NITI - NFSSM : Faecal Sludge And Septage Management In Urban Areas - Service & Business Models

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SERVICE & BUSINESS MODELS
FAECAL SLUDGE
AND SEPTAGE
MANAGEMENT
IN URBAN AREAS
January 2021 FAECAL SLUDGE AND
SEPTAGE
MANAGEMENT IN
URBAN AREAS
SERVICE & BUSINESS MODELS The clarion call of the Hon’ble Prime Minister at the launch of Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) triggered remarkable
attention towards the sanitation sector in India. SBM went on to become one of the world’s biggest sanitation drives
that accelerated access to sanitation. It helped India achieve its target of eliminating open defecation. This phenomenal
feat has been a result of visionary leadership at all tiers of government coupled with extensive involvement of the
citizens with a single-minded pursuit of making India an ODF country.
Given the rapid pace of urbanization, Indian cities need to become exemplary models of sustainable urban development.
With construction of more than 9 crore toilets across urban and rural parts of India, not only the legacy problem of
access to sanitation has been addressed, but also the establishment of effective faecal waste management systems
has received due emphasis. The next targets in the urban sanitation sector are the ODF+, ODF++, and Water +
certifications for ULBs which focus on entire sanitation service chain as well as wastewater treatment. To achieve
optimum health outcomes associated with sanitation services and prevent faecal contamination in the environment,
city level Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) planning assumes great importance.
Many cities have implemented successful models of FSSM systems with optimal private sector participation, use of
latest technologies, and greater mechanization of operations. This document covers best practices of FSSM witnessed
across India. It also documents the various service and business models adopted for implementing FSSM projects.
It is hoped that this will act as an important guiding repository of experiences, that will allow better implementation
of novel and tailored sanitation solutions.
I compliment the NFSSM alliance and the Managing Urbanization vertical at NITI Aayog led by Additional Secretary,
Dr K. Rajeswara Rao, for this timely initiative, and his team comprising Deputy Advisor, Dr. Biswanath Bishoi,
and Young Professional, Mr Dhiraj Santdasani for all their efforts. My sincere thanks to all the sector experts and
practitioners who contributed towards preparing this report.
Dr. Rajiv Kumar
Vice Chairperson, NITI Aayog
Message
Vice Chairperson, NITI Aayog Over the last few years, India’s tryst with sanitation has reached center stage, mostly due to the efforts channeled
under the government’s flagship sanitation scheme, the Swachh Bharat Mission. The program has been extremely
successful in accelerating access to safe sanitation through the creation of household toilets across urban and rural
parts of the country and helped India achieve its target of preventing open defecation. The government is determined
to further improve the public health outcomes through the next set of targets in the sector; ODF+, ODF++, and
Water+ certifications. With many Indian households reliant on on-site sanitation systems for its affordability; disposal
and treatment of faecal waste assumes as much importance as its containment. That said, on-site sanitation systems
remain viable only as long as the entire service chain can be adequately managed, and this is where Faecal Sludge
and Septage Management (FSSM) assumes importance.
FSSM represents an innovative, smart, and sustainable system that works across the value chain. Its built-in
adaptability allows it to be a solution for both urban and rural areas, thereby allowing it to complement India’s efforts
at achieving its targets under SDG 6.2, and accelerating our performance under other SDGs relating to healthy living,
inclusive cities, and accruing gender parity. In the past few years, faecal sludge management has received much
awaited focus in the country and we have been able to formalize FSSM services in many Indian cities. Since the
deployment of the National FSSM Policy, 2017, many states have made great strides through enactment of policies,
legislative frameworks, issuance of guidelines, and by leveraging funding from multiple sources like SBM, AMRUT
and 14
th
FC. As a result, about 499 ULBs have already achieved the ODF++ status.
The success of FSSM lies in ensuring uniform access to quality service delivery, which is driven by local governance
systems like municipalities, municipal corporations, etc. Complementing synergies produced from partnerships with
other stakeholders, such as private sectors players, domain experts and development practitioners; are also key to
the success of FSSM. Such partnerships infuse technological innovations and help bridge funding gaps–which remain
critical to achieving outcome driven results. To continue progress in this sector, it is imperative that we develop
robust business models, promote private sector participation, leverage latest technological advancements, and bring
extensive mechanization in operations.
Lastly and perhaps most importantly, it is also crucial to create a strong repository of FSSM best practices that can
be observed, adapted, and replicated appropriately across the country. I take this opportunity to compliment the
efforts of the NFSSM Alliance in development of this publication and for working alongside numerous state and
regional actors, helping them adopt FSSM best practices. I am sure that the collective efforts for streamlining the
FSSM sector would enable India to reach the top of the Sanitation ladder with “Safely Managed Sanitation” systems
across the country. And this would genuinely be the Watershed Moment for Urban Sanitation sector of India.
My special appreciation goes to the Managing Urbanisation (MU) vertical at NITI Aayog led by Additional Secretary,
Dr. K. Rajeswara Rao, who provided commendable leadership in bringing out this document, and his team involving
Deputy Advisor (MU), Dr. Biswanath Bishoi, and Young Professional, Mr Dhiraj Santdasani. As we continue to make
progress and leapfrog in the sanitation sector, I hope this publication would serve as a comprehensive resource for
cities and states seeking to make their mark in sustainable and inclusive sanitation.
Mr Amitabh Kant
CEO, NITI Aayog
Foreword
CEO, NITI Aayog Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
vii On the lines of the Sanskrit term (A-P-A-N-A), we strived to make Sanitation; A-Accessible, P-Private, A-Affordable,
N-Nature friendly and A-Achievable under the government’s flagship scheme of Swachh Bharat Mission. All
stakeholders, including all tiers of government, private sector players, NGOs, philanthropies and most importantly,
the citizens supported the movement in a spirit like never seen before for this sector. Over the last six years, the
Swachh Bharat Mission has been able to build over 72 lakh toilets in urban India, and nearly 8.4 crore toilets in
rural India. With this, the mission became the world’s biggest sanitation drive and enabled us to become an ODF
country last year.
While access to sanitation has been addressed in the right manner, it is now time to leverage the momentum
and target safe management of the entire value chain of sanitation. To truly achieve this goal, one must move
toward the next step of building the right processes and systems to treat and dispose the refuse from these toilets.
Fortunately for our nation, many enterprising cities and states have been doing commendable work in this regard.
While establishing sewer network remains long-term goal for cities, they are recognizing the urgent need to adopt
the Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) philosophy, as a fundamental pathway of providing quality of
life to urban citizens, and are leading the way ahead for the country in safe sanitation. FSSM is a methodology that
encourages the holistic development of systems across the sanitation value chain, from the secure containment of
faecal sludge, to the scientific and environment-friendly disposal of the processed sludge.
In process of developing this document that aims to bridge the knowledge gaps in the FSSM planning space for
States/UTs and ULBs, about eight major consultations have been held in the past 6 months with organisations
like NFSSM Alliance, ASCI, CWAS CEPT University, Centre for Policy Research, India Sanitation Coalition, etc.
Cumulatively, these consultations were attended by more than 150 people, including sector experts and urban
planners, which has enriched the knowledge of the Managing Urbanization team at NITI Aayog leading to the
formulation of this document.
This compilation is a combined effort of NITI Aayog and the National Faecal Sludge and Septage Management
Alliance (NFSSM-A) to examine, analyze, and extrapolate some of the best FSSM practices from across our
pioneering cities and states. This book is an informative guide and may not be treated as government instruction
or government decision. The experiences of senior practitioners and reputed organisations working in the field of
FSSM have been compiled here. It can act as a ready guide for the field practitioners who are often not fully aware
of sources of information. Each organisation or ULB have to work as per the relevant rules/guidelines in place for
taking appropriate decisions regarding FSSM planning. Local area practices and cultures can always be kept in view
while finalising city level strategies. It is our intent that the urgent challenge of sanitation in an ever-expanding urban
India be met with initiative guided by the knowledge that some cities and states with successful FSSM models can
provide to municipals across the country.
Finally, a deep sense of gratitude to the teams in FSSM and MU Vertical in NITI Aayog – Dy Advisor, Dr Biswanath
Bishoi, and YP Mr Dhiraj Santdasani who have persistently put in all efforts in finalisation of this document.
Dr. K. Rajeswara Rao, IAS
Additional Secretary, NITI Aayog
Foreword
Additional Secretary, NITI Aayog Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
ix The Faecal Sludge and Septage Management: Service Business Models shares leading practices and innovations
to improve how faecal sludge is managed, and how to expand services to the millions of people living in
thousands of cities in urban India, lacking access to safely managed sanitation.
Urban India has made significant strides towards safe sanitation under the government’s flagship Swachh Bharat
Mission–Urban. However, delivering access to toilets or sewer connections is only a part of the solution. Without
adequate and timely desludging of septic tanks and treatment of faecal sludge and septage it is dumped untreated
in open fields and water bodies, exposing citizens to serious health and environmental hazards.
Cognizant of the implications, conversations in urban sanitation have expanded beyond toilet infrastructure to
safe desludging, treatment, and reuse of human waste. The National Faecal Sludge and Septage Management
Alliance (NFSSMA) has actively supported the sanitation movemen t in India, by catalyzing action towards safe
and sustainable human waste management at the national, state, and city levels. Working in close partnership with
the Government of India, the Alliance helped in accelerating the launch of the National Faecal Sludge and Septage
Management (FSSM) policy in 2017. Since then, the Alliance has continued to work with the national, state and
city governments to strengthen the foundation of urban India’s faecal sludge management in urban India, especially
championing inclusive, safe, and equitable sanitation approaches.
FSSM, when prioritized and regulated, provides us with a unique opportunity to address several existing gaps in
sanitation service delivery. It not only helps address inequities in sanitation service provisions within a city but also
focuses attention on historically under-funded, small and medium sized urban local bodies with inadequate sanitation
infrastructure. At present, there is an inequitable burden placed on low-income communities and disadvantaged
populations. Redoubling efforts towards inclusion and equity, FSSM gives us a chance to address these issues through
practices like women-led sanitation enterprises, pushing individual household toilets, sanitation worker protection
schemes, community-based livelihood schemes, etc. Currently, the NFSSM Alliance is supporting over ~10 state
governments in India to promote the discourse on FSSM through policy regulation, infrastructure development, and
prioritizing gender parity and inclusion in the sanitation value chain.
As we cope with growing migration to urban centers, it is even more important that FSSM is implemented across the
country. The current pandemic has only served to heighten the need to bolster our efforts in this area, since FSSM
stands strongly as a reinforcement against public health outbreaks, mitigates environmental damage and builds
equitable and resilient sanitation infrastructure for the under-served. However, states and cities must be cognizant of
quality control and assurance while scaling the technology. Quality assurance provides confidence that public health
and environmental risks will be mitigated consistently over the intended lifetime of an FSSM system. The NFSSM
Alliance has prepared frameworks, checklists, and model tenders for states and cities to leverage in order to ensure
that quality FSSM is the practiced norm across the country.
Given the far-reaching implications and multi-dimensional nature of FSSM, state, and city governments need to invest
in sustained capacity-building efforts. Various training modules, designed for multiple stakeholders and curated to
capture local contexts, NFSSM Alliance partners have collaboratively developed. These modules are readily available
through the Sanitation Capacity Building Platform.
Sanitation in India has made tremendous progress. This momentum needs to be sustained with FSSM for businesses,
governments, policymakers, investors, service providers, practitioners, and most importantly the community members
to make our urban areas clean, healthy, and more livable. This compendium is an effort to coordinate, develop, and
share learnings to provide affordable and workable sanitation solutions at scale.
NFSSM Alliance
Preface
NFSSM AllianceFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
xi First and foremost, NFSSM Alliance would like to extend sincere appreciation and gratitude to Vice Chairperson,
Dr Rajiv Kumar; CEO, Mr Amitabh Kant; and Additional Secretary, Dr K Rajeswara Rao, NITI Aayog, for providing
their valuable inputs and guidance for preparing the report. We would also like to thank the team of FSSM and
Managing Urbanisation vertical at NITI Aayog - Dr. Biswanath Bishoi, Deputy Adivsor, and Mr Dhiraj Santdasani,
Young Professional, for their continuous support.
We would also like to acknowledge our heartfelt gratitude to the members of the NFSSM Alliance who have
contributed towards developing the case studies and bringing out relevant insights. The report shall benefit the
State and City functionaries by providing leading practices on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) and
replicate the learnings in their respective contexts.
AcknowledgementsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
xiii Contents
Message, Vice Chairperson, NITI Aayog iii
Foreword, CEO, NITI Aayog v
Foreword, Additional Secretary, NITI Aayog vii
Preface, NFSSM Alliance ix
Acknowledgements xi
Section-A: Introduction 1
The case for FSSM – An Introduction 2
Human waste treatment in India 2
Current state of FSSM in India 3
Reference Guide – About the report 6
Section-B: Leading Practices in Containment 11
1. Mobilizing access to sanitation credit and addressing space issues for Individual
Household Toilets in Jalna, Maharashtra 12
2. State approaches in managing public sanitation facilities through women Self-Help
Groups (SHGs) in Telangana and other states 18
3. Innovative private sector model for management of Community and Public toilets by Saraplast 22
4. Common septic tanks to address issues of insanitary toilets and congested areas in
Bhubaneswar, Odisha 27
5. Inclusion of standard septic tank design and inspection under building rules in Tamil Nadu 31
Section-C: Leading Practices in Emptying and Conveyance 35
6. Increasing access to mechanized desludging in Odisha 37
7. Engagement of safai karamcharis through performance-based contracts in
Hyderabad–DICCI model 42
8. Scheduled desludging through PPP with a performance linked annuity model in Wai, Sinnar,
Maharashtra 46
9. Adoption of standard licensing agreements for private desludging operators in Tamil Nadu 51
10. City-wide management of FSSM services: Examples on enabling environment and service delivery 55
11. Digital technology in FSSM operations in Maharashtra 62
Section-D: Treatment & operations 67
12. EPC model adopted by state governments for FSTP construction 71
13. Connecting urban sanitation and improved river health–Mainstreaming FSSM in Chunar,
Uttar Pradesh 75
14. Hybrid annuity model (HAM) for FSTP construction and management in Andhra Pradesh 79
15. Faecal Sludge Management, Leh, J&K 82
16. Enabling the scale-up of co-treatment in STPs across Tamil Nadu 88
17. Engagement of women and transgender SHGs for O&M of Faecal Sludge treatment plants in Odisha 98Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
xv 18. Creating an Ecosystem for Sustainable Sanitation in Madhya Pradesh 102
Section-E: Integrated Models (Across Transport and Treatment) 107
19. Faecal Sludge Management, Dhenkanal, Odisha 108
20. Cluster approach to scale Faecal Sludge Management in Tamil Nadu 112
21. 5 years of operations of Devanahalli plant in Karnataka 116
Section-F: Reuse and resource recovery 119
22. Reuse and Resource recovery at Wai and Sinnar FSTP 120
Section-G: Enablers for FSSM planning, scaling up and sustenance 125
23. A State Investment Plan for Scaling FSSM in Tamil Nadu 126
24. Capacity building for Non-Sewered Sanitation: Learnings from Sanitation Capacity
Building Platform, NIUA 132
25. Statewide approach for scaling up FSTP: Maharashtra 136
26. Quality assurance support for implementation of Faecal Sludge Management plants in Tamil Nadu 144
27. Malasur–Making the invisible, visible: A citizen facing social and behavior change
communication campaign on FSSM 147
Section-H: Conclusion and Way Forward 153
Section-I: Appendix 155
Contact Details for Case Studies 156
Abbreviations 157
References 162Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
xvi LIST OF EXHIBITS
Exhibit 1: Women and transgender run desludging services across states 40
Exhibit 2: Making the desludging services affordable for urban poor in Bhubaneswar 50
Exhibit 3: CSR funded projects in FSSM 86
Exhibit 4: Co-location of FSTPs with SWM plants across Maharashtra, Odisha and Tamil Nadu 94
Exhibit 5: Solar Power Plants at Wai, Sinnar, Bhubaneswar FSTPs 97
Exhibit 6: Institutional arrangements and structured monitoring 130
Exhibit 7: Quality control and assurance mechanism across States 140
Exhibit 8: State level systems for FSSM monitoring 142
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: FSSM complements existing sanitation infrastructure by rapidly addressing human
waste disposal issues3
Table 2: State level regulatory guidelines and frameworks for FSSM 4
Table 3: Comparative table for state models for emptying and conveyance including licensing,
SPOs, etc. 36
Table 4: Use of digital technologies in FSSM 59
Table 5: Summary of various FSTP procurement and contracting models adopted across India 68
Table 6: Ideal risk allocation across risk categories in various contracting models 70
Table 7: Classification of STP based on assessment 89
Table 8: Snapshot of existing FSTPs of a range of capacities in 10 States 96
Table 9: Anticipated roadmap for coverage of urban population (excluding Chennai) 128
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Timeline of FSSM adoption – India is making rapid strides towards 100% safely
managed sanitation 3
Figure 2: Several states have rolled out FSSM programs at scale with only modest capital outlays due to
cost-effective nature of FSSM 5
Figure 3: Awareness generation sessions, loan camp by ICICI Bank, Site visit by technical expert
and CWAS team 14
Figure 4: Images of HHs where in spite of lack of space women have constructed toilets 15
Figure 5: Small cesspool vehicle as a solution that can cater to 35 of the left out Indian population 38
Figure 6: Double booster pumps from Leh 39
Figure 7: Performance Linked Annuity model (PLAM) of Wai and Sinnar cities 47
Figure 8: Models of procurement and contracting used in scaling FSSM across India 68
Figure 9: A plant under construction in Odisha 71
Figure 10: EPC contracts in Maharashtra 72
Figure 11: Odisha model of implementation 73
Figure 12: Coverage through the Five Phases of the SIP 127
Figure 13 : Map of Maharashtra 136
Figure 14: The Quality Assurance Framework for FSSM will help implement quality processes
across all project phases 140Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
xvii Figure 15: State level FSSM monitoring dashboard Maharashtra 142
Figure 16: Construction monitoring dashboard Maharashtra 142
Figure 17: State level FSSM monitoring dashboard: Odisha 142
Figure 18: Construction monitoring dashboard: Odisha 142
Figure 19: Construction monitoring dashboard: Tamil Nadu 143
Figure 20: App based FSSM monitoring dashboard: Tamil Nadu 143Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
xviii INTRODUCTION
SECTION-A THE CASE FOR FSSM – AN INTRODUCTION
India has witnessed unprecedented momentum around
sanitation since 2014. The country was declared Open
Defecation Free, in 2019, due to sustained political will,
coordinated action, and public participation at all levels.
