33 to 41%) (Bixler and Porse, 2011).
Feeds, Growth Promoters, and Fertilizer: Sun-dried, powdered brown
and green seaweeds are added to or utilised as ingredients in animal
feed. An effective natural fertiliser for palay and other crops, as well as
a pesticide and insecticide, sargassum spp. are carefully processed by
water extraction and fermentation to generate coffee-brown liquid.
Readings
1. Aquaculture Foundation of India (2008). Final report of the DBT
project: seaweed farming to rehabilitate tsunami affected coastal
communities in Tamil Nadu. Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of
Science and Technology, New Delhi, Government of India.
2. CMFRI (2015). Annual Report 2014-2015, Mariculture: Trial on Integrated
Multi Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) in a participatory mode, p. 219;
Kochi, India http://eprints.cmfri.org.in/10461 /1/CMFRI%20Annual%20
Report%202014-15.pdf as accessed on August 11, 2016. 88MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
3. Ghosh PK, Ghosh A, Mondal D, Prasad K, Agarwal PK, Agarwal
P, Zodape ST, Vijay Anand KG (2014a) Gibberellic acid (GA3) free
Kappaphycus alvarezii sap and its application thereof. PCT patent
application WO2014167583A1
4. Kaliaperumal, N. S. Kalimuthu and J. R. Ramalingan: i., (1995).
“Economically important seaweeds”. CMFRI Special Publication, 62:
1-36.
5. Kaliaperumal, N., V.S.K. Chennubhotla, S. Kalimuthu, J. R RamaIingam,
M . Selvaraj and M. Najmuddin ,(1987). “Chemical composition of
seaweeds”. CMFRI Bulletin, 41: 31 -51.
6. Mantri, V.A. et al. (2016) ‘An appraisal on commercial farming of
Kappaphycus Alvarezii in India: Success in diversification of livelihood
and prospects’, Journal of Applied Phycology, 29(1), pp. 335–357.
doi:10.1007/s10811-016-0948-7.
7. Mody KH, Ghosh PK, Barindra S, Gnanasekaran G, Shukla AD, Eswaran
K (2012) A process for integrated production of ethanol and seaweed
sap from Kappaphycus alvarezii. European Patent EP2475776 A1S
8. Prasad K, Sharma M, Mondal D, Singh N, Bhatt J (2015b) A scalable
process for liquid phase exfoliation of graphite to graphene using
biomass derived solvents. Indian Patent Application, 4344/DEL/ 2015 8
ModuleModule
Seaweed
Processing
for Diversified
Products 90MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
At the end of this module, you will be able to understand-
• Different processing technologies for seaweed with special reference
to MUZE processing.
• Diversified products from seaweed.
• The different types of seaweed that could be used in human food
products.
8.1 Single Stream and MUZE Processing of Seaweed
The most widely cultivated tropical red seaweeds are of the genera
Kappaphycus, Eucheuma, and Gracilaria, which enter commerce as raw
materials for hydrocolloid manufacture. Marine hydrocolloid applications
have manifested market growth on the order of 2% per annum over the
past two decades, so the markets for tropical red seaweeds have virtually
reached a plateau. Innovation in tropical red seaweeds agronomy will be
essential if biomass production is to achieve the qualities and quantities
required. As the industry evolves markets beyond those for hydrocolloid
raw material such as Multi-Stream, Zero-Effuent (MUZE) processing
has been developed to produce plant bio stimulant products from
Kappaphycus in India.
The traditional approach to extracting hydrocolloids from red seaweed has
led to the unfortunate waste of non-hydrocolloid components. However,
with the growing adoption of MUZE processing, tropical red seaweed
biomass is now being utilized to produce a diverse array of products,
minimizing waste. Comparison between the MUZE processing method
and the conventional single stream method has been done below (Fig.
10):
Both single-stream and MUZE processing methods involve starting with
fresh seaweed. However, in single-stream processing, the seaweeds are
typically dried in sunlight, packed, and transported to remote factories for
additional processing. On the other hand, MUZE processing begins near
the farm sites, where live seaweeds undergo initial processing stages,
thus creating added value in proximity to the farming communities. 91MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
In MUZE processing, the initial step typically involves extracting juice from
seaweed and separating it from the seaweed pulp. This is achieved using
equipment commonly found in the fruit and vegetable juice industries. The
extracted juice is often concentrated under reduced pressure to minimize
the transportation of low-solids liquid and to preserve the bioactive
components present. Additionally, the juice may undergo fractionation
to recover specific bioactive components like growth promoters and
phycobiliproteins. The remaining pulp can be further processed, either
in a wet or dry state, to produce hydrocolloids or other products such as
ingredients for animal feed, employing various methods. Both the juice
and pulp can then undergo a wide range of additional processing options.
For instance, the juice, which is abundant in potassium compounds, can
serve as a plant biostimulant or source for potash fertilizer.
In the single-stream processing method, the initial step involves cooking
the raw, dried seaweeds in an alkali solution. This is followed by a series of
processes that include recovery and dehydration. Refined hydrocolloids
are typically dissolved, clarified, and extracted by precipitating them in
alcohol or potassium prior to drying. Semi-refined hydrocolloids, on the
other hand, are maintained in a gel-like state throughout the processing
and are dried after undergoing a washing step. Once the hydrocolloids
are produced through single-stream processing, they are milled into
powder form and then blended into ingredient solutions to create final
products.
In a well-designed MUZE processing system, the primary waste generated
is typically water vapor, which is expelled during the liquid concentration
and drying stages. The freshwater obtained during the juice concentration
process can be recycled back into the processing system or can be
marketed and sold as a separate product.
During single-stream processing, water vapor is also produced, but
a significant amount of freshwater is often consumed throughout the
processing, particularly when producing semi-refined carrageenan (SRC),
which is the most widely produced carrageenan variant. The production 92MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
of each tonne of SRC can generate several tonnes of alkaline wastewater
with high chloride content, as well as high levels of biological oxygen
demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Additionally, waste
solids can arise from the clarification process of both wastewater and
refined carrageenan, leading to the substantial production of waste filter
cake.
The initial phases of MUZE processing for red seaweeds yield intermediate
products in the form of juice and dried pulp. These products serve as the
foundation for subsequent processing, which results in a diverse range
of final products. These include hydrocolloids, food and feed ingredients,
agricultural bio stimulants, renewable chemicals, biofuels, and as a by-
product of juice concentration, freshwater is also generated.
Fig. 8.1 Comparison of (A) single-stream processing as is prevalent for tropical
red seaweed processing as of 2016 and (B) multi-stream, zero-effuent
processing as it is being applied at present and developed for the future.
8.2 Product Diversification
The different products that could be derived from different types of
seaweed, their utility, and applications.
8.2.1 Nutraceuticals
Ongoing efforts in developing a biorefinery approach aim to
recover multiple products from fresh algal biomass, enhancing the 93MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
sustainability and utility of seaweed farming. There are various
health applications developed till date from seaweed. For example,
recent studies highlight the potential of K. alvarezii in preventing
diabetes. The dietary fibers derived from K. alvarezii exhibit
remarkable properties as bioactive agents. Specifically, these
fibers demonstrate a notable capacity to bind mutagenic amines.
This quality holds substantial implications for pharmaceutical
applications, hinting at the prospect of developing low-cost drugs
in the near future. By binding mutagenic amines, these fibers may
contribute to mitigating potential health risks associated with such
compounds. Some of the patents developed by CSMCRI are given in
Table 9. The faculty should discuss them in detail.
Table 8.1 Innovations developed by CSMCRI
Patent publication/
application number
Title
US Patent No.
6893479B2
Integrated method for production of carrageenan
and liquid fertilizer.
US Patent No.
6858430B1
An improved process for cultivation of algae
US Patent No.
20050220975 A1
Low sodium salt of botanic origin.
US Patent No.
7067568B1
Process of preparation of biodegradable films
from semirefined kappa-carrageenan.
PCT Publication No.
EP2475776 A1
A process for integrated production of ethanol
and seaweed sap from Kappaphycus alvarezii.
US Patent No.
8252359B2
Method for the preparation of refreshing drink
and use thereof.
PCT Publication No.
WO2014027368 A3
Process for improved seaweed biomass
conversion for fuel intermediates and fertilizer.
PCT Publication No.
WO2014167583 A1
K. alvarezii sap free of gibberellic acid (GA3) and
its method of preparation. 94MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Patent publication/
application number
Title
Patent Application
No. US2015/ 0274942
Biodegradable hydrophobic composite materials
and process for the preparation thereof
(multifunctional hydrophobic ropes)
PCT Publication No.