Universal access to toilets was achieved in Urban India with
the construction of 66 lakh household toilets and more than
6 lakh community and public toilets
1
. Consequently, India
has emerged as an exemplar for the rest of the world.
Providing universal access to toilets is a key milestone in
India’s sanitation journey. However, with only 40% of urban India connected to sewer networks and about
1,200
2
operational/under construction Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs), a majority of the toilets (60%)
3

rely on on-site sanitation systems (OSS).
Faecal Sludge & Septage Management (FSSM) prioritizes human excreta management, a waste stream
with the highest potential for spreading diseases. It is a low-cost and easily scalable sanitation solution
that focuses on safe collection, transportation, treatment, and reuse of human waste. As a result, FSSM
promises a means to achieve the SDG target 6.2 of adequate and inclusive sanitation for all in a timebound
manner.
HUMAN WASTE TREATMENT IN INDIA
Urban centers in India have seen rapid expansion over the
years. However, the infrastructure development being capital
intensive and involving complex engineering takes considerable
time that often cannot match the pace of urbanisation. As a
result, in most metros, sewerage networks extend only to the
core area while peripheral areas remain unserved. In smaller
cities and towns, the coverage is even lower. Based on the
large costs and long time periods associated with building out
sewerage systems, coverage has grown only incrementally over
the last few decades, and that has focused mainly on cities
with populations over a million.
Lack of sanitation affects women and the poor disproportionately
due to fragile health, livelihoods, and support systems. Further,
there is an inequitable burden placed on households dependent
on OSS systems as compared to those connected to sewerage
systems. Those with sewerage services receive subsidized
services in most cities as the cost recovery for formal water
and sewerage systems is very low. However, the urban poor
pay in full for FSSM which is an inequitable burden on them.
FSSM focuses on human waste management at INR 200 – INR 250 per capita as a way to provide
rapid sanitation coverage to all, while the more comprehensive sewerage system costs INR 7,000 – INR
11,000 per capita
4
. FSSM therefore, presents an opportunity to rapidly deliver safely managed sanitation
to all at relatively lower cost.
The impact of inadequate sanitation
A 5m
3
truck of faecal sludge dumped
into the open is the equivalent of
5,000 people defecating in the open.
Source: Mills and Shah. Development Impact Bonds
for Faecal Sludge Management: Opportunities
for Innovation and Scale? Presentation by Social
Finance and USAID (2017).
Key insights
Almost 60% of urban India relies
upon On-site Sanitation Systems
(OSS)
Despite universal toilet access,
a large part of wastewater
generated is discharged
untreated in water bodies or on
land
FSSM enables rapid and cost-
effective provision of safely
managed sanitation to 100%
of the population especially in
small and medium cities with no
provision for treatment of faecal
sludge and in areas not covered
by sewerage systems, even in
larger cities Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
2 Table 1: FSSM complements existing sanitation infrastructure by rapidly addressing human
waste disposal issues
Sanitation System in city/townApplicability of FSSM
Complete sewer coverage with adequate STP
capacity
FSSM required only in growth areas
Partial sewer coverage with adequate STP
capacity
FSSM to complement sewerage with co-treatment
and FSTPs
No sewer coverageFSSM with stand-alone or clustered FSTPs
Table 1 outlines how FSSM can complement different sanitation scenarios across the country.
CURRENT STATE OF FSSM IN INDIA
The government of India has recognized the gaps in sanitation coverage and embarked purposefully to
address them, becoming one of the first countries to announce a national policy on FSSM in 2017.
As shown in Figure 1, the Government has continued to show its commitment towards FSSM through
the launch of ODF+ and ODF++ protocols, an emphasis on FSSM in Swachh Survekshan, as well as
financial allocations for FSSM across AMRUT and NMCG missions.
2015
AMRUT scheme launched for urban
infrastructure includes FSSM
Devanhalli builds India’s first FSTP
2017
National FSSM policy rolled out
2019
FSSM indicators integrated into
Swachh Survekshan
442 towns announce or issue
tender to set up FSTPs
2013
Publication of CPHEEO Septage guidelines
2016
NFSSM Alliance supported MoUD for
a primer and rapid assessment tool
for FSSM budgeting by ULBs
2018
Several States and UTs adopt FSSM specific
policies/guidelines
2020
More than 700 cities/towns in various
stages of FSSM implementation
Figure 1: Timeline of FSSM adoption – India is making rapid strides towards
100% safely managed sanitationFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
3 With the concerted efforts of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), State Governments,
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization (CPHEEO),
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), academia and philanthropic organizations like Bill and Melinda
Gates Foundation (BMGF), FSSM is being strengthened.
The States have sustained this momentum with over 20 states and UTs having adopted FSSM policies
5

and 700+ Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants (FSTPs) being committed, of which 220 are under construction
6

(with 150 operational plants). With 19 out of 36 states and union territories drafting state specific FSSM
guidelines, FSSM is further being mainstreamed. The regulatory frameworks demarcate responsibilities
between various bodies at the state and the local level, support synergies between different schemes for
FSSM, and ensure affordable, appropriate, and sustainable FSSM across the state.
Table 2: State level regulatory guidelines and frameworks for FSSM
StateFSSM frameworks
Andhra PradeshFaecal Sludge and Septage Management: Policy and Operative Guidelines
for Urban Local Bodies in Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh Government Order 134, March 2017
MaharashtraGuidelines for Septage Management, 2016
Government resolution to move beyond ODF to ODF+/++, 2017
Maharashtra state FSSM strategy
Government resolution on co-treatment of faecal waste at STPs, 2018
Government resolution on setting up independent FSTPs at scale,2019
OdishaOdisha Urban Sanitation Strategy
Odisha Urban Sanitation Policy (2016) & ULB’s regulation (2018)
RajasthanDraft Policy on FSSM, 2017
State FSSM Guidelines for urban Rajasthan, 2018
Tamil NaduTamil Nadu Septage Management Operative Guidelines, 2014
TelanganaThe 2018 State Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) Policy
Uttar PradeshGuidelines for FSSM in Uttar Pradesh, 2018
Draft State FSSM Policy, 2019
Apart from the regulatory push, coordinated action on behavior change, through the Malasur campaign,
has been rolled out by the MoHUA and several States. States have shown that with minimal planned
investment, effective FSSM solutions can be delivered and positive impact can be achieved.
While a lot remains to be done to achieve 100% safely managed sanitation as per SDG target 6.2, FSSM
is a viable option for sanitation. This document presents many leading practices to be drawn upon as
FSSM is scaled up.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
4 MAHARASHTRATAMIL NADUODISHAANDHRA PRADESHTELENGANA
Co-treatment in existing
STPs-69
Co-treatment in existing STPs
50
Co-treatment in existing STPs
2
Co-treatment in
existing/proposed STPs
28
Co-treatment in existing STPs
In Hyderabad (12 No.s)
Independent FSTPs
(co-located at SWM plant)
327
All towns covered
Total investment
45 Cr
Total investment
200 Cr
Independent FSTPs
59
Population covered
2.5 Cr (75% urban pop;600 towns)
Total investment
298 Cr
Independent FSTPs
97
Cities covered
ALL
Total investment
259 Cr
Independent FSTPs
77
All towns covered
Total investment
250+ Cr
Independent FSTPs
71 (PPP-HAM)+70
(EPC)
All towns covered
UP also has undertaken Co-treatment* and FSTP implementation in 50+ towns
Co-treatment is the disposal of Faecal Sludge at existing Sewage Treatment Plants with some excess capacity
for treatment along with the incoming sewage. It utilizes existing capacity and is hence cost effective and fast.
Source: NFSSM Alliance analysis
Figure 2: Several states have rolled out FSSM programs at scale with only modest capital outlays
due to cost-effective nature of FSSMFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
5 REFERENCE GUIDE – ABOUT THE REPORT
The document is presenting a variety of leading practices in FSSM in urban India. These service and
business models are identified across the FSSM value chain to cover Containment, Emptying and Transport,
Treatment and Safe Reuse and Disposal of treated faecal waste focused examples. The cases cover state
and city interventions to demonstrate learning from state-wide approaches, city level initiatives, private
sector-led models, community participation and share the progress made in the sector.
This report is intended for city managers, municipal functionaries, elected representatives, state decision
makers, CSOs and private sector players to understand the developments in FSSM and opportunities it
presents.
In total, the report has 27 detailed case studies across 6 Chapters which represent the various stages
of the FSSM value chain. Some cases which cut across more than one stage of the value chain are also
presented as part of Integrated Models in the report. The role that key enablers such as communication,
capacity building, quality assurance and monitoring, play in the successful implementation of FSSM are
presented at the end of the chain to bring attention to these crucial factors.
In addition to this, a set of 8 Exhibits spread across the report, provide innovative models and interventions
across cities and states which have been successfully implemented. These provide insights and practical
ways of implementing the interventions. The report further highlights examples and cases wherein gender
equality, inclusive sanitation and pro-poor strategies are adopted across the value chain.
For each of the case study, a brief abstract provides a window into the intervention and its impact, followed
by the detail of the context, implementation approach, key highlights, impact, reflections, lessons, and
potential for replication in other locations. The section on potential for replication highlights examples
where the same intervention has been adopted in a similar way but in different context, which entails the
case to be considered as scalable.
Stakeholders are encouraged to study in detail the initiatives relevant to their context for taking further
action. Contact details of persons from each organization are at page 156. The respective state urban
department or ULBs may also be contacted for further details.
To facilitate implementation of various initiatives knowledge products are available to benefit Municipal
and other functionaries as showcased in table below.
1. Model Concession Agreement and Model RFP Documents for liquid waste management by NITI
Aayog (Link)
2. Standards, specifications and benchmarks for FSSM (Link)
3. PPP models under HAM, DBFOT, DBOT formats (Link)
4. Model tenders specific to FSSM (Link)
5. Business and service delivery models for various FSSM implementations (along with cost
benchmarks) (Link)
6. Quality Assurance for FSSM – checklists, templates, SOPs, practitioner manuals (Link)
7. Monitoring and Evaluation processes – at various levels e.g.: Database of existing FSTPs for ready
reference, FSTP monitoring protocols (Link)
8. Training modules for orientation to advanced training on FSSM (Link)
9. BCC and IEC materials to drive positive FSSM behaviors (Link)
The details of the case and their positioning across the value chain is depicted on the following pages.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
6 Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models 7 CONTAINMENTEMPTYING & TRANSPORTTREATMENTSAFE REUSE OR DISPOSAL
1. Mobilizing access to sanitation credit and
addressing space issues for Individual
Household Toilets
2. State approaches in managing public
sanitation facilities through women Self-Help
Groups (SHGs)
6. Increasing access to mechanized
desludging
7. Engagement of safai karamcharis through
performance based contracts
8. Scheduled desludging through PPP with a
performance linked annuity model
9. Adoption of standard licensing agreements
for private desludging operators
10. City-wide management of FSM services:
Examples on enabling environment and
service delivery
11. Use of dDigital technology in FSSM
operations
Odisha
Hyderabad
Wai, Sinnar,
Maharashtra
Tamil Nadu
Maharashtra
Jalna, Maharashtra
Telangana & other
states22. Reuse and Resource recoveryWai and Sinnar,
Maharashtra
12. EPC model adopted by state governments for
FSTP construction
13. Connecting urban sanitation and improved river
health - Mainstreaming FSSM
14. Hybrid annuity model (HAM) for FSTP
construction and management
15. Faecal Sludge Management
16. Enabling the scale-up of co-treatment in STPs
17. Engagement of women and transgender SHGs
for O&M of Faecal Sludge treatment plants
18. Creating an ecosystem for sustainable
sanitation
Maharashtra, Odisha
& Tamil Nadu
Chunar, Uttar Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Leh, J&K
Tamil Nadu
Odisha
Madhya Pradesh
23. A State Investment Plan for Scaling FSSM
24. Capacity building for Non-Sewered Sanitation: Learnings from
Sanitation Capacity Building Platform
25. Statewide approach for scaling up FSTP
26. Quality assurance support for implementation of Fecal Sludge
Management plants
27. Malasur - Making the invisible, visible: A citizen facing social and
behaviour change communication campaign on FSSM
Tamil Nadu
NIUA
Maharashtra
Tamil Nadu
Enablers for FSSM planning, scaling up and sustenance
19. Faecal Sludge Management
20. Cluster approach to scale
Fecal Sludge Management
21. 5 years of operations of
Devanahalli plant
Dhenkanal, Odisha
Tamil Nadu
Karnataka
Integrated model
PILLARS OF FSSMGender equity and empowerment | Pro-poor and inclusion
| B ehaviour change and commun ication | Finance | Monitoring
Leading practices on containmentEmptying and conveyanceTreatment and operations Reuse and resource recovery
3. Innovative private sector model for
management of Community and Public
toilets by Saraplast
4. Common septic tanks to address
issues of insanitary toilets and
congested areas
5. Inclusion of standard septic tank design
and inspection under building rules
Pune, Maharastra
Bhubaneswar,
Odisha
Tamil NaduFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
8 CONTAINMENTEMPTYING & TRANSPORTTREATMENTSAFE REUSE OR DISPOSAL
1. Mobilizing access to sanitation credit and
addressing space issues for Individual
Household Toilets
2. State approaches in managing public
sanitation facilities through women Self-Help
Groups (SHGs)
6. Increasing access to mechanized
desludging
7. Engagement of safai karamcharis through
performance based contracts
8. Scheduled desludging through PPP with a
performance linked annuity model
9. Adoption of standard licensing agreements
for private desludging operators
10. City-wide management of FSM services:
Examples on enabling environment and
service delivery
11. Use of dDigital technology in FSSM
operations
Odisha
Hyderabad
Wai, Sinnar,
Maharashtra
Tamil Nadu
Maharashtra
Jalna, Maharashtra
Telangana & other
states
22. Reuse and Resource recoveryWai and Sinnar,
Maharashtra
12. EPC model adopted by state governments for
FSTP construction
13. Connecting urban sanitation and improved river
health - Mainstreaming FSSM
14. Hybrid annuity model (HAM) for FSTP
construction and management
15. Faecal Sludge Management
16. Enabling the scale-up of co-treatment in STPs
17. Engagement of women and transgender SHGs
for O&M of Faecal Sludge treatment plants
18. Creating an ecosystem for sustainable
sanitation
Maharashtra, Odisha
& Tamil Nadu
Chunar, Uttar Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Leh, J&K
Tamil Nadu
Odisha
Madhya Pradesh
23. A State Investment Plan for Scaling FSSM
24. Capacity building for Non-Sewered Sanitation: Learnings from
Sanitation Capacity Building Platform
25. Statewide approach for scaling up FSTP
26. Quality assurance support for implementation of Fecal Sludge
Management plants
27. Malasur - Making the invisible, visible: A citizen facing social and
behaviour change communication campaign on FSSM
Tamil Nadu
NIUA
Maharashtra
Tamil Nadu
Enablers for FSSM planning, scaling up and sustenance
19. Faecal Sludge Management20. Cluster approach to scale
Fecal Sludge Management
21. 5 years of operations of
Devanahalli plant
Dhenkanal, OdishaTamil Nadu
Karnataka
Integrated model
PILLARS OF FSSMGender equity and empowerment | Pro-poor and inclusion |
Behaviour change and commun ication | Finance | Monitoring
Leading practices on containmentEmptying and conveyanceTreatment and operations Reuse and resource recovery
3. Innovative private sector model for
management of Community and Public
toilets by Saraplast
4. Common septic tanks to address
issues of insanitary toilets and
congested areas
5. Inclusion of standard septic tank design
and inspection under building rules
Pune, Maharastra
Bhubaneswar,
Odisha
Tamil NaduFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
9 LEADING PRACTICES IN
CONTAINMENT
SECTION-B 1. MOBILIZING ACCESS TO SANITATION CREDIT AND ADDRESSING
SPACE ISSUES FOR INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLD TOILETS IN JALNA,
MAHARASHTRA
In Jalna, sanitation loans were mobilized for 300 women by linking SHGs to scheduled commercial
banks, through Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal (MAVIM) and its Community Management Resource
Centre (CMRC). An active participation from local aggregators and trainers, such as MAVIM, was
crucial to linking households, SHGs and commercial banks. The construction of an individual toilet in
a limited space was also demonstrated.
The SHG members from MAVIM’s CMRC were linked to banks for sanitation credit. The loans were
disbursed through SHGs and demonstrated that considerably high repayment rates could be achieved
for sanitation loans. The women took leadership and built good quality individual household toilets,
often along with bathrooms. The project has successfully demonstrated that with the provision of
affordable sanitation credit, households could get access to safe sanitation. The model for sanitation
credit is sustainable and can be scaled-up in other States where, institutions like MAVIM have been
working, such as MEPMA in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, Kudumbashree in Kerala among many
others.
I. Context
Since the launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), in 2014 in India, emphasis has been laid on
sanitation and cleanliness in urban areas. The focus of SBM on Individual Household Toilets (IHHT) requires
further attention in the light of the current COVID-19 pandemic. Various studies have demonstrated that
the urban poor, who depend on shared toilets are at a greater risk. The Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) of
WHO-UNICEF also considers ‘shared toilets’ as unsafe sanitation. Public agencies often cite lack of space,
finance and sewerage access as reasons for not being able to make individual household toilets available
for the urban poor. Lack of finance is often unavailability of bridge finance for urban poor to complete toilet
construction. Since only 50% of the INR 12,000 incentive subsidy is available as an advance; there is a
need for credit. In 2018, a survey was conducted by CWAS that found lack of funds and lack of space
were key constraints for building individual household toilets.
This case demonstrates that perceived barriers of lack of finance and space can be overcome if there is
a provision of affordable sanitation credit. It also highlights the radical role played by women in deciding
to own a toilet and lead its construction.