WO2015/ 087356 A1
A device for efficient and cost-effective
seaweed harvesting for large-scale commercial
applications
Besides, various seaweed-based nutraceutical products developed
by ICAR-CMFRI are as follows:
• Green Algal extract to combat rheumatic arthritic pains
• Antidiabetic extract for use against Type II diabetes
• Antihypercholesterolemic extract for dyslipidemia
• Antihypothyroidism extract to combat hypothyroid disorders
• Antihypertensive extract for use against hypertension
• Antiosteoporotic extract to treat osteoporosis
• Immunoboost extract to boost innate immunity
• LivCure extract to combat non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
• Immunalgin extract to boost immunity and combating post-covid
symptoms
8.2.2 Cosmetics
Seaweeds are often used as ingredients in the production of
cosmetics. Seaweeds are either used as additives contributing to the
organoleptic properties, used for stabilization and preservation of
the product or as active ingredients that fulfils the cosmetic function
and activity (Bedoux et al, 2014). The bioactive compounds present
in seaweeds, including phenolic compounds, polysaccharides,
pigments, PUFA, sterols, proteins, etc., can be used as active
ingredients in cosmetic products (Pereira, 2018; Salehi et al, 2019).
Seaweeds are major source of vitamins (A, B, C, D, and E) which are 95MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
extensively used in skincare products (Jesumani et al, 2019).
Phlorotannins, the most important phenolic compound, is well
known for applications such as anti-melanogenesis, and anti-
ageing (Norzagaray-Valenzuela et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019).
Polysaccharides are used in cosmetics as a gelling agent, viscosity
adjuster, thickener, and emulsifier Polysaccharides hydrates the
skin, thus potentially protecting it from wrinkles (Kanlayavattanakul
and Lourith, 2014). The natural pigments found in seaweeds have
attracted much attention in the fields of cosmetics. Xanthophyll
is used as a colour source for the cosmetics (Suseela Mathew
and Ravishankar C.N.). Since seaweed contains a large number of
different fatty acids, it provides a promising source of raw PUFAs
for cosmetics production (Khotimchenko et al., 2002). Several fatty
acids restore the permeability barrier and prevent scaly dermatitis
and skin dehydration (Servel et al., 1994). Some of the PUFAs, such
as linoleic acid and arachidonic acid are necessary for growth and
protection of the skin (Mansour et al., 1999). It was also suggested
that a lack of these fatty acids leads to cutaneous problems such as
alopecia, peeling of the epidermis and eczema (Agatonovic-Kustrin
and Morton, 2013). Seaweeds have amino acids, such as alanine,
proline, arginine, serine, histidine, and tyrosine. Palmaria and
Porphyra have the maximum amount of arginine, which is considered
a natural moisturizing factor that can be used in cosmetic products
(Jesumani et al., 2019).
8.2.3 Seaweed Biostimulants for Sustainable Agriculture
Unbalanced use of chemicals in farming harms soil, water, and
the ecosystem, impacting plants, animals, and people. The
growing population requires sustainable solutions like seaweed-
based biostimulants to boost crop quality and yield. The use of
Kapppahycus seaweed-based biostimulant has been recently
reviewed and concise information on its beneficial effect on
improving productivity of several crops, many under Indian 96MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
conditions, have been documented (Trivedi et al. 2023). This has
more relevance because of the impact of climate change being
experienced currently. The seaweed-based biostimulants have an
extremely low carbon footprint, which is as low as 73 and 119 kg
CO
2
equivalents per kiloliter of Gracilaria edulis- and Kapppahycus
alvarezii seaweed-based biostimulant production (Ghosh et al. 2015;
Anand et al. 2018). Unlike traditional commercial fertilizers such as
urea, muriate of potash, and diammonium phosphate, which have
high carbon footprints (3253, 1435, and 515 per tonne, respectively),
the combined utilization of seaweed biostimulants and reduced
chemical fertilizer application has proven to conserve 12 and 35
kg CO
2
equivalents per tonne of sugarcane and rice, respectively
(Gopalakrishnan and Ghosh, 2022). This approach exhibits significant
promise in mitigating global climate change.