II. Intervention
7
The demonstration case aimed to showcase how provision of sanitation credit through SHGs can lead to
successfully achieving increased access to good quality IHHT. It also aims to help banks, policy makers,
microfinance institutions and women empowerment organizations to better understand demand for
sanitation credit through SHGs and take steps to minimize the risks for commercial bank lenders. The
focus of the exercise was to undertake a pilot demonstration of household sanitation credit for toilet
construction, especially in HHs with limited space.
III. Implementation approach
CWAS partnered with MAVIM to demonstrate household sanitation credit using the SHG-Bank linkage
program for constructing IHHT. MAVIM is the State Women’s Development Corporation of the Government Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
12 of Maharashtra, registered under Section 25 of the Companies’ Act, 1956, by the Department of Women
& Child Development, Government of Maharashtra. The objectives of MAVIM constitute mobilizing and
building an organization for women, enhancing their capacities by providing trainings to increase self-
confidence, and strengthening entrepreneurship among them, and making credit and markets accessible
to them. MAVIM has created people’s institutions–Community Management Resource Centers (CMRC).
These CMRCs generate revenue from services that they provide to SHGs, consequently. 80% of CMRCs
have become self-sufficient. MAVIM’s key role in the demonstration case was to support the CMRC in
implementing and monitoring the project.
Target Group
Identification
Demand
Genera tion
Mobilizing Toilet loan
Applications
Technical
Support
Monitoring &
repayment of loans
Generating demand by building capacities
through workshops and training programs
Responding the demand for toilets through
provision and facilitation of toilet loans
Identification of borrowers through primary
research
Trained staff to provide technical support for toilet
construction and loan facilitation
Timely monitoring for completion of toilets and
repayment of loan s
1
2
3
4
5
Given the presence of a strong CMRC, Jalna was selected as the location for the pilot. This was developed
based on the field experience of MAVIM for similar projects. There are 265 active SHGs in Jalna district,
which work with this CMRC. In order to generate adequate demand and awareness for IHHT and sanitation
credit, multiple sessions were carried-out by an IEC expert. The demand generated through these efforts
among the beneficiaries was met by facilitating access to sanitation credit for building their own toilets.
The sahayoginis and Community Resource Persons (CRPs) were assigned specific clusters based on the
target areas from where they were asked to help mobilize toilet loans. ICICI Bank specifically provided toilet
loans which were routed through the SHGs. Under this arrangement, women borrowers also benefitted
from interest subvention of 7% under NULM, and an additional 3% for SHGs under NULM. The loan
through the ICICI bank was facilitated by conducting loan camps, where bank officials and potential
borrowers were brought on a common platform by the MAVIM-CMRC team. The SHG members were
asked to carry required documents to facilitate quick loan disbursement. This was followed by effective
monitoring to avoid defaults and late repayments. The loan repayment rates are expected to be high, as
the SHGs have been well trained by the CMRC in bookkeeping, monitoring, and maintaining savings.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
13
Figure 3: Awareness generation sessions, loan camp by ICICI Bank, Site visit by technical expert
and CWAS team
The Sahayoginis and CRPs were trained before loans were disbursed. The training was for toilet design
and proper quality of toilets based on user needs. A special toilet training program was conducted by
CWAS where a technical expert trained the CRPs and Sahayoginis regarding the types of toilets, basic
dimensions of septic tanks, and basic cost of toilet construction vis-a-vis the households using them.
After initiation of toilet construction, monitoring for completion of toilets and repayment of loans was
carried out by the Sahayoginis and CRPs. A format was designed to monitor the progress which included:
SHG name, number and name of members, and details of internal loans borrowed and repayment profile.
Apart from MAVIM-CMRC, ICICI Bank also played a vital role in ensuring that installments were paid on
time and there were minimum delays.
By November 2018, more than 270 loans had been mobilized, which was more than the 250 loans
that was targeted under the project. The average cost of an IHHT and a bathroom was INR 45,000.
The loans were mainly borrowed from ICICI Bank with an average loan amount of INR 10,040 and an
average tenure of 9.5 months. The average time of toilet construction was 3.6 months and the monthly
installment was INR 1,150. Most women have preferred to construct good quality ‘durable’ toilets using
in-situ construction. Many have managed to overcome the space constraints and have added toilets,
despite their small houses. Those who were able to afford and had space, have also added bathrooms.
IV. Highlights
The case of MAVIM-SHGs in Jalna demonstrates that women are capable of taking on leadership roles
through collective action. It also demonstrates the importance of agencies such as MAVIM, which can play
a crucial facilitating role to help transform women’s lives. With the creation of such partnerships, banks
also respond by providing sanitation credit to the SHG women. The SHG women in Jalna, with support
from MAVIM, were able to overcome the barriers of lack of finance. These women, with support from
MAVIM and their families were able to repay the loans.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
14 Most of these women stay in slums and belong to the economically weaker sections. But despite their
financial background, all of them have been able to construct toilets and bathrooms.

Figure 4: Images of HHs where in spite of lack of space women have constructed toilets
V. Impact
One of the major impacts of this demonstration
case for 270 SHG women and their families
is that an IHHT provides them with safety,
privacy and above all dignity. During COVID-19
pandemic a telephonic survey was conducted
among the SHG women who had borrowed
sanitation loans. Some of the major impacts of
owning an IHHT as reported by the SHG women
were:
a. Less fear of COVID due to access to
IHHT,
b. Better privacy and improved safety for
women,
c. Better comfort and efficient menstrual
hygiene management for women and
adolescent girls,
d. Easy access for elderly and differently abled.
VI. Reflections and lessons
The success of any project depends on the degree of positive impact it creates for all the stakeholders. The
provision of sanitation credit to HHs has been advantageous to all the stakeholders- toilet loan borrowers,
SHGs, MAVIM-CMRC, and the ICICI Bank.

Images of HHs where women have constructed good
quality toilet and bathroomsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
15 The sanitation credit project has turned aspirations of owning a ‘good quality’ toilet for the borrowers into
reality. The success of the demonstration case can be attributed to:
a. Presence of demand for sanitation credit,
b. Involvement of MAVIM-CMRC, which has a strong grip on its area of operation,
c. Trained and active SHGs,
d. Linkage of SHGs with Banks,
e. Sanitation credit available at affordable rate of interest
VII. Potential for replication
Given the need for sanitation credit in future, there is an opportunity to scale-up this model across the
state, aligning to local conditions and requirements. The role of financial institutions and SHG facilitators
would be the key factors for the model to succeed. MAVIM has a strong presence in Maharashtra with
over 50 CMRC in urban areas. These provide an excellent opportunity to scale-up sanitation credit for
SHGs in urban areas. Most states have a ‘resource organization,’ such as MAVIM in Maharashtra, which
are capable of mobilizing women groups and making credit and markets accessible to them. There are
examples of other states such as Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, among others, where such resource
organizations are active. There is a potential for replication through such organizations. Such credit will
help households to gain access to good quality individual toilets and help move towards universal access
to improved household sanitation.
As observed in the case of Jalna, many cities across Maharashtra have witnessed a similar movement,
where empowered women and their families were able to construct IHHT in small houses by employing
architectural and civil innovation and adaptive reuse of the limited space.
IHHT constructed in limited space in slums in Pune
8
Individual household toilets can be constructed in homes that have space constraints when there is a
strong intent from the owners. To understand how toilets have been constructed by such households,
CWAS supported a study of survey of households in the slums of Pune.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
16
Average sizes of houses surveyed was 16 sqm and average toilet size was 1.5 sqm. Houses
of sizes less than 9 sqm were also able to construct a toilet in their homes.
In most cases, the new toilet was an enclosed space, generally, built at the location of the
former bathroom and combining a bath area and a toilet. However, the bathroom space and
the toilet could also be located in separate spaces depending upon the disposal system.
Some of these HHs that were surveyed were constructed under the ‘One Home One Toilet’ project by
Pune Municipal Corporation in partnership with Shelter Associates (SA).
Lead case study contributor: Center for Water and Sanitation, CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
17 2. STATE APPROACHES IN MANAGING PUBLIC SANITATION FACILITIES
THROUGH WOMEN SELF-HELP GROUPS (SHGS) IN TELANGANA AND
OTHER STATES
Abstract
The State Government of Telangana (GoT) has prioritized sanitation and the health of its citizens
through the provision of toilets in households and in public places. With the belief that women can
play a key role in promoting and sustaining sanitation movements, GoT has taken systematic steps
to encourage their formal participation in sanitation decision-making and service delivery. One such
initiative is the state directive to engage SHGs for operations and maintenance of public sanitation
facilities. Consultations, training programs, model contracts, and monitoring systems have been
concluded, and as on date 150 contracts to SHGs have been operationalized.
I. Context
Telangana, the youngest state in the country, is rapidly urbanizing with close to 40% of its population
living in urban areas. The State has taken several path-breaking initiatives towards enhancing sanitation
service delivery, and it is committed to providing high quality public sanitation facilities and services in
all its 142 towns. In line with this, every Urban Local Body (ULB) is striving to construct public toilets,
community toilets, exclusive toilets for women (SHE toilets) and mobile toilets, in adequate numbers to
meet the demand and sustain the ODF status. While well-designed infrastructure is being constructed,
it is equally important to focus on the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of these facilities through
establishing Service Level Standards, implementing regular monitoring systems, and contracting trained
operators to maintain the facilities.
As in all its other activities, the Government of Telangana (GoT) is applying a pro-poor and gender-
inclusive lens to sanitation by providing opportunities for women to participate in sanitation livelihoods and
entrepreneurship. Through its social development arm, the Mission for Elimination of Poverty in Municipal
Areas (MEPMA), the state is mainstreaming gender in sanitation to empower women and ensure their
financial inclusion. The state developed a strong community outreach structure of women under the aegis
of MEPMA, wherein 10-12 urban women form into a Self Help Group (SHG), around 20 SHGs congregate
into a Slum Level Federation (SLF), and 20-25 SLFs form a Town Level Federation (TLF). Currently, there
are about 12.6 lakh women formed into 1.20 lakh registered SHGs. MEPMA encourages internal savings
and lending among members. It also provides training and financial support to promote entrepreneurship,
livelihoods, and mainstreaming gender in several sectors, including sanitation.
II. Intervention
With the intent to sustain public sanitation facilities in the state, and to provide livelihood opportunities to
women, the GoT decided to engage SLFs/TLFs for operating and regularly maintaining these facilities. This
brought several benefits to the ULB and the community, such as increased ownership and accountability
by the community members who the SLFs represent. The engagement of women in sanitation livelihoods
directly contributed to gender integration, empowerment, and financial independence, as they were
directly involved in decision-making and service delivery. It also contributed to improving their dignity and
acceptance in the society. Further, formal engagement of SLFs in sanitation delivery was encouraged in
national ranking programs such as Swachh Survekshan, Swachhata excellence awards, etc.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
18 III. Implementation approach
The state government had issued directions and guidelines to all the ULBs to implement an effective O&M
plan by engaging the SLFs and by following the standard operating practices detailed in the guidelines.
Further, model contract was developed, and formal contracts were required to be issued between the ULB
and the SLF. The state government also took an approach to standardize the payment for O&M. Following
discussions with the SHG members & ULB officials, and based on learnings from the other state models,
it was decided that the ULB will pay an amount of INR 2500/- (excluding GST) per toilet seat/per month
to the selected SHG member and the payment will be made before the 10th day of every month. The rate
per seat was based on local situation and the nature of the toilet block. Every town had a Town Mission
Coordinator (TMC) employed by MEPMA, selected as the key functionary to drive this process. The TMCs
acted as catalysts between the ULB and the SHG groups for smooth implementation. The Administrative
Staff College of India (ASCI) was engaged as technical and knowledge partner to extend support in this
endeavor.
ENGA GING SLUM LEVEL FEDERA TION (SLF)
IN OPERA TIONS & MAINTENANCE OF
PUBLIC & COMMUNITY TOILET S
Guidance Not e
Toilet
Maintenance
Knowledge P artner: Administrative Staff College of Indi a

Toilet
Maintenance
HOW should ULB proceed ?
Step 1
Commissioner to
hold a mee ting
with ME PMA
Step 2
MEPMA to educat e
and motiv ate SLF
members
Step 3
ULB& MEPMA to
identify and
shortlist the SLF
Step 4
ULBto issue
contract to SLF
Step 5
Capacity B uilding
of SLFby ASCI &
MEPMA
Step 6
Regular r eporting
by SLFto ULB
Step 7
Regular monit oring
by ULB and
MEPMA
A guidance document, with step–by-step process details for ULBs to engage the SLFs for effective O&M of
public/community toilets, was drafted. This document delineated the detailed roles and responsibilities of
all stakeholders, besides the payment structure. To encourage and sensitize the SHG members, MEPMA
conducted online training programs for the TMCs and TLFs of all the towns, with technical support from
ASCI. A certificate-based training was also conducted for all the SLFs who were awarded the contracts. A
total of 1500 women were trained on the importance of safe sanitation, gender integration in sanitation,
contract terms, service standards, O&M procedures, usage of personal protective equipment, record-
keeping, monitoring mechanisms, business skills, and other technical aspects.
After the training session, telephonic interviews were conducted with the individual SLF members, asking
them a set of questions to evaluate their understanding of the whole process. After the evaluation, the
selected members were given certificates and confirmed as eligible to undertake the O&M procedures. For
the members who did not qualify in the evaluation, a second round of training was conducted. The state
had also issued a notification to the ULB to engage only the trained/certified SHG members for the O&M
of PTs/CTs.
IV. Highlights
Telangana became one of the first states in India to develop a systematic approach towards gender
integration in sanitation. To date, over 150 contracts have been issued to the SLF members for the
O&M of public and community toilets for a period of one year. A per seat price of INR 2500 (excluding
taxes) has also been finalized. Moreover, in order to financially benefit the SHG members, the contract
indicated that all major expenses such as monthly water and electricity bills, desludging septic tank, repair/
installations in the toilet would be borne by the ULB. To monitor the performance of the SHG, monthly Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
19 review meetings were conducted. Apart from this, the state also launched a real-time monitoring system
for public sanitation facilities called Pattana Pragathi Toilet Monitoring system (PPTMS). Using the PPTMS
app the sanitary inspector can evaluate the toilet block weekly twice on the well-defined parameters.
V. Impact
This initiative by the Telangana Government is in the initial stages of promoting women empowerment
and is progressing well. SHGs are finding it profitable, and each contract is earning a monthly average of
INR 10,000 or more, based on the average seat size of four, for maintenance. Since they are managed
by women caretakers, the usage of public sanitation facilities by women increased in the toilet blocks
contracted to SHG members. The state has commissioned detailed impact studies on the livelihoods of
the SHG members, along with a study to identify areas of improvement and any unintended consequences
of the intervention.
VI. Reflections and lessons
SHG members are more acceptable as sanitation messengers among community members. They, therefore,
contribute to the adoption of safe hygiene practices by toilet users and by members of the community in
general thus contributing to sustaining safe sanitation. Further, their participation as PT/CT operators has
led to enhanced usage of toilets particularly by women.
VII. Potential for replication
The GoT had laid a systematic approach to involve women groups with handholding support and laid
a clear roadmap for this transformational change. The financial support of INR 2500 per toilet seat per
month was well accepted by the SHG groups and showcased a potential for replication in other states.
As a result, a similar initiative has already been adapted in Andhra Pradesh.
Similar kind of initiative has been taken in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and
Tamil Nadu states. Details are mentioned below:
In Maharashtra, it was implemented in Hingoli city. A resolution was passed in June 2017 to involve
SHGs in O&M of all CTs/PTs in the city. An arrangement was made that each Area Level Federation
(ALF) would be given the responsibility of maintaining the CT/PT in designated areas. The work orders
were signed by the ALF and the ULB, with an engagement period of 3 years. A total of 21 toilet
blocks were contracted to 5 ALF members and the monthly payment of INR 13,200 was made to
each ALF. Under the supervision of ALFs, the SHG members successfully managed the operations of
CT/PT, and the users of the CT/PT gained a satisfactory experience of the toilets. In comparison, the
contract in Hingoli was signed by the ALF member, whereas, in Telangana, the contract was made
with the SHG member.
In Uttar Pradesh, Siddharthnagar district had taken a similar initiative but within a rural context. To
make villages ODF+, the District Administration of Siddharthnagar took the initiative to construct
Community Sanitary Complexes (CSCs) to cater to the needs of the floating/migrant population, as
well as of those households, which do not have individual household toilets owing to a lack of
space. As per the directive of the State, it was decided to construct at least one CSC per gram
panchayat. Accordingly, the district set a target of constructing 1139 CSCs in various villages. The
detailed guidelines were issued by the Department regarding proper operation and maintenance of the
CSCs. In a Government order, it was suggested that good SHGs could be assigned for operation andFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
20 maintenance of the CSCs. As per the order, an amount of INR 6000/- was to be paid to the agency
for cleaning the CSC twice a day and INR 3000/- to be paid monthly for procuring sanitizing agents
and other petty expenses. 11 SHGs were handed over the responsibility of care and maintenance of
the CSCs. Gradually, the number increased to 353 SHGs, which signed the MoU for proper care and
maintenance of the CSCs.
In Odisha, operation and maintenance of CTs/PTs in 8 cities was been handed over to women and
transgender SHGs to ensure community engagement and empower vulnerable communities for a
sustained livelihood. Similar to the Telangana model, Odisha followed the process of Identification
of interested SHG members from wards in the cities; Selection of SHG members and training them.
A memorandum of understanding (MoU) was also signed between the SHG and the ULB, with a
continuous handholding support provided by the ULB and the State. To help the SHGs purchase
additional cleaning supplies and take on other need-based activities, the State also provided access
to seed financing.
In Tamil Nadu, Trichy city has adopted a similar approach to the management of its CT/PTs. Two
decades ago, with support from Water Aid, Non-Governmental Organisation, Gramalaya, organised
volunteers from SHGs as Sanitation, Hygiene, Education (SHE) teams to manage some toilets facilities.