The sap derived from fresh Kappaphycus alvarezii as well as Gracilaria
edulis are an effective biostimulant. They are inexpensive which makes
it suitable for broad-acre crops and its price point makes it affordable
and within the means of a small and marginal farmer. Multi-institutional
multi-crop trials coordinated by CSIR-CSMCRI in collaboration with 43
State Agricultural Universities and ICAR Institutes across 20 states
in India revealed that the biostimulant usage level of 2-15% results in
an increase in crop yield production ranging up to 37% across crops
over and above recommended fertilizer practices (Mantri et al., 2022;
Bhushan et al. 2023). The trials carried out Pan-India affirmed that
Kappaphycus biostimulant to be an excellent means to improve the
yield of pulses and oilseeds, especially like soybean and blackgram
whose yields were increased by over 20% in agro and demonstration
trials (Figure). Several studies at molecular level through transcriptome
analysis of roots and shoots of maize have now indicated that the
seaweed biostimulant is capable of ameliorating soil moisture-stress
(Kumar et al. 2020; Trivedi et al. 2021) and can reduce the diminution in
crop yield under stress (Trivedi et al. 2018a, 2018b, 2022a). It has also
been shown to stimulate soil microbes which may play a vital role in 97MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
mineral cycling of soil nutrients making them more available to plants
(Trivedi et al. 2022b). The soil microbes in moisture stress conditions
was found to be maintained at par with that in normal irrigated
conditions when the the Kapppahycus sap was applied. Studies
have shown Gracilaria edulis ( Singh et al. 2023) and Kappaphycus
alvarezii and it to be effective in reducing the usage of chemical
fertilizers by atleast 25% in crops (Sharma et al. 2015; Singh et al. 2016;
Singh et al. 2018). While deciphering its scientific mode of action, the
seaweed-biostimulants derived from Kapppahycus and Sargassum
spp. Seaweeds were found to contain major and minor nutrients,
phytohormones like indole-acetic acid, cytokinins, gibberellins and
several bioactive compounds which can show bioactivity at extremely
lower concentrations, some at even nano-molar levels (Vaghela et al.
2022, 2023a, b). It also contains quaternary ammonium compounds like
glycine betaine, choline chloride which confers the ability of the plants
to withstand abiotic stress like drought (Mondal et al. 2015). Likewise,
biostimulant based on other seaweeds like Sargassum have also been
found to give significantly higher performance on crops. Kappaphycus
alvarezii as well as Sargassum- based biostimulants have been found
to impart toleranc to soil fungal pathogens, thus warding off biotic
stress (Agarwal et al. 2016, Agarwal 2021).
The Percentage increase in yield of various crops by foliar application
of Kappaphycus alvarezii-based biostimulant as revealed from multi-
institutional multi-crop trials in India is given in Figure 11 and 12.
Fig. 8.2 Percentage increase in yield of various crops by foliar application of 98MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Kappaphycus alvarezii-based bio stimulant as revealed from multi-institutional
multi-crop trials in India (Source: Sustainability 2022, 14, 10416)
Fig. 8.3 Percentage increase in yield of various crops by foliar application of G.
edulis based bio-stimulant (Source: Sustainability 2022, 14, 10416)
8.2.4 Seaweed Formulations for Productivity and Health of
Dairy and Poultry Animals
CSIR-CSMCRI recently developed novel seaweed-based animal
feed additive formulations to enhance productivity of animals,
improving the quality of animal products and boosting immunity.
Collaborative efforts by CSIR-CSMCRI, Bhavnagar in collaboration
with ICAR Institutes (IVRI, CARI, and NDRI) and CSIR-IITR led to the
development of these animal feed additives using seaweeds found
to grow in Indian waters.
Seaweeds are rich sources of choline, glycine, betaine, nutrients
along with biologically active compounds such as fucoidan, betaine,
and glucans which are known to enhance immunity in animals.
Polyphenols in the seaweed exhibit antioxidant and Reactive
Oxygen Species (ROS) scavenging activity. Seaweed formulations
were developed to harness the active ingredients for improving
productivity, improved rumen function, boost immunity, and all-
around health of animals (cattle and poultry).
The animal feed additive products have been engineered by
blending selected cultivated seaweeds and naturally harvested 99MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
seaweeds sustainably. Seaweed-based feed additives in nutrition
are key to achieving maximum animal productivity and at the same
time achieving optimal herd health and warding off health problems.
The additives could boost immunity safely. The seaweed-based
formulations were found to bestow the following properties:
• Improved performance of poultry (especially breast) and cattle
• Better Immuno-responsiveness (Cellular mediated and HA titer)
in poultry and cattle
• Gut health (microbial & structural) in poultry
• Physio-biochemical characteristics of poultry meat
• Higher egg production and advancement in egg- laying age
• Higher Calcium and iron content in milk
• Better calcium retention leads to reduced chances of milk fever
• Reduced methane emission and higher energy use efficiency in
ruminants
• Higher daily growth rate in cross bred calves
8.2.5 Seaweed derived packaging material
Synthetic plastic materials have been widely utilized since the 20
th

century due to their favorable properties and low production costs.
However, the extensive use and improper disposal of these plastics
have resulted in a significant increase in environmental pollution.
In 2018 alone, global plastic waste reached a staggering 29.1 million
tons, with over 99% of this waste originating from petroleum-based
plastics. Unfortunately, these plastics derived from petrochemicals
lack essential characteristics such as biodegradability, recyclability,
biocompatibility, and reusability. Consequently, vast amounts of
plastic waste accumulate on Earth, leading to severe environmental
issues like soil contamination, marine pollution, air pollution, and
the endangerment of various animal species. 100MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
The market value of biodegradable plastic materials has experienced
significant growth in recent years. In 2021, the global market value
of biodegradable plastics reached approximately 8 billion dollars.
Projections indicate that this value is expected to triple by 2026,
reaching around 23.3 billion dollars (Market Value of Biodegradable
Plastics Worldwide, 2026). The United States has also witnessed a
rise in the market value of biodegradable plastics, with the value
reaching 822 million dollars in 2021. It is expected to further increase
by 116% (reaching 1,774 million dollars) by 2026.
In recent times, there has been a growing interest in seaweed-
based polysaccharides as a viable solution to meet the high
demand for renewable materials. These polysaccharides, sourced
from marine environments, have garnered attention for their diverse
applications in biopackaging, food, biomedical, and agriculture
sectors. They possess advantageous properties such as strong
gelling ability, recyclability, thermal stability, and non-toxicity.
Seaweed polysaccharides can undergo degradation through both
enzymatic and non-enzymatic processes. However, one of the
key challenges in utilizing biopolymers, including seaweed-based
polysaccharides, for packaging purposes is their relatively limited
mechanical strength and barrier properties compared to non-
biodegradable alternatives. There are three types of seaweed
polysaccharides, such as agar, alginate, and carrageenan that are
commonly used as film-forming materials as compared to other
seaweed polysaccharides like lam- inarin, fucoidan, and funoran.
Alginate-based edible films have various applications in food
packaging. These vary as per the additional components along
with alginate according to the properties derived. Similarly, even
carrageenan/furcellaran and agar-based edible films have found
their applications in food packaging varying upon the additional
compounds added and their properties. They are summarized in the
table below: 101MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
8.2.6 Biofuels
Seaweeds are gaining increasing attention as a prospective
feedstock for biofuels and are being considered as the most
potentially significant future sources of sustainable biofuels. The
worldwide interest in producing biofuels from seaweed biomass
is because seaweeds are third-generation feedstock and have
advantages such as the presence of high carbohydrate content
which can be used for producing ethanol, absence or low lignin
content, higher photosynthetic efficiency than terrestrial biomass,
potential biomass yield per unit area is often higher than that of
terrestrial plants, does not directly compete with human food supply,
does not compete for arable land, does not require freshwater,
does not require fertilizer, and the potential to obtain high-added
value products i.e. cosmetics, drugs, pigments, biofertilizers, food
additives, chemicals, etc.
Due to higher carbohydrate content, green seaweeds such as
Ulva lactuca and Enteromorpha intestinalis are considered as
viable feedstocks for the production of bioethanol (Ramachandra
and Hebbale, 2020). The carbohydrates present in seaweeds are
converted to bioethanol by appropriate microorganisms such as
yeast or bacteria. Various processes involved in the production
of ethanol include pretreatment, hydrolysis, and fermentation
(Ramachandra and Hebbale, 2020). The techniques or pathways
used generally in the fermentation of seaweed are separate
hydrolysis and fermentation and simultaneous sacchariﬁcation
and fermentation (Offei et al., 2018). Seaweeds like Ulva lactuca,
Gracilaria verrucosa, and Kappaphycus alvarezii have been utilized
as the feedstock of bioethanol. Red seaweeds are mainly used for
bioenergy production. The yield of bioethanol in red algae varies from
4% to 43 % (Andhikawati et al., 2020). Even though technologies are
available for the conversion of seaweeds and seaweed phycocolloids
to ethanol, currently the production is not cost-effective. Hence, the 102MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
future of commercial-scale production of ethanol from seaweeds
depends on the development of new processing technologies and
the creation of an appropriate policy framework.
There is potential for ethanol production from red seaweeds,
specifically from species like K. alvarezii. The authors highlight the
growing market for bioethanol and the need to explore alternative
biomass sources, such as marine macroalgae, due to limitations
in agricultural land availability (Khambhaty et al). The substantial
growth in the bioethanol market, which increased from less than one
billion liters in 1975 to over 39 billion liters in 2006 and was estimated
to reach 100 billion liters in 2015. The majority of bioethanol was
traditionally produced through the fermentation of sugars derived
from food crops like beets, corn, and sugarcane.