However, further support was needed towards efficient service provision along with sustainability
and accountability. To address this, CT/PTs run by SHE team were strengthened through the City-
Wide Inclusive Sanitation (CWIS) programme. The objectives were to improve O&M and increase
the financial sustainability of CT/PTs, in order to increase their usage and ensure reduction in the
incidence of open defecation. Starting the initiative with support to 40 SHE teams, the programme
has grown to bring new teams in other neighborhoods. SHE teams are now responsible for the
operation and maintenance of around 150 public conveniences in the city. The initiative involved
mobilising and capacitating women to operate CT/PTs along with broader outreach work. Towards this
they were trained on various aspects including team building, record keeping and reporting, CT O&M
and financial sustainability. SHE teams were federated as Women’s Action in Village Empowerment
(WAVE) Federation with one member from each SHE team joining the WAVE Federation. The federated
approach allows for cross-subsidisation, with toilets with higher footfall and hence higher revenue
contributing towards the upkeep of other toilets in lower footfall areas. Regular supervisory meetings
and mechanisms have been instituted through the Federation. With 150 She teams, nearly 400 women
have received training. In addition, vulnerable members of communities are provided employment, as
those who are physically challenged, destitute, widowed or old are typically appointed as caretakers at
the facilities. The teams simultaneously work to increase awareness on sanitation and hygiene within
their communities, including ill-effects of open defecation, importance of well-maintained toilets and
depute a person for solid waste management.
Lead case study contributor: Administrative Staff College of India (ASCI)
Other contributors: Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT University; CSE; IIHS and EYFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
21 3. INNOVATIVE PRIVATE SECTOR MODEL FOR MANAGEMENT OF
COMMUNITY AND PUBLIC TOILETS BY SARAPLAST
Abstract
Swachh Bharat Mission was established in 2014 to eradicate lack of sanitation facilities and spread
awareness about health and hygiene amongst the common people in India. More than 10 crore toilet
units have been built in India from 2014 to current year which includes individual and public toilets
in rural and urban areas. Although the lack of sanitation facilities is being addressed through the
building of toilets, but the maintenance and cleaning services remain in despair especially in public
spaces. Unhygienic and unsafe public toilet facilities keep the women away from using these places
and even if they use them due to lack of alternatives, it results in them contracting various infections
and poor gynecological health.
Women from low income communities, daily wage laborers, municipality workers cleaning the city,
police workforce on patrol, middle class women and teens on the move for work and education are
all a part of vulnerable group who do not have access to any public toilet facilities in urban areas.
Saraplast Pvt Ltd., a Pune based organization has been a pioneer in the portable sanitation solutions
industry in India since 1999 and in 2016 decided to intervene and participate in the sanitation facilities
exclusively for women in the public spaces. Saraplast is actively contributing towards the achievement
of SDG (Sustainable Development Goals) 6.2 to achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation
and hygiene for all and underserved.
In collaboration with Pune Municipal Corporation and Pune Smart City, Saraplast has launched Ti
Centers (TiC) as public toilets for women. The organization renovates old buses as public toilets and
positions them above existing infrastructure, such as water and sewerage lines beneath the ground.
The idea of using toilets made from buses has allowed the organization to start operations faster by
building and placing infrastructure on the ground, and in turn given them access to prime locations
Such prime locations are more convenient for women to access since they are not placed in secluded
areas .
I. Context
Pune is the second largest city in the Indian state of Maharashtra, and the eighth most populous city in
India, with an estimated population of 7.4 million, as of 2020. It has been ranked as “the most livable
city in India” several times. In Pune city, poor sanitation services pose a serious risk of infectious diseases
to all, but especially to women, who are more exposed to human excreta. It threatens the following
development parameters.
Health: According to the WHO in 2019, of India’s 827 000 people in low- and middle-income group die
as a result of inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene each year, representing 60% of total diarrheal
deaths. Poor sanitation is believed to be the main cause in some 432 000 of these deaths.
Education: In 2019, 12% of decline in admission of girls in schools in India was recorded due to lacked
separate toilets for boys and girls. In India, about 23 million girls drop out of school every year due to
lack of awareness of menstrual health and lack of clean toilets.
Productivity: Illnesses caused by a lack of safe sanitation result in a loss of productive potential for not
only those afflicted, but also other family members, especially women, who are compelled to take care
of the unwell.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
22 II. Intervention
GToilet Integration Centres (TiCs) are integrated sanitation hubs created by refurbishing old buses
and are operated by trained female attendants. They operate entirely on solar energy and can
be connected to a drainage system, eliminating the need for sewage evacuation. The facilities
also provide clean water supply for flushing and handwashing. They carry a variety of features
like western and Indian toilets, water-efficient taps, panic buttons, digital feedback systems,
solar-operated lights. Besides these features, these hubs run on revenue models featuring points
for the sale and disposal of female hygiene products, breastfeeding spas, shopping kiosk, café,
consulting rooms, health center, apps to locate toilets, google mapping, and toilet rating for other
toilets, too.
GThe key objective of TiCs is to increase access to quality & affordable safe sanitation and
hygiene services. Use of hygienic and safe sanitation services will influence behaviors of women
towards healthy sanitation practices, contributing to positive health outcomes.
GBusiness objectives: Currently, Saraplast has strategically placed 12 TiCs in Pune, across
locations that target women from low income group. In terms of operationalizing the model,
Saraplast has an ongoing MoU signed with the Pune Municipal Corporation allowing operation
of the service at feasible and high-impact locations. Saraplast is exploring revenue models like
providing space for advertising, selling sanitary napkins and bottled water, in order to break even
to reach economic sustainability.
GSocial Objectives: TiCs, as a safe sanitation solution, complements the efforts under the
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan of the Government of India, towards sustaining the status of open
defecation free (ODF) cities. It supports coverage across three target segments: women in slum
clusters, women among floating populations, women vendors/workers in public places like
market yards and small informal business centers. The solution also proposes a series of value-
added elements such as provision of a dedicated monitoring and evaluation team to capture
intended impact in a consistent manner; development of a relevant M&E framework and data
collection plan to capture key data elements like number of users, user profile, and behavior
change factors like handwashing, use of sanitary pads; and timely assessments to strengthen
service effectiveness. Moreover, based on the usage data and efficacy-testing, a substantial
amount of capital shall be raised to invest in replicating the model across more towns and
cities in the next 5 years.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
23 III. Implementation approach
In 2016, Saraplast Pvt Ltd collaborated with Pune Municipal Corporation for operating these centers with
a vision to make these centers self-sustainable and to provide safe sanitation solution to the low-income
group in India. Consequently, Saraplast provided the following support:
GUndertake daily operations and
maintenance based on applicable revenue
models
GModify and revamp an existing public bus
to TiC WASH facilities
GTrain local women entrepreneurs and
build their capacity to operate the facility
There is a tripartite agreement in setting up this
facility among: 1. ULB, which provides capex,
relevant permissions, water and energy connections
etc., 2. Women Entrepreneurs responsible for
operating the infrastructure, and, 3. 3S Saraplast,
who provides program support
Support from 3S Saraplast
Project conceptualization, project
feasibility, O&M, capacity building
of women entrepreneurs,
program monitoring; Locations of
these centers will be selected by
Sara Plast;
Support from Government
Along with Capex and Opex for
first six months, Providing
necessary permissions for a
public toilet space (with high
footfall), permissions as required
for revenue generation, and
water and energy connections
Support from women entrepreneurs
Provide clean toilet and
handwash facilities, Provide
health care support, Sale of
products and services,
Community engagement,
awareness crwation and training
IV. Highlights
The Program aimed to provide WASH access to women
GAround 355 million women in India lack access to adequate safe sanitation facilities
GImproved safe sanitation would result in less exposure to infectious diseases for women, relief
from the fear of assault, and loss of dignity from relieving in the open
The Program focused on women empowerment
GThere has been a growing conversation towards economic empowerment of women and the
growth in dual-income households
Government
Achieve WASH goals
and social dignity of
women; Access to private
sector funding and job
opportunities
for women
Urban Women
Access to WASH
facilities for urban
women; Reduced
social safety
challenges for
women
Women
Entrepreneurs
Enhanced
business opportunities
for women
entrepreneurs
3S
Saraplast
Social
ProgramFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
24
GWith this shift, an increasing number of women, even in a low-income bracket, are now
experiencing and exercising greater mobility than ever before
The Program is environment-friendly
V. Impact
The buses in Pune and Hyderabad are been used
over 2,00,000 times by women and girls. These
toilets are a private, safe, women-only space, which
can be used for women to learn about potentially
sensitive women’s health issues. The women will
be given access to health information in the form of
leaflets, videos, and talks on women’s health issues,
as well as to sessions on nutrition advice and yoga.
The project directly addresses SDG 6.2 relating to
the eradication of open defecation alongside SDG
9 (target 9c) relating to providing access to the
internet. The project also contributes to meeting
SDG3 (Health), SDG4 (Education) and SDG5
(Gender Equality), which, over the long-term, leads
to the achievement of SDG1 (Poverty). This project
will benefit women both as potential sanipreneurs
and operators of these toilets and also as consumers of the toilets, café, and health services.
VI. Reflections and lessons
Till date, the project has served over 2,00,000 women, in cities like Pune, Hyderabad, and Andaman
Islands. This project has received remarkable attention on different media like social media channels and
on various news channels. The expansion of the project depends on creating the right kind of partnerships
with local government bodies and women entrepreneurs to feature relevant government advertisements on
TiCs facilities, and to create online/retails hub for local women and women entrepreneurs to shop different
products and to sell their home made products and retail hygiene products like hand wash/hand sanitizers/Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
25 sanitary products. This would help in building a hygiene care center at one of the TiCs facilities to sell
hygiene products for women.
VII. Potential for replication
GThe project has been replicated in the low-income communities of Narayanpet and Jalpally, near
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
GOld shipping containers have been converted into TiCs Health Centers, to innovatively address
the shortage of availability of suitable location space
GThe project has partnered with health providers to operate, run and provide health services to
the citizens of these towns

Lead case study contributor: Saraplast Pvt LtdFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
26 4. COMMON SEPTIC TANKS TO ADDRESS ISSUES OF INSANITARY
TOILETS AND CONGESTED AREAS IN BHUBANESWAR, ODISHA
Abstract
In 2019, 114 urban local bodies in Odisha had self-declared themselves as 100% Open Defecation
Free (ODF) cities/towns. However, rapid assessment conducted for nine AMRUT Mission towns in June
2017, observed that out of the sample size of 780 households in Bhubaneswar, 28% toilets were
insanitary. Similarly, in other cities, almost 15%-20% toilets were insanitary.
I. Context
While Odisha has declared all cities as ODF and is a front runner in the country in achieving ODF++,
the government is taking steps to convert insanitary toilets to sanitary toilets. Under Swachh Bharat
Mission (SBM), there is a provision for converting insanitary latrines to sanitary latrines. A total amount
of INR 8,000 is provided under SBM to a marginalized community i.e., INR 4,000 from Government of
India (GoI) and INR 4,000 from Government of Odisha (GoO). In case of non-marginalized communities,
a total amount of INR 6,667 (INR 4,000-GoI and INR 2,667-GoO) is provided. However, in slums non-
availability of land for each household to have a containment unit is an issue. This leads to the need for a
community septic tank. A community septic tank is a cost-effective model as compared to the individual
containment unit.
This can be demonstrated by the following example: An individual latrine along with containment unit
costs approximately INR 25,000-30,000 for a household with five members, while a community septic
tank costs approximately INR 17,000 per household.
II. Intervention
A community septic tank has been constructed in Maa Mangala slum of Bhubaneswar within the SBM-
Urban scheme. The scheme was technically supported by Tata Trust who provided detailed engineering
support while the funding was from SBM-U and the households. Along the same lines, Berhampur
Municipal Corporation is piloting the construction of community septic tank in a ward with 27 households,
owned by masons.
III. Implementation approach
Identify and map
clusters of
insanitary toilets
ULB checks for
availability of land
in the community
Stakeholder consultations-
importance of sanitary
toilets and the financials
Fund allocation for
septic tank construction
ULB facilitates detailed
engineering through
Engineering Dept.
123
Construction of
Septic tank
6
Onboarding
contractors
Through skilled
labourers in the
community
Capacity building of
community for O&M
of septic tank
7
54Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
27 1. To initiate this intervention, the ULB must list out the number of households that have insanitary
toilets. Typically, the sanitary inspector of each ward is aware of this scenario and data can be
collated at ULB level. This data can then be mapped to identify clusters wherein a community
septic tank could be built.
2. Post mapping, a ground level assessment is required to locate land for construction of a
community septic tank. The land should be at a lower elevation from households to enable
gravity flow of septage from toilets to the septic tank
3. Once the cluster has been identified and land availability has been ensured, the next step would
be to convince the community to construct a safe onsite system. This can be done through
focused group discussions iterating the importance of sanitary toilets and impact of unsafe
practices.
4. Post this, sources of funding must be identified for construction. Potential sources of funds
include SBM, CSR, community funds, loans from Micro Finance Institutions and so on.
5. While the funds are being sourced, the parallel activity to be taken up should be the finalization
of design of the community septic tank. In Berhampur, the design has been provided by
technical support unit along with support from engineering section of the ULB. Plumbing design
will vary based on the location
6. A stakeholder consultation on O&M of the community septic tank must be organized by
the ULB/technical support unit post the construction. The training will focus on the typical
plumbing maintenance required and on desludging the same within in 2-3 years. During the
consultation, the communities should agree to pay for the same.
IV. Highlights
GThe initiative demonstrated the potential to solve the menace of insanitary latrines
GCommunity septic tanks were constructed without any requirement of funds from external
agencies. It was constructed purely through personal funds from the community members and
incentives received under SBM.
GThe probability of success is high as there is only one responsibility of the community post
construction, viz. desludging once the septic tank is full.
V. Impact
GCreation of database for insanitary toilets at ULB level and State level: Currently, the latest
data available on insanitary toilets is of Census 2011. Since census is updated every decade, it
is difficult to monitor the situation of sanitary toilets. Therefore, a database of the same can be
maintained at ULB level. This can be collated and updated in the SBM dashboard.
GPost construction of community septic tanks, the desludging of the same can also be recorded.
GPolicy interventions to provide financial support: Subsidized rates for construction of community
septic tanks can be introduced as a policy intervention. This can enable scaling this initiative
in other towns.
GCreating awareness on importance of sanitary toilets: Onboarding the community is one of the
important steps to initiate the construction of the community septic tank. In Berhampur, the
Corporation initiated the conversation for construction of septic tank followed by stakeholder Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
28 consultations. Overall, to scale up the intervention, it is essential to generate demand from the
communities and to do so, frequent IEC should be considered.
VI. Reflections and lessons
GThe community requires technical and handholding support for design and construction
GThe design of the septic tank has to be prepared for each site individually. A “one size fits all”
kind of solution will not do.
VII. Potential for replication
GThis intervention is replicable in across India for any city or town with low income communities,
insanitary latrines and dearth of available land for individual latrines. It may also be replicated
in areas where there is land available but due to low income, communities discharge their toilet
waste directly into the open. As the cost of construction is shared among the community, the
cost of construction per household reduces, making this a more viable option.
GIn Odisha, to demonstrate the success of this intervention, it is envisaged to construct ten
more community septic tanks in areas with prevalence of insanitary toilets and faulty design of
septic tanks. In Berhampur, the capacity building for the O&M of the tanks will be taken up by
the Technical Support Unit for Faecal Sludge and Septage Management with support from the
Corporation. To enable the same in other cities, the same can be taken up by training the local
Self-Help Groups and Community Organizers. This will help in sustaining the process within the
ecosystem.
Savda Ghevra – Simplified sewers
GThe Savda Ghevra colony was set up by the Government on the margins in rural northwest
Delhi. In 2007, nearly 8,500 families were given housing plots at Savda Ghevra, but were
not provided a sewerage system or potable water lines. There is no provisioning of these
services in the master plan for the city till 2021.
GEach block has a community toilet complex which is poorly maintained and filthy. Residents
are forced to defecate in the open as the complex is closed at night. For those who can
afford to have built toilets in their homes, there is an absence of a sewerage system. These
toilets are connected to small underground pits to collect the faecal sludge.
GThe twin-pit technology adopted in rural areas, where families have more outdoor space is
not suitable here because the small room is their only living space. Residents used to spend
INR 600 every two months for desludging. In some houses the water from the faecal sludge
seeped into their walls, and the already unstable walls were being further corroded.
GCURE did a pilot project to provide a simplified sewerage in one block. Simplified sewerage
is an innovative and affordable option, particularly for high density settlements. It is a
sanitation solution for populations that remain unserved. Simplified sewerage uses small
diameter pipes to transport human waste. The pipes are laid under the street at a shallow
depth. There is no need for large and expensive maintenance holes. The sewage is carried
to a decentralized cluster septic tank to treat the effluents. The tank, which has a capacity
of 4 lakh liters, has been built under the community park. The project has costed INR 40
lakh and it is estimated that investment costs are reduced by nearly 50% compared to
conventional sewerage.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
29
GThe Delhi Urban Shelter Improvement Board has partnered the project, by allotting funds
for rebuilding the road after sewer lines are laid. Residents whose toilets are connected
through this system will pay INR 30 a month for maintenance costs. A management team
of residents was also trained. Many of households have connected their toilets to the system.
Shared septic tanks in Khopoli and Sinnar, Maharashtra
To tackle the problems of space and funds in toilet
construction, Khopoli Municipal Corporation (KMC) developed
an innovative solution to construct a group septic tank for a
number of individual toilets in close vicinity. Group septic tank
of appropriate size was designed to cater to 25-30 household
toilets. 10 septic tanks have been already constructed in one
slum area. An underground pipeline connecting toilets to septic
tank has been laid by the KMC. These group septic tanks are
desludged once in a month by the KMC. After assuring that
this approach worked well in one slum, KMC designed group
septic tanks in other slums. Construction cost of a septic tank
varies between Rs. 50,000 to 80,000 depending on the tank
size, which is borne by the KMC. The household had to only
pay for own toilets. Many households have come forward to
build their individual toilets under the SBM.
Septic tank shared by two households in Sinnar
In this case, the house on the first floor was unable to construct a toilet as there was no separate and
space for a septic tank. They decided to build a shared tank with the house on the ground floor and
toilets form both houses were connected to it.
Lead case study contributor: Ernst & Young LLP
Other contributors: Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
30 5. INCLUSION OF STANDARD SEPTIC TANK DESIGN AND INSPECTION
UNDER BUILDING RULES IN TAMIL NADU
Abstract
Nearly 70% of Tamil Nadu’s households depend on on-site sanitation systems (OSS) and the proper
construction and maintenance of these is critical to ensure safe sanitation. However, most of the
existing OSSs are constructed following non-standard or outdated practices. In Tamil Nadu, the
Municipal Building Rules, 1972, which were inclusive of standards for sanitation systems were to be
revised. A review of current procedures for construction, approval and monitoring of on-site sanitation
systems was undertaken and suggestions were made to the Government of Tamil Nadu. Few of these
suggestions have been incorporated in the Tamil Nadu Combined Development and Building Rules
(TNCD&BR) issued in 2019, and have been presented here.
I. Context
The state of Tamil Nadu with an urban population of 34.9 million (~ 48% of the state population, is one
of the most urbanized states in India as per Census 2011. In urban Tamil Nadu, about 70% households
depend on various types of on-site sanitation systems (OSS) like septic tanks and pits (NSSO, 2017).
With a huge population dependent on OSS, there are several issues that can be identified to safe OSS:
Gnon-standard construction, operation and maintenance
Gnon-adherence to standards due to limitations of space and budget
Gdesign standards not updated to meet current needs and
Ginstitutional challenges.
The construction of OSS is dependent on households and establishments, which are limited by lack of
adequate knowledge on standards, budgetary limitations, and /or space constraints leading to unsafe
construction practices. Additionally, the standards for construction need to be updated regularly from the
perspective of existing site conditions to meet safety requirements. The challenges to proper construction
of OSS are not only about conforming to standards, but also include institutional gaps, lack of masonry
capacity and land issues, which need to be addressed concurrently.
II. Intervention
The proper construction and maintenance of toilets and OSS is critical to ensure safe sanitation services for
a large proportion of the population in urban Tamil Nadu. The compliance to standards such as minimal
distance between the containment systems and any source of drinking water is particularly important as
it threatens the health of water sources.
While there is a need to retrofit existing systems to comply with relevant compliance standards, there
is also an opportunity to properly design and construct new toilets and containment structures. In this
context, a set of new building regulations have been proposed in Tamil Nadu.
The existing process gaps can be broadly classified as:
GInformation gap in the building application process for new construction and
GImplementation gap in the monitoring and issuance of completion certificate.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
31 To address these gaps in the policy making and implementation exercises, current rules, regulations,
standards, and best practices in India, including proposed model rules by the State and Central Government
for toilets and containment system, were analyzed. On the basis of this, suggestions were made to
the Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN), with support from the Tamil Nadu Urban Sanitation Support
Programme.
III. Implementation approach
The existing provisions of the Tamil Nadu District Municipalities Building Rules (MBR), 1972
9
with respect
to sanitation requirement i.e. toilets and containment systems were reviewed in detail. The gaps in
terms of design standards, approval process, inspection and monitoring were systematically recorded.
Further discussions were held with government officers in Tiruchirappalli City Corporation (TCC), and at
Town Panchayats (TPs) of Periyanaicken-Palyam and Narsimhanaicken-Palyam, to understand the process
followed at the ground level for approving building plan and building construction with respect to sanitation
systems. Based on these interactions, the procedures for construction, approval and monitoring sanitation
systems in the existing municipal building rules, 1972 were mapped, which facilitated identification of
areas requiring streamlining.
Suggestions for streamlining information: The information provided in the application for building
construction approval is usually limited to only existence of toilet(s) (in the plan) and a mention of treatment
structure and capacity in words. However, to ensure properly designed OSS, it was recommended to
include certain key provisions in the application during the construction of toilets and septic tanks. These
include:
GNeed for water-seal (e.g. S or P trap) to make the toilet sanitary in the case of pour-flush or
cistern-flush toilets
GMinimum size and dimensions (L: W: D) for different numbers of users
GWater tightness of floor and sidewalls of septic tank
GProvision for access to containment structure – for inspection, cleaning and desludging
GNeed to connect to soak-away and distance from nearest drinking water source
GProvision of the type of containment structure and the cross-section of the toilet and containment
structure provided
Suggestions for streamlining implementation: On completion of the construction of OSS, the verification
process of compliance to design standards needed to be augmented in most Urban Local Bodies (ULBs),
particularly in smaller ULBs. Both lack of adequate staff, and absence of proper systems, to ensure regular
inspection and monitoring were noted. In the interest of sustainability, these gaps, along with institutional
gaps, found during inspection and monitoring process, following construction, needed to be addressed. In
order to achieve this, simple steps were suggested, such as:
Gsubmitting photographs and geo-tags (longitude and latitude) of the containment structure being
constructed showing recommended standards
Guploading/submitting photographs during the construction stage
Gsubmitting completed photographs to officers during final inspection.
IV. Highlights
The suggestions made to the building rule have sought to address both information and implementation
gaps in construction of OSSs. Most importantly, this has sought to leverage technology and support Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
32 monitoring even while construction is on-going, which supports modifications, if required. To reduce the
demands on municipal authorities, it was recommended that:
GAllow verification through photographs and mandate physical verifications strictly for defaulting
households and on a small sample of the compliant households,
GDepute competent authorities from the nearest Municipalities for verification.
V. Impact
The Tamil Nadu Combined Development and Building rules (TNCD&BR) issued in 2019 clearly stated
that the location, design and construction of the septic tank shall conform to requirements of the National
Building Code and follow provisions laid out in G.O.Ms. No 106, MAWS Dept., dated 01.09.2014. The
revised rule issued in 2019 incorporated key features, such as:
GThe dimensions of septic tanks for different number of users
GInclusion of access requirements for desludging
GThe need for minimal distance of 18 metres between the containment systems and from any
source of drinking water, such as wells, to mitigate the possibility of bacterial pollution of water
supply.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
33 VI. Reflections and lessons
The TNCD&BR 2019 is applicable to all ULBs across Tamil Nadu. While the building rules issued in 2019
address gaps in information, the bigger challenge lies in monitoring and securing approval of constructed
systems to function in safe conditions, which needs to be addressed.
The TNUSSP programme is providing training to masons and government officers to ensure conformity to
design standards of toilet and containment systems. Further, the programme also aimed to ensure wider
dissemination of standards to larger public. Consequently, recommendations for proper construction of
septic tanks have been developed as a poster on “Do’s and Don’ts of septic tanks” poster and a short
film. The posters and the short film have been widely disseminated amongst various stakeholders such
as masons, registered professionals developing plans for containment systems, communities, households,
desludging operators and government officers.
VII. Potential for replication
The recommendations for the Tamil Nadu Combined Development and Building rules (TNCD&BR), 2019
conform to the National Building Code, IS codes. Therefore, they can be easily adopted by other states
into the respective building rules. The recommendations clearly delineate the technical requirements for a
proper containment system supported by adequate cross-sectional drawings. The supporting audio-visual
communication materials on proper construction of sanitation systems can be easily disseminated to a
wide range of sanitation stakeholders as part of a behavior change campaign.
Integration of containment system in online building plan approval
systems: Telangana
Telangana is the first state in India to introduce toilet containment system in the online building plan
scrutiny and approval systems for construction as a mandatory requirement for building permission. This
is generally not part of the building approval processes in other parts of the country. This has resulted
in construction of many buildings with toilets but no containment systems or with underperforming
septic tanks because of incorrect design and sizing. In Telangana, the requirements for the toilet
containment system have been finalized on the basis of the guidelines for design and construction
given in the CPHEEO Manual and IS 2470. The design parameters of the toilet superstructure and
septic tank are assessed through a simple site verification process before the occupancy certificate is
released.
The IT enabled Auto DCR system with integrated scrutiny of containment parameters, was introduced
in 2017. This system has ensured that all new buildings in the state have safe toilets, as the
Development Permission Management System (DPMS) enforce the Toilet and Sanitation Regulations
while the building permissions are being issued. This has also enhanced the existing Mobile App with
checklists for the ease of verification by the town planning inspectors. There has been standardization
of the process across the state of Telangana. A sample survey of 400 new buildings in Warangal city
to test the effectiveness of the system showed a compliance rate of 98%.
Lead case study contributor: Indian Institute for Human Settlements
Other contributors: ASCIFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
34 LEADING PRACTICES IN
EMPTYING AND
CONVEYANCE
SECTION-C Conveyance of faecal sludge and septage is the most critical part of the sanitation value chain. It is
essential that this component of the value chain is well functioning for the entire value chain to function.
This step takes the same role as a sewerage network of transporting the waste generated at a household
level to the treatment facilities, but in a much more cost-effective manner. However, it is this component
that requires highest amount of management as this part is most prone to pilferage.
Currently, there are several models of operation for conveyance that are prevalent in the country. All the
modes of operation have their own sets of benefits. Some of the leading examples with their benefits are
mentioned in the table below.
Table 3: Comparative table for state models for emptying and conveyance including
licensing, SPOs, etc.
S. NoBusiness model prototypes
Implementing
examples
Benefits
1 Full private model Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu
Low ULB financial and
implementation capacity needs
2 Full government model Small cities in
Maharashtra
No contracting and minimal
monitoring arrangements needed
3 a. Government-owned
vehicles and leased
to private players for
operations
b. Government owned
vehicles run by the
government
c. Private owned vehicles
OdishaLow ULB implementation capacity
needs Higher performance levels due
to the private sector operations
Market driven prices
SLBs of less than three days per
service
Subsidized services
Rurban clustering
4 PPP Annuity model Wai and Sinnar,
Maharashtra
Reduces the capex burden for local
governments; result in higher service
levels; Guaranteed fees result in
competitive bid Prices
5 PSP Annuity model Leh Government capex may incentivize
more and smaller private providers to
participate
6 Government owned and
leased to SHG
OdishaEmpowering the marginalizedFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
36 6. INCREASING ACCESS TO MECHANIZED DESLUDGING IN ODISHA
Abstract
In the FSSM value chain, emptying and transportation of faecal sludge/septage is a crucial component.
The government realized that more than 30% of the urban population has only narrow inaccessible
lanes, which posed a hindrance for safe emptying. To cater to the extension of mechanized desludging
services, the Government of Odisha (GoO) has been actively procuring mini cesspool emptier vehicles
with a capacity of 1000 liters. As of now, 46 ULBs across the Odisha have procured these small
vehicles. These vehicles ensure safe mechanized emptying for such populations.
Similarly, double booster pumps can also provide access to mechanized desludging. This is an award-
winning intervention from Leh. These interventions have the potential to, further, strengthen the fight
against manual scavenging and can cater to more than 35% of the Indian populace.
I. Context
Odisha is experiencing fast urbanization, which is accompanied by the challenges of providing people of the
state with good quality basic amenities such as water and sanitation. Delivering on its commitment to the
cause of creating safe, healthy and sanitized towns and cities, the Government of Odisha took initiatives
four years ago to focus on safe containment, safe transportation, safe disposal, and safe treatment of faecal
waste. Considering the predominance of on-site systems in urban Odisha, the government realized that
sewer networks cannot be the only solution for wastewater management. The government has decided to
opt for low cost, impactful non-sewer sanitation systems to make cities environmentally clean and safe
for the citizens.
Odisha government had also brought cesspool vehicles for ULBs using state funds in 2015 and ensured
availability of cesspool vehicles with all the ULBs for safe collection and transport of faecal sludge/septage.
The State government has recently taken an active step in procuring Mini Cesspool Vehicles (MCVs) with
an objective of accessing households in narrow lanes.
Recently held survey shows that more than 30% of the households in Berhampur have roads with less
than 2 meters of width. This makes it inaccessible to a majority of the existing STVs of 3000 litre and
4500 liters capacities owned by the ULB and private operators. Therefore, the Berhampur Municipal
Corporation has procured a 1000 liters vehicle and has set up a desludging charge of INR 600 for a
single trip.
II. Initiative / intervention
In order to provide mechanized desludging throughout Odisha, the government took proactive steps in
procuring Mini Cesspool Vehicles of 1000 litres capacity for 46 ULBs through GeM portal, along with
double booster pumps.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
37 III. Implementation approach
The MCVs were
handed over to the
SHGs for their O&M
The average cost od a
MCV ranged around
INR 17 lakhs
The pay ment was made
by the ULBs
Mapping of the ULBs
with inaccessible lanes
Purchase requisition
made in GeM portal
Procurement process
was facilitated in 46 ULBs
Implementation
Approx imate delivery
time of a vehicle was
21 day s
Purchase orders were
made
IV. Highlights/ Key differentiators
GThe implementation had the potential to provide access and improved sanitation to the invisible
slum population
GAs per the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013,
there should be an absolute absence of manual scavengers and the first step towards this was
to demolish insanitary latrines. But on practical grounds it was observed desludging of sanitation
facilities in the inaccessible parts was being undertaken manually. Hence, this solution brought
100% compliance to the law.
V. Impact
The use of MCVs throughout the state has ensured safe sanitation for slums constitute around 30% of the
population of urban Odisha population. Additionally, as the O&M of the vehicles were handed over to the
SHGs, it created additional revenue streams for the vulnerable sections of the society.
Figure 5: Small cesspool vehicle as a solution that can cater to 35 of the left out Indian populationFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
38 VI. Reflections and lessons
Number of OEMs for
small size cesspool
vehicles were limited
to western Odisha
only. Hence, it was
tedious logistically for
the other states to
procure this
There are high
chances of additional
expenses for the
repair and
maintenance. This
would include both
human resources and
spare parts
In cases where the size
of the septic tanks
might be more than
1000 litres and govt.
might not subsidize the
se
rvices, no of trips
would go beyond. This
would become an
expensive proposition
for slum dwellers
VII. Potential for replication
As the market demand increases for cesspool services, the concept would gain momentum and spread
out across India. In that case, OEMs would also be able to expand and cater to the urban settlements
across India.
In Leh, a unique intervention of double booster pumps
was used for desludging. This award-winning solution
allows a booster pump to be attached to the existing
pump mounted on the cesspool emptier vehicle. This
helps to increase the reach of the vehicle by two
times. With the increased reach, this solution is
especially useful in hilly terrains and is suitable for
inaccessible areas with narrow lanes.
This is a different solution case as it requires less
investment, only involving the procurement of the
pump and the fittings. However, the operation time
increases, as the process to mount and dismount the
pump is manual.
Lead case study contributor: Ernst & Young LLP
Figure 6: Double booster pumps
from Leh
10Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
39 WOMEN AND TRANSGENDER RUN DESLUDGING SERVICES
ACROSS STATES
Background
The launch of Swachh Bharat Mission increased the thrust on sustainable sanitation solutions
which led the government to improve the sanitation reach, and to do away with offensive practices
like manual scavenging.
Large parts of India, particularly peri-urban areas and urban slums, see heavy reliance on onsite
sanitation systems, which necessitates regular desludging as part of its maintenance.
While public and private sanitation services are dominant players in the market, there are areas
beyond their operational reach, as well as gaps in awareness creation and knowledge building
that they are unable to bridge which impact access to such services.
These gaps greatly impact vulnerable sections of the society such as women, transgender and
others who are socially and economically disenfranchised, depriving them of inclusive sanitation
solutions. The intersection of gender with age, class, caste and other social markers deeply
impacts the position of these vulnerable groups in the society.
Intervention
Many states like Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Odisha have thus begun to handover mechanized
desludging services to local SHGs spearheaded by women and transgender members. The
engagement of CBOs representing such vulnerable groups offers a cost-effective way to improve
the coverage of sanitation solutions, and also helps the SHGs generate livelihood opportunities
for its members.

There have been concerted efforts to encourage women’s participation across the sanitation value
chain through livelihoods and entrepreneurship. Specifically, vis-à-vis desludging, the following
practices stand out:
In both Narsapur (Andhra Pradesh) and Warangal (Telangana), there are female desludging
operators who have established themselves in the male-dominated sector despite the stigma
attached to women taking up such a profession and receiving backlash from the community.
There has been immense support from both the local and state governments to empower
these individuals. Further, the initiative of licensing the desludging operators has helped to
increase their business and added dignity to the profession.
EXHIBIT 1Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
40
In Berhampur (Odisha), the BeMC has roped-in local SHGs to create demand in households
for desludging services, with each household referral earning the SHGs INR 20 per request.
Today, around 67 of the 94 ALFs in BeMC are engaged in this activity, and this operation
has helped reach out to serve 60% of the residents. In yet another instance, in Bhadrak
(Odisha), an SHG of sanitary workers from a vulnerable community is engaged in the O&M
of cesspool emptier vehicles in the municipal corporation.
Impact
Brought about greater community ownership of sanitation, along with increased gender inclusivity.
Has created a channel of microentrepreneurs who have a steady income stream.
Has resulted in formalizing sanitation as a dignified service
Women, transgender and those hailing from manual scavenging communities have been afforded
greater dignity, respect, and mobility and have better ability to influence and make decisions and
transform existing institutions and power relations.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
41 7. ENGAGEMENT OF SAFAI KARAMCHARIS THROUGH PERFORMANCE-
BASED CONTRACTS IN HYDERABAD–DICCI MODEL
Abstract
Hyderabad Metro Water Supply & Sewerage Board (HMWSSB) took an initiative to adopt the Mini
Sewer Jetting Vehicles (MSJV) for cleaning sewers to eliminate human contact with faecal matter in the
process of sewer cleaning. In doing so it could extend sewer maintenance to even non-maneuverable
narrow lanes. 68 such machines were hired through micro-entrepreneur model of rehabilitating manual
scavengers with funding support integrated with government loan and subsidy schemes. This model
has successfully demonstrated mechanization and professionalizing of sanitation work, bringing about
dignity and safety to the sanitation workers life. The model is also replicated in other cities in India.
I. Context
Over the last few years, considerable emphasis had been placed on increasing access to sanitation
infrastructure in India. However, the existing infrastructure in India often relies on informal sector workers
for cleaning and maintenance. These laborers are generally underpaid, undertrained, mistreated, and
denied access to the resources. The sewerage management mechanism in the cities of India involves
workers operating in dangerous and inhuman conditions endangering their lives and compromising their
health.