Due to limitations in available agricultural land, Khambhaty et al.
proposed considering marine macroalgae as a potential biomass
source for ethanol production. Marine macroalgae, such as red
seaweeds like Kappaphycus alvarezii , are rich in carbohydrates
and have low lignin content, making them suitable candidates.
To prepare for fermentation, the seaweed biomass undergoes a
process where SWC juice is extracted, and the remaining pulp is
subjected to saccharification. This saccharification step involves
treating the pulp with 0.9 N sulfuric acid at a temperature of 100°C.
At a bench scale of 16 kg, this process yields approximately 30%
in terms of saccharification. Next, the hydrolysate resulting from
saccharification is neutralized using lime and undergoes desalination
through electrodialysis. After this preparation, the hydrolysate
is ready for fermentation in the presence of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, a type of yeast commonly used in ethanol production.
During fermentation, about 80% of the reducing sugars present in
the hydrolysate are converted into ethanol. The ethanol produced
through this process has been successfully utilized as fuel for a
petrol vehicle. Furthermore, additional fermentation trials using a 103MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
marine yeast called Candida sp. have demonstrated its ability to
function in high-salinity conditions and produce ethanol without
requiring a desalting process.
Tan et al. showed that a combination of heterogeneous catalyzed
hydrolysis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation can be
employed to produce bioethanol from Kappaphycus biomass,
specifically from a species known as Eucheuma cottonii. Their focus
was on utilization of macroalgal biomass as an alternative source
to lignocellulosic materials for bioethanol production. Amberlyst
15TM was used as a catalyst for carbohydrate hydrolysis from
Kappaphycus extract to yield simple reducing sugars suitable for
fermentation. Fermentation of the hydrolysate produced 0.33
grams per gram of bioethanol yield with an effciency of 65%.
8.2.7 Bioplastics
Seaweeds are sustainable alternatives for producing large-scale
biopolymers. Polysaccharides such as alginate, carrageenan
and agar isolated from seaweeds have been commonly used as
precursors for edible film production (Mostafavi and Zaeim 2020).
The film-forming biopolymers derived from seaweeds are non-toxic,
easily degradable and biocompatible and show high rigidity and low
deformability (Doh, 2020). The bioplastic films from seaweed exhibit
relatively low water vapour barrier properties and mechanical
strength in comparison to conventional non-renewable polymers.
Hence, seaweed is generally mixed with other components to improve
the properties of seaweed films. The edible film from seaweeds is
used as sachets, pouches etc. in the food industry; as a wrapper
for seasoning cube and chocolate; as interleaf for frozen foods; as
material for the edible logo in bakeries products etc. Also, edible
film is used in the pharmaceutical industry as functional strips such
and in cosmetic and toiletries industries as a facial mask and bag
for pre-portioned detergent (Siah et al, 2015). 104MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
8.2.8 Medical Textiles
Natural fibers, especially polysaccharides, have been considered as
the most promising material for producing wound dressing products.
Products based on alginate, a linear unbranched polysaccharide
extracted from brown seaweed, are currently the most popular
dressing products used in wound management since it has
numerous advantages over traditional cotton-based products. The
bandages based on alginate are more efficient than cellulose-
based bandages, due to easy solubility and reduced wound curing
rate (Qin 2008). Alginate is reported to have a high absorbency of
exudates. Due to its gel-forming property, when alginate dressing
comes into contact with the wound exudates, it absorbs the
exudates and provides a desirable wound moist environment and
allows the adequate exchange of water vapour and oxygen which is
an important property for enhancing the wound healing. The gelling
property of alginate also aids in painless removal of dressings.
Alginate can absorb fluid 15 to 20 times its weight; hence alginate
dressings can be used for moderate to heavy exudates.
8.3 Seaweed for Human Consumption
Seaweeds are not actually a sought-after vegetable to most westerners.
However, the Orientals have been eating a variety of seaweeds for
thousands of years. It is known that about 100,000 tonnes of seaweeds are
eaten annually in Japan in the name of Nori, Kombu (konbu) and Wakame.