The city of Hyderabad has an underground sewage system connected to sewage treatment plants for
treatment and disposal of sewage. About 95% of the main city is connected to sewer lines with 173
km of trunk lines and 6083 km of internal lines. The internal lines collect sewage from residential
and commercial institutions and join the trunk line. There are several issues with the existing sewer
system resulting in frequent blockages. Though sewer jetting machines are already used by Hyderabad
Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board (HMWSSB), the system necessitates regular and frequent
manual intervention, especially when blockages are caused by heavy objects. Besides, these machines
cannot find their way into the narrow by-lanes of the city. Sanitation workers are exposed to various
occupational hazards by way of entering the sewer, handling faecal, biomedical, and municipal waste, and
being exposed to toxic chemicals and disease carrying pathogens. Additionally, many of these workers are
hired on a contractual basis with low pay, no benefits, and no insurance.
Incidents of death of sanitation workers during septic tank or sewer cleaning compelled the Government
of Telangana and HMWSSB to take a conclusive decision to completely eliminate manual intervention in
sewerage operations of Hyderabad city.
II. Intervention
To address this issue of manual scavenging, HMWSSB deployed 70 mini-jetting machines through a
micro-entrepreneur model of rehabilitating manual scavengers to eliminate human contact with faecal
matter in the process of sewer cleaning. The use of these new machines eliminated the need for any
human being to enter the sewers/manholes. The machines were tailor-made with Jetting, Rodding, and
Grabbing machines (all) mounted on a small chassis, enabling the sewer cleaning machine to operate in
the narrowest lanes/streets which were earlier inaccessible to large sewer cleaning machines.
The machines were tailor-made with a current capital investment of approximately Rs.36.16 Lakh and
a working capital of 4 lakh. The funding was integrated with government loan and subsidy schemes. A
total of 70 manual scavengers were rehabilitated by issue of work contracts. The members belonging to Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
42 the SC/ST community could avail of a loan for 75% of investment under the “Stand-up-India” scheme,
wherein SC/ST or women entrepreneurs could avail bank loans between INR 10 lakhs to INR 100 lakhs.
The Vehicle owners, being MSME from SC/ST sections, were eligible to obtain support from Telangana
Government under the “T-Pride – Promoting Entrepreneurship among SC/ST Scheme”, wherein they could
claim subsidy (35% for men and 45% for women) on the cost of the vehicle and up to 9% subsidy on the
loan interest charges. As per the scheme, with the commencement of the job, vehicle owners could apply
for the subsidy, granted by the Government within a span of 3-4 months. By implementing this model,
HMWSSB created 70 entrepreneurs. A management service was provided to coordinate the activities and
present a single voice/point of contact between HMWSSB and the entrepreneurs.
III. Implementation approach
The Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board adopted a four-pronged approach to
improve service delivery and worker safety.
Awareness and Behavior Change: The Board conducted planning and awareness workshops with
sanitation workers, officials, and resident welfare associations to eliminate manual scavenging. A series
of short films and advertisements were developed to sensitize the end users about minimizing blockages.
For the permanent and contractual employees, operational health and safety training workshops were also
conducted.
Tech-Based Interventions: To effectively extend sewer maintenance to small lanes, HMWSSB deployed
70 mini-jetting machines through a micro-entrepreneur model. In this model, HMWSSB floated a tender
for sewer cleaning services, which was awarded to the green field contractors from SC/ST communities
and linked with the Government of India’s flagship Stand-Up India Scheme (SUIS) for financial support.
The Telangana chapter of the Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) played a key role
in helping the Safai Karamcharis to transition to safe mechanized practices. They provided handholding
support to these workers to prepare project proposals, apply for loans that led them to procure the Mini
Sewer Jetting Vehicles. This facilitation by DICCI helped the workers to be involved in the tendering
process that led them to get the contract from Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board
(HMWSSB) for cleaning of septic tanks and sewer networks.
The micro-entrepreneurship offered by the HMWSSB enabled the socio-economic development of families
from marginalized communities, by integrating them into the mainstream economy of the country. The
owners of the vehicles were both male (25) and female (6) members, from SC/ST communities. They were
the successful bidders for 69 vehicles. 142 members were given employment as drivers and cleaners of
the vehicles, of which most were from manual scavenging background.
Infrastructure Upgradation: The existing sewer truck lines, which need replacement were identified and
upgraded/replaced. Also, 1200 slit chambers were constructed on site to trap material that is likely to
cause a blockage. There were mechanisms set in place to monitor complaints to identify hotspots of
frequent blockage in the city.
Standard Operating procedure: With support from the Administrative Staff College of India (ASCI),
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) were developed for sewer cleaning to train the sanitation workers.
The SOPs included safety gear, such as chemical cartridge masks, gloves, safety belts, etc., in accordance
to the Manual Scavenging Act, 2013.
IV. Highlights
There has been a 6% drop in the average daily complaints, while the monthly complaints have dropped
by 24% (between June 2016 – August 2016 and 2017). There has been an improved status of worker Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
43 safety, and HMWSSB claims that there has been no manual entry into manholes following the intervention.
Further, there have been no reported deaths or accidents. The preference to workers with prior experience
in sanitation work has enabled the sustained rehabilitation of workers and their families. The model has
been designed keeping in mind its sustainability, which is reflected in favorable economics for machine
owners and the establishment of a financially sustainable services company to support owners. There
is guaranteed revenue from government, financial subsidies from existing government schemes (T-Pride,
Stand-Up India), and support for entrepreneurs through a services company that de-risks the model for
new entrepreneurs.
V. Impact
Before the introduction of the Mini Sewer Jetting Vehicles, only reactive measures were taken-up through
the process of manual cleaning and usage of bigger sewer cleaning vehicles. It has been observed that
there is enhanced ease as sewer cleaning can be done in narrow lanes and congested localities with the
use of these Mini Sewer Jetting Vehicles. This is due to the ease of mobility and flexibility of the vehicle.
There has been an increase in customer satisfaction as this machine has reduced the time of grievance
redressal and has also addressed the issue within the Service Level Agreement period. Most importantly,
there is a considerable decrease in dependency on conventional sewer cleaning techniques and manual
labor. This can eventually help achieve the goal of eliminating the practice of manual scavenging completely.
VI. Reflections and lessons
The following are the key achievements of the initiative:
GElimination of manual operation in sewerage system
GIncreased efficiency of sewerage operations
GProvision of dignity of labor to the Safai Karamcharis
GReduction of sewerage problems, especially in small lanes & streets which are generally neglected
due to constrained approachability
GImprovement in quality of life in Poor/Lower middle class/Middle class localities
GUse of proactive measures instead of reactive measures
VII. Potential for replication
This model has been instrumental in bringing about mechanization, professionalization and much needed
dignity and safety to the life of sanitation workers. The Mini Sewer Jetting vehicles can be considered
as a prototype that can help any ULB to achieve its goal of Swachh Bharat. The success story of SC/ST
entrepreneurs at HMWSSB in Hyderabad caught the national attention for 100% eradication of manual
scavenging and developing them into entrepreneurs providing complete mechanized services. The similar
model is replicated in New Delhi for mechanization of sewerage activities under Delhi Jal Board.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
44 Odisha’s experience with engaging safai karamcharis for O&M of
cesspool vehicles
In its efforts to achieve sustainable sanitation, the state of Odisha has been engaging CBOs like SHGs
in various aspects of the FSSM value chain, including desludging activities, the latter of which is
currently being carried out in 9 ULBs with SHG support. This has helped the government improve
operational efficiency while lowering costs and has resulted in livelihood generation for SHG members.
In Baripada and Cuttack this activity has been handed over to SHGs composing of sanitation workers,
some of whom were earlier involved in manual scavenging, thereby dignifying and destigmatizing the
work undertaken by sanitation workers.
Sanitation workers are subject to deep social stigma and indignity, in addition to being exposed to
health hazards and vagaries resulting from a lack of stable income. Therefore, in an effort to empower
them and help them achieve job security, the municipalities of Cuttack and Bhadrak identified and
trained groups composing of such sanitation workers in the use of cesspool vehicles.
The training process included regular sensitization and capacity building activities aimed at empowering
the members. Post-selection, the groups were encouraged to officially register as SGHs under NULM
and open a bank account. An agreement was also signed between the ULB and the group, as part of
the formalization process. The agreement took due note of the vulnerabilities of the marginalized group
members, and accordingly, the ULB assumed responsibility for a number of things such as major
vehicle repairs, insurance charges etc. Given how many of the members were previously unskilled
workers, accommodations were also made to smoothen the process for them. In Cuttack for instance,
the ULB provided the SHG (named Sai Swacchata Bahini) with a driver to man the 3000-liter
cesspool vehicle which was provided to them from OWSSB in October 2019. Similarly, in Bhadrak,
the SHGs were discharged from paying any user charges the first year, in an effort to help them reach
an economically viable situation.
Though the SHGs in both areas have suffered from teething problems and challenges such as opening
bank accounts, adhering to meeting schedules, in bookkeeping and data recording, continuous
handholding support and capacity building has resulted in their improved performance and pro-
activeness. The members of such SHGs, in particular those belonging to the ‘Shyam Sundar Jew’ SHG
of Bhadrak, have learnt managerial skills, and have begun to work as a cohesive unit. Their improved
performance has lessened their economic insecurity, and their formal employment has resulted in their
better social standing.
Lead case study contributor: Administrative Staff College of India
Other contributors: EYFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
45 8. SCHEDULED DESLUDGING THROUGH PPP WITH A PERFORMANCE
LINKED ANNUITY MODEL IN WAI, SINNAR, MAHARASHTRA
Abstract
11
The focus of Swachh Bharat Mission was to build toilets to make India open defecation free. While
India has succeeded in achieving this goal, to move toward “safely managed sanitation” as per the
target 6.2 of the Sustainable Development Goals, it is necessary to ensure that all faecal waste
is safely collected and treated. The common practice for desludging of septic tanks is “demand-
based desludging” rather than a regular service. Such practices have adverse social and environmental
impacts. To overcome these shortcomings, scheduled desludging is advocated.
Two towns- Wai and Sinnar in Maharashtra achieved ODF++ status with the implementation of
Faecal sludge and septage management (FSSM) plan. An innovative aspect of the plan is scheduled
desludging on a three-year cycle. This is linked to output based annuity payment for private desludging
service provider. It is for the first time in India that an effort to desludge septic tanks regularly, is being
provided as a municipal service. The approach is inclusive as it covers all properties- including those
in slums and low-income communities. The payment is linked to sanitation tax which is a part of
property tax and thus equitable, with poor households paying much less.
I. Context
In India only 400 cities have sewerage networks that are connected to treatment plants. The small cities,
with populations of <100,000, are fully dependent on onsite sanitation systems. In these cities, toilets are
usually connected to septic tanks. The design, construction, and maintenance of septic tanks are, typically,
the responsibility of households. There are two problems in having safely managed sanitation with this
system. First, the septic tanks are not desludged regularly. Irregular and delayed desludging affects the
effective functioning of septic tanks. Secondly, emptying charges are high and the poor and low-income
households avoid using toilets so that their tanks are not filled up. Further, when the tanks overflow, the
septage seeps into the ground and mixes with drinking water sources. This has negative environmental
impacts on groundwater and surface water, and eventually on the health of the local populations.
Wai and Sinnar are two cities in Maharashtra, where for the first time in India, scheduled desludging of
septic tank is being practiced. Wai has a population of 43,000 and Sinnar has a population of 72,000.
In Wai, scheduled desludging operations have been going on since June 2018 and in Sinnar since March
2019. It is for the first time in India that an effort to desludge septic tanks regularly, as a public service,
has been initiated.
II. Intervention
Scheduled desludging represents a planned effort to ensure regular desludging. In this regard, every
property is covered along a defined route and the occupants are informed in advance about desludging.
The local governments of Wai and Sinnar in Maharashtra decided to introduce scheduled desludging
through a public private partnership (PPP) arrangement, and have the collected waste treated at a faecal
sludge treatment plant.
The scheduled desludging contracts in these cities used a performance-linked annuity model with a pay-
for-results contract between the desludging company and local government. Payment was based on the
number of septic tanks desludged, with an annual target specified in the contract. For financing, both the Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
46 cities levied a sanitation tax to ensure that adequate funds were available for sustaining these services.
Property owners pay an annual sanitation tax as part of the property tax, as against the traditional system
of paying a charge/fee at the time of desludging. From these funds, the local government makes payments
to the private operators. Payment risks are averted through an escrow mechanism.
III. Implementation approach
Before the cities implemented scheduled desludging, most of the septic tanks were desludged only once
in 8 years – 10 years, or when they became completely full and overflowed. Since households did not
bear the environmental cost of infrequent cleaning until the tanks overflowed, they treated cleaning of
septic tanks more as an emergency service, rather than as a regular maintenance service. In addition to
this, septic tank cleaning service was provided by the municipal council vehicle against a fee. Also, there
were no septage treatment facilities in Wai and Sinnar and septage was being dumped at a solid waste
disposal site.
To resolve this, both the councils implemented FSSM plan in the city with the support of Center for
Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT University. As per the plan, desludging (emptying) service
was provided more as a scheduled service through a private contractor via a performance-linked annuity
payment model (refer figure 7). The desludging service was provided as per a planned schedule to cover
all residential and non-residential properties over a three-year cycle and the collected septage was treated
at a dedicated septage treatment facility. Even the low-income households and those living in slums also
received this service. In order to carry out scheduled emptying, both councils signed an exclusive contract
for three years through a transparent tendering process with a private operator. Payments were done on
annuity basis and based on performance of the operator. In Sinnar, the desludging operator engaged with
SHGs to undertake awareness and create a database of septic tanks for scheduled desludging, while in
Wai these activities were carried-out by the city council staff. A mobile based application called SaniTab /
SaniTrack was set-up to capture information of on-site sanitation systems and to monitor the performance
of private sector operator, while the scheduled services were being provided.
Sanitation/property tax
Desludging service
once in 3 years
Bank
Escrow
account
Local
government
Annuity payment
as per performance
based contract
Regular transfers
and a 3-month
Contract Fee
Reserve Fund
Financial flow
Service delivery
Capital costs
O&M costs
Treat, dispose/reuse collected
sludge and wastewater to
acceptable standards
All properties in
the city
Scheduled
desludging and
treatment service
provider
Integrated Company
Figure 7: Performance Linked Annuity model (PLAM) of Wai and Sinnar cities
For financing the O&M cost of scheduled desludging services, these cities levied a sanitation tax as a part
of property tax. This tax, as well as transfer from property tax, was used to finance the payment to the
private contractor. Also, to ensure regular payments to the private sector for the FSSM services, an escrow Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
47 account was created, to hold a Contract Fees Reserve Fund (CFRF) and maintained a minimum balance
of three months payment to the Contractor. This ensured regular payment to the private operator.
The monitoring of these scheduled services was done by the council officials through a mobile based
monitoring application called SaniTab/ Sanitrack. The council would access the app dashboard to review
progress and performance of private operator, in line with the provisions of the services.
In Sinnar, Septage was treated at a treatment facility that was funded by the council and was constructed
and operated by a private service provider, under a Design Build Operate (DBO) contract with the council.
In Wai, the FSTP was constructed and operated by a private operator funded by BMGF.
IV. Highlights
GScheduled desludging in the two cities was provided as a municipal service to all properties.
This made it inclusive and pro-poor as all properties in the city received the service
GThe processes that were followed for implementation of these services were as per the norms
prescribed by the state government. Hence, this can be replicated across many cities
GProperty owners pay a small sanitation tax as a part of the property tax, which is much less
than what was paid for demand-based desludging
GInnovative online monitoring tools like SaniTab/SaniTrack were used to monitor the scheduled
services
V. Impact
The sanitation tax is structured to be progressive and payments are made incrementally. As a result,
smaller properties pay less. The incremental payments and scheduled desludging have made the service
more affordable to households (with few households paying approximately one-fifth of what they had
previously paid).
A vital aspect which the scheduled desludging caters to is the equitable and inclusive approach for
provision of sanitation services. The services are welcomed by the households as it is considered as
regular and “free service” provided by local government as they don’t have to pay any money at the time
of actual desludging.
In Wai, over the two and half years, 4000+ properties received desludging services with 95% of the
property owners welcoming the scheduled desludging service. In Sinnar, in 1.5 years of operation, 2600+
properties received desludging services with the acceptance rate of 93%.
VI. Reflections and lessons
The emerging experience of scheduled desludging in these two Indian cities suggests several benefits
including safe, inclusive, and affordable sanitation systems.
GInclusive and regular desludging service helps to achieve safely managed sanitation: All the
properties, whether residential or non-residential, avail the scheduled desludging service. This
even includes slums and low-income communities. Since regular desludging takes place, the
sludge does not get hard and prevents the need for manual scavenging.
GReduces high prices of desludging: With introduction of scheduled desludging, backed by
sanitation tax, the user charges do not exist in these cities. Households have to pay much less,
annually, as compared to what they were paying for demand-based services.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
48 • Improves environmental and public health impact: The scheduled emptying service, along with
the treatment facility, reduces contamination of ground water and surface water. The effluents from
septic tanks have lesser BOD and faecal coliform after scheduled desludging.
VII. Potential for replication
Given the multiple benefits of scheduled desludging services, and the positive experience from the initiative
in two cities, it is now being considered by other cities in the state of Maharashtra. The State Government
of Maharashtra is considering a draft policy to mandate scheduled desludging services in all ULBs of
Maharashtra.
The Government of India has recognized the importance of scheduled desludging and has recommended
three-year interval of desludging in the national FSSM policy (2017), in the advisory on on-site and off-site
sewage management (2020) by CPHEEO and also in the ODF++ verification process.
Lead case study contributor: Center for Water and Sanitation, CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
49 MAKING THE DESLUDGING SERVICES AFFORDABLE FOR
URBAN POOR IN BHUBANESWAR
EXHIBIT 2
Background
Bhubaneswar, the capital city of Odisha is growing at a fast pace, which is accompanied by challenges
of providing people of the city with good quality basic amenities such as water and sanitation. The city
has 436 slums, constituting 3,01,611 people, which is approximately one-third of the city population
(source: 2011 census). The Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation (BMC) realized that lack of sanitation
affects marginalized communities. Hence, the infrastructure mechanisms must address the needs of
the under-served populations–women in particular–to ensure safe, equitable, and sustainable sanitation
for all. People living in these slum areas have either connected their toilets to the drains or constructed
single pits. Only a handful of households have constructed proper septic tanks. The problem of having
a single pit is that it fills up quickly, requiring attention quite frequently. Consequently, this puts the
family under severe financial constraints.
Intervention
The Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation in its endeavor to provide access to affordable FSSM services
to urban poor, decided not to charge the current rate i.e., INR 900/- per trip. Instead, it decided that
only operating cost shall be recovered from the beneficiary. Hence, an amount of INR 492/- + taxes,
per trip, was approved. The subsidized services were launched for 22 wards out of 67, as a pilot.
With the help of community mobilizers working in the slums, the ULB aggregated the demand, which
was generated in the slums, making it financially viable to provide these services, instead of making
losses. Further, to make it more convenient for the slum dwellers, the community mobilizers chalked-
out a schedule for desludging of the containment units, in consultation with the community members.
This would not allow the containment unit to overflow and sustain the demand aggregation.
Impact
The subsidized model has been scaled to all the slums of the town.
The subsidized model has made the services affordable to the urban poor.
Since, it’s an aggregated model, the slum dwellers in the city will now be able to access
de-sludging services at a subsidized price of INR 290.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
50 9. ADOPTION OF STANDARD LICENSING AGREEMENTS FOR PRIVATE
DESLUDGING OPERATORS IN TAMIL NADU
Abstract
Tamil Nadu relies on an established market of over 9,000 private desludging operators to service
the septic tanks prevalent in its urban areas. While these operators offer competitive on-demand
desludging services, they are only partly regulated, and often resort to unsafe disposal of faecal sludge.
To streamline the desludging process, the Government of Tamil Nadu has focused on the provision of
adequate treatment facilities within reasonable distance from customer locations, and has adopted a
Standard License Agreement (SLA) system. The SLA mandates desludging operators to adopt proper
desludging and disposal practices, promotes use of treatment facilities, and ensures worker health
and safety.
I. Context
As per 2011 Census, 48.4% of Tamil Nadu’s population live in urban areas, making it one of most
urbanized states in India. The urban areas in the State are categorized into a three-tier hierarchy consisting
of Municipal Corporations, Municipalities and Town Panchayats. Within these urban areas, on-site sanitation
systems (OSS) remain the dominant household sanitation arrangement across the state, with nearly 70%
households
12
connected to septic tanks and pits. These households rely on services provided by an
established market of private de-sludging operators. The key characteristics of this privately delivered
service provision are:
1. On-demand service provided by private desludging operators, who are only partly regulated, and
often resort to unsafe disposal of faecal sludge and septage
2. Over 9,000 private de-sludging operators across the State, offering sufficient competition in the
market
3. Prevalence of significantly varying containment sizes that hinder implementation of standard
desludging frequency
4. Low frequency / no de-sludging as a result of factors such as large size of septic tanks among
others, with the exception of hilly areas
5. Reasonable de-sludging charges, except in hilly areas and areas where inadequate number of
de-sludging trucks operate
Several studies undertaken as part of the Tamil Nadu Urban Sanitation Support Programme (TNUSSP)
involved discussions with desludging operators across the State on the challenges of their desludging
business and operations. The crucial challenges identified were:
1. Lack of adequate treatment facilities or safe disposal facilities within reasonable distance from
customer locations leading to the operators travelling long distances to dispose septage or
resorting to open-dumping
2. Lack of awareness, training and inadequate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) that results in
operators being exposed to dangerous environments and health hazardsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
51 II. Intervention
The main objectives of the model adopted by Tamil Nadu were:
1. To ensure and enable proper desludging practices by improving access to treatment facilities and
removing barriers to safe disposal
2. To ensure minimal disruption to existing desludging businesses and protection of livelihoods
3. To ensure worker health, safety and welfare
4. To ensure affordable desludging services to the urban poor
This was achieved through the provision of adequate treatment facilities within a reasonable distance
of customer sites, and a Standard License Agreement that streamlines the collection and conveyance
process, and aligns desludging operations with the cluster approach. With minimal disruption to the
existing market that services a majority of the population, the model incorporates approaches to service
the urban poor at affordable rates and is supplemented by efforts to ensure safety of service providers.
III. Implementation approach
The key steps involved in the implementation of the regulation model included:
1. Provisioning treatment facilities through the State Investment Plan: To address the need for
appropriately located disposal facilities, the Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) developed and
adopted a State
13
Investment Plan in 2018 to scale treatment across the State. The plan
was based on clustering Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) around treatment plants that optimized
distance travelled by operators as well as the utilization of the treatment facilities. The plan
leveraged the cluster approach proposed in the GoTN’s Operative Guidelines (OG)
14
, and the
information gathered through baseline studies, wherein ULBs were clustered around both existing
and potential treatment facilities within a 10 km radius (average travel distance of desludging
operators).
2. Adoption of a Standard License Agreement (SLA): The GoTN issued Government Order (G.O
(2D) 35)
15
in early 2020 to operationalize the cluster approach and to activate a state-wide
Standard License Agreement for private de-sludging operators. This would help in regulating the
disposal process and promoting the continued usage of treatment facilities. The SLA also aligned
the desludging operations with the cluster approach.
Through the Standard License Agreement, the GoTN has mandated:
1. ‘Host ULBs’ (i.e. ULBs where treatment facilities are located) to license private de-sludging
operators serving within the cluster. Desludging operators operating across ULBs will need to
register vehicles with other ULBs including the Host ULB
2. Desludging operators to apply for a license on a yearly basis
3. Desludging operators to provide documents on vehicles and workers, while applying for licenses,
and to equip their vehicles with approved GPS devices that can be accessed by ULBs
4. Desludging operators to undertake periodic health and safety training for employees, while
maintaining a log book on usage of safety gears
5. ULBs to charge desludging operators a nominal License Fee of INR 1,000 per year and a tipping
fee of INR 100 per load (at the disposal facility)
6. ULBs to periodically publish a list of licensed operators to ensure households and establishments
engage only such licensed operators
7. ULBs to share information on filing complaints / grievance redressal, as wellFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
52 The SLA is currently being operationalized across Tamil Nadu through capacity building webinars and
digital-blended learning modules. Additionally, bye-laws for Septage Management framed as a part of the
OG have been updated to align with the provisions of the SLA. The bye-laws once enacted by the ULBs
will be essential to enforce the licensing of desludging operators at the cluster level and enable ULBs
within clusters to direct desludging operators to Host ULBs to apply for a license.
While the GoTN has opted to regulate and enable existing on-demand desludging services provided by
private operators, certain ULBs continue to run subsidized services. ULB-run or contracted desludging
services may be introduced in ULBs without sufficient private players, to ensure residents can access
competitively priced services.
Additional service models for equitable service provision are also being explored. These includes:
1. Informal settlements: ULB-run/contracted or private on-demand service at affordable rates.
2. Bulk Generators (Community/Public Toilets): ULB-run/contracted on-demand/scheduled service
at subsidized rates.
IV. Highlights
Tamil Nadu’s model for desludging service provision both regulates the desludging process and promotes
the on-demand service provided by the private sector without price interventions. The key differentiators
of the model include:
1. Streamlining of desludging process, by providing access to adequate treatment facilities through
the cluster approach
2. Providing desludging operators with access to larger markets through the cluster approach
3. Promoting the use of disposal facilities and removing disincentives by reducing financial burden
through minimal license and tipping fees
4. Minimizing disruption to a functional market with no price intervention
5. Addressing the safety and welfare requirements of the sanitation workers
In addition, the SLA complies with the provisions of the GoTN’s Operative Guidelines, guidelines of
the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, and the parameters mentioned in the Swachh Survekshan
2020. Primarily aimed at preventing open disposal of FS and septage, the SLA also reinforces the cluster
approach.
V. Impact
While the GoTN is in the process of operationalizing the standard regulated on-demand desludging model
across the State, it is envisaged that this model of desludging service provision will contribute significantly
towards reducing the amount of untreated FS and septage being let out into the environment. The model
will protect the livelihoods of private desludging operators, who are often small, family-run enterprises, by
removing barriers and reducing disincentives, while promoting the health and safety of sanitation service
providers.
VI. Reflections and lessons
The desludging model adopted by the State of Tamil Nadu provides a light-touch regulation to a thriving
on-demand desludging market. It promotes usage of treatment facilities by reducing the financial burden
on private operators and limits rent-seeking opportunities. Nonetheless, there are challenges anticipated Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
53 as a part of the operationalization process. The different licensing systems existing in certain ULBs would
need to be standardized, along with license and tipping fees Also, the key to the sustainability of most
governance mechanisms is enforcement, and a will to make concerted efforts to create awareness and
build capacity.
VII. Potential for replication
This model for desludging service provision can be replicated in contexts where sizeable private desludging
markets, with sufficient numbers of operators are available to offer competitive services. In places without
a large presence of private desludging operators, a similar model can be adopted with government support
for desludging enterprise development. With the model complementing the cluster approach with provision
of treatment facilities, it can be adopted across both urban and rural areas.
REGULATED DESLUDGING IN ANDHRA PRADESH
In Andhra Pradesh (AP), Swachh Andhra Corporation (SAC) has been established to monitor FSSM-
related activities across the state. Earlier AP had issued FSSM regulations and septage management
guidelines and one of the key aspects of the regulations mandated licensing of private desludging
operators and tracking of FS disposal. The goal of licensing private desludging operators and tracking
FS disposal was to ensure safe Emptying & Transportation of FS to protect public health and the
environment. As an essential step to operationalize the regulations, SAC initiated licensing of private
operators in all the ULBs where FSTPs were being initiated. To obtain the license, private operators
were required to ensure that the vehicles matched the approved standards, workers were equipped
with uniforms and required PPE, and vehicles were installed with appropriate GPS devices.
The ULB with functional FSTP in the state was equipped with a real-time monitoring system to make
sure desludged FS was disposed-off at the FSTP. The ULB maintained a list of licensed operators on
its website to provide customers the ease of access to information and had a toll-free number for
sanitation queries. Any desludging request submitted to the ULB was passed on to licensed operators.
The ASCI also provided training to desludging operators on desludging standards and procedures,
including the correct usage of PPE.
Lead case study contributor: Indian Institute for Human Settlements (IIHS)
Other contributors: ASCIFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
54 10. CITY-WIDE MANAGEMENT OF FSSM SERVICES: EXAMPLES ON
ENABLING ENVIRONMENT AND SERVICE DELIVERY
Abstract
This case study discusses the approach and specific interventions taken in Warangal, Telangana towards
achieving universal access to safe toilets in all its urban areas, particularly about the introduction of
S-Line, a sanitation helpline. It underlines the importance of establishing a single point of contact for
providing information about various aspects of FSSM services which can help enhance service delivery
by municipalities, specially to serve the poor and vulnerable.
I. Context
Warangal, the second largest city in Telangana, having a population of around 10.88 lakh (as per the
provisional reports of Census of India, the city had a population of 8,18,974 in 2011) and is spread
about 407 sq.km. Warangal, as many other emerging cities in India, had been experiencing significant
service delivery gaps, particularly in the area of sanitation. The city has over 180 low-income settlements,
housing 30% of the city population. Open defecation was prevalent due to gaps in access to toilets and
due to cultural and behavior issues. Public toilets and community toilets were in short supply and existing
ones were dysfunctional without any service delivery standards. On-site toilets were being built without
any design standards leading to pollution of drainage network, surface and groundwater. Faecal waste
management was unregulated (vis-à-vis, quality and price) and septage continued to be illegally disposed
on land and in water bodies. All this significantly contributed to the pollution of the water bodies due to
wastewater flows. A lack of credible information on sanitation also hampered the planning process.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
55 II. Intervention
In order to enhance access to toilets, a single point contact for providing necessary information, technical
assistance and receiving complaints & suggestions, the S-Line–a sanitation helpline–was launched by
the Honorable Mayor of Warangal and Commissioner, Greater Warangal Municipal Corporation (GWMC)
on 26th May 2016. A Project Implementation Unit (PIU) was constituted for speedy implementation
of sanitation improvements in GWMC. The PIU, headed by Additional Commissioner and comprising
members from the related departments of sanitation, town planning, etc., met once in a week to review
and ensure progress of work.
III. Implementation approach
The Greater Warangal Municipal Corporation (GWMC) was committed to change this situation as there
was a deep sense of awareness that provision of high-quality sanitation services produced enhanced
economic productivity through public health improvements. However, raising resources to finance large
scale sewerage infrastructure (flush and forget model) projects was not an easy option and was not
sustainable. ASCI had been extending technical support to the Greater Warangal Municipal Corporation
(GWMC) to improve sanitation across the value chain.
With the introduction of the Swachh Bharat Mission, the Government of Telangana also prepared an
action plan for achieving ODF through construction of IHHL and public sanitation facilities under the
Swachh Bharat- Swachh Telangana Mission. The Commissioner and Director of Municipal Administration
(CDMA) issued guidelines in 2015 (G.O. Rt.No. 155) that directed the urban local bodies (ULBs) to
work towards achievement of the action plan using a combination of infrastructure, process and behavior
change interventions. The State earmarked budgets, clarified the subsidy flow process and established
an Information Communications Technology (ICT) based system for supporting implementation and for
real time monitoring of the construction progress. The subsidy for the construction of a new IHHL as
finalized stood at INR 12,000 per beneficiary and the process for availing it was also established. All
concerned municipal functionaries were trained to facilitate this process and on quality of containment
systems. Training was also undertaken for masons on different toilet typologies, containment systems, cost
estimations, etc. ULBs were encouraged to undertake IEC campaigns to create awareness and demand
for construction of new IHHLs particularly by engaging slum sanitation committees, resident welfare
associations, and self-help groups through the Mission for Elimination of Poverty in Municipal Areas
(MEPMA) and to set up helplines to fast track the process.
Warangal established a Sanitation helpline (S-line) in May 2016 as a single point of information, service,
and complaint redressal center for citizens. The S-line number was promoted extensively across the city on
public toilets, government-owned properties, desludging vehicles and other avenues. The city also started
an “I Want a Toilet” campaign using different physical and digital media to promote S-line number and
IHHL construction. The solutions to support the poor, such as decision to allow construction of IHHL on
non-tenured land, provision of finance through self-help groups to initiate construction, fast disbursal of
subsidies, technology solutions to address constraints arising from space and terrain were finalized during
the weekly PIU meetings.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
56 S Line
New construction
? Beneficiary Name
? Address & contact
? Bank details
? Previously applied
? Sikham land
? Any other
Complaints/SuggestionsTechnical assistance
Check Eligibility
? Beneficiary Name? Address & contact
? With Aadhar / H. No
Type:
? Verification
? Geo tag
? Bill pending
? Incorrect A/C
Register
Identify & Solve
? Beneficiary Name? Address & contact
Type:
? Type:
? Mason
? Contractors
? Any other
Register & Identify
Inform to the caller
Eligible
Generate
application
Verification
Upload in cgg website
VO & Comm
Stage - 1
Stage - 2
Pay 1 ?
Rs. 6000
Pay 1 ?
Rs. 6000
Geotag
(Verified by
AE again)
Approve/
Reject
Send msg
Approve Reject
Approved Reject
In-Eligible
Close
IV. Highlights
It was observed that there was a significant increase in the number of phone calls and walk-in enquiries
by women over the last few years which indicated that the system was convenient for women to raise
their concerns as it was met with quick redressal of their concerns. The new application process that was
established also reduced the processing time from 3 months to 1 week, which not only fast-tracked the
process but also helped to reach out to the larger sections of the population.
V. Impact
S-Line has been instrumental in helping the city to achieve its ODF status and has also evolved itself
to form an active interface with the citizens. As of August 2020, 3762 complaints were registered and
redressed through S-line. Of these, 231 were to provide technical assistance such as design of septic tanks
and toilets, contact details of masons trained to build safe toilets, etc. Further, 47417 new applications
were received for construction of new IHHLs and 6394 applications were received for conversion of
insanitary toilets to safe ones.
VI. Reflections and lessons
The introduction of S-Line in Warangal has been beneficial as the citizens have access to trained staff to
support them on all aspects of septage management, including septic tank design, approval process of
IHHL subsidiary, methods of construction, and contact details of masons and desludging operators, among Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
57 others. There has been increased demand for construction of new IHHLs and conversion of insanitary
toilets to safe ones due to increased awareness among the citizens about safe sanitation and FSSM
services. Most of the grievances are redressed within a time window of 36 hours, and there is ease of
monitoring the process as well. To sustain this intervention, GWMC has integrated the S-Line into the
municipality that not only helps the citizens with toilet related issues but also septic tank related issues
(mainly cleaning of the tanks). Therefore, the S-line has made it easy for the GWMC to address various
issues on toilets and septic tanks. The S-Line and PIU has helped the citizens of Warangal to raise their
issues and challenges right from the application for an IHHL, through its design, construction, availability
of subsidy and maintenance of the toilets. It has also helped to increase awareness about owning and
using a toilet.
VII. Potential for replication
This intervention has been able to fast track the achievement of the ODF status in Warangal, and is a
clear example of how a single point of contact for providing information about various aspects of FSSM
services can facilitate the enhancement of service delivery by municipalities, especially to provide value to
the under-served. The same initiative has been adapted in Narsapur of Andhra Pradesh and has achieved
similar success. This indicates the positive replicability of the model.
Similar kind of initiative has been taken in Ahmedabad, Gujarat and the details are mentioned below.
No objection certificate (NOC) for water and drainage connection –
Ahmedabad
The “500 NOC scheme” provides slum residents with a ‘No Objection Certificate’ to have a legal
access to individual sewerage, water and electrical connection on payment of a fee of INR 500. The
objective of the city government was to ensure universal coverage of water and sanitation services in
slums. The eligibility criteria were that an applicant should have a dwelling unit of not more than 40
Sqm in a slum and should submit a residence proof. The fee is much higher for bigger houses.