Seaweeds are rich in protein, vitamins, amino acids, growth hormones,
minerals, and other trace elements. Their methods of preparation are
discussed below in detail:
8.3.1 Nori
Nori is the name of various edible products derived from Porphyra
after processing. Nori is prepared by harvesting Porphyra, pounded
washed with water, drained, chopped, and finally mixed with
freshwater before being spread on bamboo mats for drying. When
dried thin sheets of nori are obtained, these are pressed flat, stored, 105MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
bundled and packed for marketing. Nori is used as a flavouring
agent in soup, sauces, and broths or even soaked in soybean sauce
‘ and eaten with boiled rice. Nori is also used in well-known dishes -
tempura and sushi. (Noda, H. 1993).
8.3.2 Kombu
Kombu is prepared from Laminaria. After harvesting and drying,
Laminaria is separated from the stipe and holdfast for quality and
sent to kombu factories. Kombu processing involves boiling the kelp
in a green aniline dye solution, air drying, compressing in frames,
and then cutting into blocks which are shredded. Kombu is used as
soup stock, boiled vegetable, snack or seasoning for rice dishes (as
curry leaves are used in India). (Jelena Milinovic et al., 2021).
8.3.3 Wakame
Wakame has become more popular in recent times. It is made from
large brown seaweed Undaria pinnatifida. Undaria is processed as
wakame by washing, desalting, and drying. Desalting is achieved
by boiling with water. Wakame is popularly known in the forms of
roasted or sugar candied products. (Martínez-Villaluenga C, et al.,
2018).
8.3.4 Salad
The following seaweeds are used for making salads either singly
or in combination of two or three seaweeds- Caulerpa racemosa, C.
sertularioides, Codium spp, Gracilaria verrucosa, G. eucheumoides,
Hydroclathrus clathratus, Laurencia papillosa and Porphyra spp.
Fresh seaweeds are cleaned of sand, debris, attached stones etc.
and then washed in freshwater. Chopped tomatoes, carrot, onion,
chilli, and ginger are added and mixed. Salt is added to taste.
(Chennubhotia et. aI., 1981; Kaladharan and Kaliaperumal, 2000).
8.3.5 Seaweed Masala
Onion and green seaweed is cut and (Ulva lactuca) into pieces and
garnish them in low fire with oil, mustard and curry leaves. When 106MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
about to turn grey, add chilli powder, coriander powder, turmeric
powder, salt, ginger, and tomato pieces and mix well. It can be eaten
with rice and chapatis. (Chennubhotia et. aI., 1981; Kaladharan and
Kaliaperumal, 2000).
8.3.6 Seaweed pickle
Take cleaned fresh seaweed (Gracilaria edulis) and remove moisture
with cloth. Cut into small pieces. Soak in vinegar for 2 days. Remove
from vinegar, add gingelly oil, chilli powder, mustard, and fenugreek
powder. Season with asafoetida. Add peeled garlic. Mix thoroughly
and bottle. (Chennubhotia et. al., 1981; Kaladharan and Kaliaperumal,
2000).
8.3.7 Seaweed Wafer
Boil cleaned dried seaweed (Gracilaria edulis) in water. Filter through
organdy cloth. Add rice paste, chilli paste and asafoetida powder.
Add gingelly seed and cumin seed and mix well. Cook together. Dry
the paste in open sun in small lumps on cloth. Store in airtight jar
before serving fried in oil. (Chennubhotia et. aI., 1981; Kaladharan
and Kaliaperumal, 2000).
8.3.8 Seaweed Porridge
Boil dried cleaned seaweed ( Gracilaria edulis) in water for 20 minutes.
Grind it into a fine paste. Boil the paste in water. Add sugar and milk
and mix thoroughly. Add cashew nut raisins and cardamom. Serve
hot. (Chennubhotia et. al., 1981; Kaladharan and Kaliaperumal, 2000).
8.3.9 Seaweed Jam
Prepare sugar syrup. Add seaweed powder (Ulva lactuca) and boil
for 15 minutes with stirring. Add edible colour and essence. Ready
to serve. Some of the food stuff such as Ice-cream, Tomato sauce,
Jams, Jelly, Marmalade, Blancmange (without corn flour) and Lime
jelly requiring agar and their method of preparation are given by
Thivy (1958, 1960). 107MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
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d2498b44-f8c2-4ef2-9535-ee77884c9636 Aquaculture Foundation
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6. F.Thivy (1960). Seaweed Utilisation in India. Proc. Symp. Algology,
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AppendixAppendix
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AppendixAppendix
Expert
Committee
Office
Memorandum 123MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
File No. Q-11050/3/2023-AGRICULTURE
NITI (National Institution for Transforming India) Aayog
(Agriculture & Allied Sectors Vertical)
NITI Aayog, Sansad Marg New Delhi – 110001
Date: 11
th
July 2023
OFFICE MEMORANDUM
Subject: Constitution of Expert Committee to review the Draft Policy on “Seaweed Value Chain
Development in India” and draft curricula of certificate courses on seaweed cultivation
-reg.
It has been decided with approval of the competent authority to set up an Expert Committee
on the subject cited above with the following composition and ToRs.
2. The composition of the Expert Committee is as under:
1. Dr. V.K. Saraswat, Hon’ble Member (S&T), NITI Aayog Chairman
2. Dr. J.K. Jena, Deputy Director General (Fisheries), ICAR Co-Chairman
3. Prof. Himanshu A. Pandya, Professor & Former VC, Gujarat University Co-Chairman
4. Ms. Neetu Kumari Prasad, Jt. Secretary, Dept. of Fisheries, Member
5. Shri Tanmay Kumar, Additional Secretary, MoEFCC Member
6. Shri. Dodda Venkata Swamy, Chairman, MPEDA Member
7. Dr. A. Gopalkrishnan, Director, ICAR-CMFRI Member
8. Dr. Kannan Srinivasan, Director, CSIR-CSMCRI Member
9.
Dr. Dharani G, Scientist E, National Institute of Ocean Technology
(NIOT)
Member
10.
Shri Rajesh Kumar, Additional Chief Secretary (Fisheries), Govt. of
Maharashtra
Member
11. Shri A. K. Rakesh, Additional Chief Secretary, Govt. of Gujarat Member
12. Ms. Salma K Fahim, Principal Secretary (Fisheries), Govt. of Karnataka Member
13. Shri. K S Srinivas, Principal Secretary (Fisheries), Govt. of Kerala Member
14.
Shri Mangat Ram Sharma, Addl. Chief Secretary (Fisheries), Govt. of
Tamil Nadu
Member
15.
Sri Gopal Krishna Dwivedi, Principal Secretary (Fisheries), Govt. of
Andhra Pradesh
Member
16.
Shri Suresh Kumar Vashishth, Principal Secretary (Fisheries), Govt. of
Odisha
Member
17.
Shri. Santhosh Kumar Reddy V, Secretary (Fisheries), Govt. of
Lakshadweep
Member
18. Ms. Nandini Paliwal, Secretary (Fisheries), Govt. of Andaman & Nicobar Member
19.
Shri Shivkumar Suryanarayanan, Managing Director and Co-Founder,
Sea6 Energy Pvt. Ltd.
Member
20. Shri Ashwin Shroff, Executive Chairman, Excel Industries Pvt. Ltd. Member
21. Patricia Bianchi, Seaweed Account Manager, Aqua Stewardship Council Member
22. Dr. Neelam Patel, Senior Adviser (Agri), NITI Aayog
Member
Secretary 124 124MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
3. The Terms of Reference (ToR) of the Expert Committee will be as follows:
I. To review the draft policy on the development of seaweed value chain in India.
II. To draft roadmap for the development of entire seaweed value chain -on-shore and off-
shore.
III. To develop any other necessary components for the policy framework of the seaweed
value chain that may be required.
4. The Expert Committee may examine and address any other issues which are important though not
specifically spelt out in the ToR. The Expert Committee may devise its own procedures for
conducting its business / meetings / field visits / constitution of sub-groups, etc.
2. The Chairman of the Expert Committee may co-opt any other official / non-official expert /
representative of any organization as a member(s), if required.
3. The Expert Committee will review the draft policy and curricula and finalize it within 60 days of
its constitution.
4. Mr. Paremal Banafarr, Young Professional, W018, Fifth Floor, NITI Aayog, New Delhi,
Telephone- 011-2304 2203 (L) - e-mail: paremal.banafarr@nic.in will be the nodal officer for this
committee in NITI Aayog. Any further queries / correspondence in this regard may be made with
him and the Member Secretary of the Committee.

Paremal Banafarr
Agriculture & Allied Sectors Vertical
NITI Aayog
+91-11-2304 2203
Distribution:
Chairman and all Members of Expert Committee
CEO, NITI Aayog 125 125MODEL CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN SEAWEED FARMING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
List of Contributors:
Dr. Purvaja Ramachandran
Director, NCSCM
Dr. Arup Ghosh
Sr. Principal Scientist, CSIR-CSMCRI
Dr. Johnson B
Sr. Scientist, ICAR-CMFRI Designed by:

Model Curriculum for Diploma in Seaweed Farming and Entrepreneurship