In order to facilitate individual household toilets, the individual applies to the zonal office for an NOC
with the requisite information. The Estate department conducts site visit to the applicant’s residence to
measure and prepare building plan sketch to ensure the dwelling unit is less than 40 Sqm and if the
dwelling is eligible for the NOC, a “resolution” certificate to the City Civic Center (CCC) is issued. The
beneficiary pays INR 500 to the tax department and gets the NOC receipt. Thereafter, a photographer
is sent to take the photo of the beneficiary. One the NOC is issued to the beneficiary, the charges for
individual sewerage and water connections can be applied as INR 300 and INR 200, respectively. A
sewerage connection is a prerequisite for an individual water connection. Investment in the provision
of basic infrastructure has led to shelter upgrading and transformation of slums.
16
Lead case study contributor: Administrative Staff College of India
Other contributors: Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
58 Role of digital technologies in FSSM
Technology is a strong enabler, and incorporating it into the FSSM value chain has manifold benefits,
including effective monitoring, increased transparency and accountability of stakeholders, that eventually
results in better service delivery at the grassroots. Understandably, Central and State FSSM frameworks,
therefore, place great thrust on the use of SMART solutions to help optimize and improve the FSSM
value-chain.
The table below explores some of the SMART solutions that have been deployed in different states as part
of the respective state’s FSSM strategies:
Table 4: Use of digital technologies in FSSM
TechnologyDetailsState / City PracticeImpact (On-going and expected)
GPS usage,
central tracking
through common
control centers.
To ensure efficient and
accountable desludging
operations, GPS based vehicle
tracking and monitoring
systems have been deployed.
This ensures real time
monitoring of operations on the
ground.
All cesspool vehicles
functioning across ULBs
in Odisha (both the
government procured
and private vehicles),
are installed with GPS
monitoring mechanism.
In Bhubaneshwar, in
particular this is linked
to the Smart Cities
command and control
center and monitored
through that. A similar
centralized mechanism is
also being considered for
the remaining parts of the
state.
GPS tracking has resulted in
greater accountability among
stakeholders, especially when
coupled with incentive and
penalty structures. Real-time
monitoring has also improved
plant utilization from an erstwhile
10-20% capacity, to over 100%
in some areas.
8 hotspots where sludge is
frequently illegally discharged
in Bhubaneshwar has been
geo-tagged. Any movement
of vehicles in these areas are
immediately alerted to the
relevant authorities.
FSSM operator
applications
Apps and digital technologies
like the FSSM Tracker app
(Warangal), and the SANI-
Track technology (Wai, Sinnar)
help licensed FSSM operators
with the desludging process
through the dispensation of
schedules, and by helping
they record septage collection
on a real time basis. Accurate
capture of data on desludging,
and validation checks through
customer and operator
signature capture is also made
available.
Deployed in Wai
and Sinnar cities of
Maharashtra and in
Warangal Municipal
Corporation area,
Telangana
By effectively recording and
monitoring service delivery,
these technologies help regulate
cesspool operations and increase
accountability of FSSM operators
both government and private.
In doing so, they also incentivize
FSSM operator performance, and
help with better adherence to
FSSM regulations.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
59 TechnologyDetailsState / City PracticeImpact (On-going and expected)
SANI Track
for desludging
services linked to
payment
SANI-Track is a web
enabled monitoring system
that operates similar to an
e-commerce app, and enables
real-time monitoring, and
records daily operations in a
paperless format.
Offers end-to-end monitoring
of FSSM, and is capable of
covering scheduled and on-
demand desludging.
Automatically generates reports
on desludging, and allows for
the linking of payments to the
monitoring app.
Currently being used
in cities of Wai and
Sinnar, Maharashtra,
which leverages private
desludging contractors.
These are also expected to
be deployed in Kolhapur
and Satara soon.
The app presents data on the
properties requiring service, and
enables the operator to record
data on the desludging carried
out, such as volume, PPE usage,
customer feedback etc. The
app also provides geo-location
of FSTPs and warns against
illegal disposal, thereby enabling
officials to know if desludging
has been properly carried out.
The records generated through
the capturing of real-time
information can help process
payments to service providers
based on performance.
Customer
requisition
apps / online –
S-line model of
Warangal
Customer requisition apps
provide customers with
online assistance, including
recording service requests,
grievance redressal and offering
technical assistance as needed.
Sanitation Helpline (S-Line),
deployed in Warangal is one
such example.
S-Line was launched
in 2016 at the Greater
Warangal Municipal
Corporation, Telangana.
S-Line is manned by trained
staff who have been able staff to
support citizens on all aspects of
septage management. It is able
to address citizen queries on
eligibility of new constructions,
and provide technical assistance
in the form of connecting them
to registered masons and other
contractors. It also addresses
customer queries regarding
pending bills to verification
requests.
Monitoring
platforms –
SANI-Track,
SANI-Tab and
San-Q and other
dashboard tools
IT enabled monitoring
platforms help with real-time
data capture across the FSSM
process chain and helps with
processing the same with
minimum human intervention.
These prove invaluable when it
comes to tracking / monitoring
performance of FSSM
operations.
SANI-Tab – originally a survey
tool captures spatial details
that are plugged into a web-
based dashboard allowing
quick analysis. SANI-Track’s
usage also captures real-time
data, and generates reports on
desludging, conveyance and
customer satisfaction. SANI-Q
on the other hand monitors
real-time water quality at the
FSTP
Deployed at Wai
and Sinnar cities in
Maharashtra.
Deployed in Odisha
Taken together, the monitoring
platforms offer real-time across
capture, containment and
treatment cycles.
The data recorded is easily
understandable, accurate and
offers potential for in-depth
analysis of the cities’ FSSM
initiative by targeting areas
requiring improvement or better
enforcement.
Also empowers local officials to
take ownership of the process.
Expected outcomes:
The dashboard shall be visible at
the highest level of stakeholder
and any red flags in terms of
FSSM implementation at any
geography shall be timely and
effectively addressedFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
60 TechnologyDetailsState / City PracticeImpact (On-going and expected)
FSSM monitoring dashboard
– A three tier dashboard for
monitoring and troubleshooting
all FSSM related activities
including milestone and
regular.
The dashboard is updated by
at the ground and reviewed
at three levels. First at ULB,
followed by district and finally
by state.
A notification system is
enabled to make sure the
relevant stakeholder is made
aware at the right instance and
can take any steps necessary.
Other digital monitoring tools
– Digital monitoring tools are
used to report and evaluate
three major activities by the
key decision makers regularly.
The three activities are
construction and invoice
payment progress and
operational plant utilization.
Every day the utilization of the
operational plants is reviewed.
This has helped in increasing
utilization from less than 20% to
more than 60%
Weekly monitoring of
construction and payment
against invoices has helped
streamline construction activities
and payments to vendors have
become more timely.
Smart
contracting
Smart contracting to reduce
any redundancies in the
current contracting due to
human intervention
OdishaExpected outcomes:
Timely payment
Standard Operating Procedures
and checklists to enable
payments
Greater transparency in the
payment systems
Ensuring time work delivery by
contractorFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
61 11. DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY IN FSSM OPERATIONS IN MAHARASHTRA
Abstract
17
Wai and Sinnar are the first cities in India to implement scheduled desludging of septic tanks for all
properties. Both city governments have entered into “performance-based” contracts with private service
providers for FSSM operations. This means that payments will be subject to satisfactory performance.
In order to monitor these services, the cities have deployed a range of digital applications – SaniTab,
SaniTrack, SanQ–which help ensure that sludge is collected regularly and delivered to correct location
and treated to standards, while following all safety protocols. The information is real-time and requires
minimum human intervention for processing. These applications also help collect valuable information
on on-site sanitation systems in the city, and help build a database for future use.
I. Context
To address the issue of irregular emptying of septic tanks, scheduled desludging plans were implemented
in Wai and Sinnar in Maharashtra. In each of these cities, a private service provider was contracted to
desludge all septic tanks on fixed schedule, spanning three years. The faecal sludge treatment plants were
also set-up where the operating agencies are mandated to treat the sludge in adherence to disposal quality
standards. The contracts between the city government and the private service providers are “performance-
based,” which allow for payments to be made based only on satisfactory performance.

Such performance-based contracts require robust monitoring systems at each stage of service. Initially, this
was done through paper-based forms, receipts, reports and logbooks. Such systems are fragmented, time-
consuming, labor-intensive, and do not provide real-time information. They also do not provide insights for
system improvements such as geo-spatial spread, coverage of properties, customer satisfaction, volumes
and trips, coverage of vulnerable areas etc. Moreover, desludging operations were based on very basic
datasets of onsite systems. All previous experiences suggested that differences in sizes, accessibility,
owner perspectives, emptying history could potentially affect operations. The implementation of scheduled
desludging provided the opportunity to mandatorily visit each and every septic tank and over the course
of a three-year cycle, build a detailed and unique database of onsite systems in both cities. It is very rare
for cities to have this kind of data, which is very useful for future planning.
To address such monitoring and database requirements, the cities needed SMART solutions. The experience
in Wai and Sinnar demonstrated easy adoption of digital tools and a potential to replace paper-based
monitoring systems.
II. Intervention
For monitoring service delivery for desludging, an online, web-enabled monitoring system called-SaniTrack
was developed. It consists of mobile app and web modules, where the desludger schedules and records daily Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
62 operations with signatures like in an e-commerce app, allowing city managers to see real-time information
on (i) geographical coverage, (ii) schedule progress, (iii) household readiness, (iv) safe conveyance from
household to FSTP, (v) customer satisfaction and (vi) use of PPE, on a dashboard. The dashboard offers
key performance indicators, timeline filters, map-based insights, and also allows downloadable data for
more detailed analysis. On the other end, SaniTrack simplifies the process of maintaining paper forms by
reducing it to clicks, signatures on a screen, and automatic location/time crosschecks. These can later
also be downloaded in the form of individual reports containing addresses, photographs and signatures,
similar to a paper-based form.

The second initiative–SaniTab, is a smartphone/tablet-based survey tool, which was initially developed
for conducting household level surveys to generate a baseline data of a city’s sanitation status. The data
collected was plugged into a custom web dashboard allowing for quick analysis. It also captured spatial
details, making it possible to identify and focus more on the vulnerable areas. The tool was enabled to
capture details during desludging services. It also captured details on desludging operations, along with
relevant information on septic tanks, such as (i) location and accessibility, (ii) access covers, (iii) size and
shape (iv) build quality (v) owner perspectives.
Thirdly, SanQ, consists of hardware setups at the FSTPs allowing real-time monitoring of output quality of
treated wastewater. Such instant readings allow for quicker system improvements compared to physical
lab reports.
III. Implementation approach
SaniTab and SaniTrack were developed by CWAS in partnership with an app developer. The server space
and domains were procured before deployment. Initially, local teams from CWAS operated the apps
and dashboards. However, with some capacity-building, local desludgers were equipped to use the app
modules, and city officials took ownership of the dashboards.
SaniTrack consists of five modules –
1. Mobile app module for desludging manager – Managers can select from a list of properties and
input daily schedule
2. Mobile app module for desludging operators–Operators are presented with their daily schedule.
On selecting each property, information is provided on its location, address, owner name and
type of sanitation system. Operators can record information when desludging is carried out. Data Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
63 on sludge volume, PPE usage, customer satisfaction, respondent gender, timestamp, photograph
etc. is captured. A completion is acknowledged by household respondent by signing on the
mobile app. Upon arrival at FSTP, the app checks geolocation and warns if not near FSTP
location. FSTP operator acknowledges receipt with another signature.
3. Web dashboard for city managers–An overview screen provides information on coverage and key
performance indicators such as coverage of properties, rate of desludging and volume of sludge.
A second screen gives spatial views on a map with filters and charts for more detailed indicators
such as customer readiness, acceptance rate type of properties, trips, PPE usage, respondent
gender etc. Each property can be selected to see the signatures and photographs. Downloadable
results are available in the form of spreadsheets as well as individual reports.
4. CT/PT desludging app module–For municipal operators who service septic tanks at community
and public toilets.
5. Admin module–This has a screen to register new households, service operators, trucks/contractors
and manage system users.
SaniTab is highly customizable and allows upload of user defined questionnaires. In the past, it has
been used for citywide surveys on open defection, access to toilets, and willingness to construct toilets.
Currently two questionnaires for FSSM are active –
1. Desludging services for properties– This captures information on the ongoing desludging process
as well long-term information about the onsite system under the following heads -
Property details – identifiers, type, location, owner contact, owner perspectives
Service deliver and desludger performance – type of service scheduled or emergency,
volume, trips, use of PPE, issues faced
Onsite system characteristics – type, size/shape, accessibility, emptying history
2. Desludging services for CT/PT
SanQ consists of hardware at the inflow and outflow points which provides readings every few minutes
on key parameters such as (i) liquid flow (ii) PH levels (iii) BOD, (iv) COD, (v) Nitrate levels. These are
visible on screens available on-site and can also be downloaded or accessed via standard mobile apps.
IV. Highlights
1. The use of digital technology for monitoring of operations leads to process improvements and
optimization. Real-time monitoring means that there is no need to process data to view progress
and process payments to service providers. The systems are easy to operate, reduce paperwork
and minimize human error with select and click screens, automatic geo-stamping, time stamping
etc. Digitized data also makes possible a wider variety of filters and analysis.
2. The modules are designed to be empowering and inclusive for desludgers, city officials as
well as customers. For desludgers, the apps support vernacular languages and offer click and
select mechanisms as well as graphic formats over text. Customer signatures with undertaking
raise awareness about procedures while special focus is given on monitoring service provision
to vulnerable areas. Local government officers have also shown support with ownership of
dashboards.
3. Building a unique and rate database of onsite systemsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
64 V. Impact
These technologies help deliver better desludging services by providing constant insights on FSSM
processes and ensuring safe conveyance, treatment and disposal of faecal sludge. They reduce human
labor and provide simpler methods to monitor and collect data. In Wai and Sinnar, SaniTab and SaniTrack
have already captured information on close to 3800+ desludging operations and generated database of
as many septic tanks. The city officials have shown interest in the dashboard and now regularly check
them to monitor progress.
VI. Reflections and lessons
GCapacity-building support was required for desludgers and city officials to become comfortable
with the systems
GMobile format is easy and is quickly adapted
GUsing local language and terms eased the process of learning, while pictures/symbols were
required to explain technical terms
GSanitation workers may or may not own/use smartphones. They are also hesitant to carry their
phones while working near septic tanks for fear of dropping them. A training session was held
for them
GMobile network may always not be available as FSTPs are located on the fringes of the cities.
Consequently, apps now allow the surveyors to save data in-situ, and submit it once there is
internet connectivity
GScaling-up of apps requires adapting to vernacular languages
VII. Potential for replication
SaniTrack can accommodate various models of FSSM – scheduled or demand-based, service provided
by government or the private sector, and single or multiple service providers. SaniTrack is currently being
used in cities of Wai and Sinnar, where scheduled desludging has been contracted out by the government
to a private contractor. With the Government of India stressing on regular desludging under Swachh
Bharat protocols, it is expected that SaniTrack will be widely used. Once institutionalized within the city
government, SaniTrack can be used for constant service improvisation, and monitoring tools can be linked
to performance-based payments.
SaniTab questionnaires can be customized to city requirements, and like SaniTrack, are applicable to a
wide range of service models. Aside from Wai and Sinnar, the tool was used in Odisha for a household
survey that covered 70,000 households. Owing to its simplicity, user-friendliness, and easy adaptability,
SaniTab has received inquiries from outside of India, as well.
Lead case study contributor: Center for Water and Sanitation, CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
65 TREATMENT &
OPERATIONS
SECTION-D FSTP procurement and contracting models
States have adopted various methods of procurement reflecting their scaling up strategy for FSSM.
Figure 8 below shows the landscape of procurement and contracting models possible in FSSM across
India. Examples of implementation of each model are then presented in Table 5 below.
Containment EmptyingTreatmentTransportDisposal / reuse
Privately owned and operated desludging services
A. Licensing with pro-poor tariffs
B. Call centre with pro-poor tariffs
C. Desludging operators’ associations
1
Government contracted desludging services2
Government owned and operated desludging
services
Privately run integrated model (FSM as service)
#
Government truck operations contract and FSTP on DBFOT by one private entity
Pure service contract to single private entity for operating trucks and FSTP owned by government
3
9
10
11
PPP - Standalone plants on DBFOT*4
PPP - Treatment plants on HAM-DBOT5
PPP - Treatment plants on DBOT6
EC/Rate/Lumpsum
contract for FSTP*
7
Service contract forO&M of FSTP
8
@. Common scenario in many
cities across several states
#. Implemented examples not
available. For all other project structures see Annexures.
*. Extended EPC contracts
may include O&M
^. Integrated models are yet
to be widely implemented and tested. Require strong
regulatory support.
Non - Integrated Model
Integrated Model^
Figure 8: Models of procurement and contracting used in scaling FSSM across India
Table 5: Summary of various FSTP procurement and contracting models adopted across India
Model no. Location Financing mode Unique feature of project
4. DBFOT
5. DBOT-
HAM
Andhra Pradesh
and Telangana
Capital cost: 50% Capex
upon construction
Operating cost: 50% Capex
and O&M for Concession
Period of 9.5 years
1. HAM pioneered for FSSM in
India
2. Packages of tenders including
multiple FSTPs to make
project size interesting for
bidders
3. Annuity payments guaranteed
by GoAP
6.1 DBOT Uttar PradeshCapital and operating cost:
UP Jal Nigam through State
funds
1. Bid parameter was a
percentage of cost estimated
by DJB
6.2 DBOT Sinnar
(Maharashtra)
Capital cost and operating
cost: From ULB’s own funds
1. Technology neutral tenders
2. Design, construct and operate
for 3 yearsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
68 Model no. Location Financing mode Unique feature of project
7.1 Rate or
lumpsum
Maharashtra Capital cost: Finance
commission grants
Operating cost: Shared by
municipalities
1. Single window technical and
administrative sanctions for
implementation of FSTPs
2. Simple, easy to implement
treatment infrastructure at
scale
7.2 Rate or
lumpsum
contract
Tamil Nadu Capital cost: From GoTN
Operating cost: Shared by
municipalities
1. Clustering of municipalities for
achieving economies of scale
2. Cost sharing between
municipalities for FSTP O&M
costs
3. Model scaled up across the
State by GoTN
8. O&M
service
contract
Odisha Capital cost: N/A
Operating cost: Provided by
municipality
1. O&M of FSTP outsourced
to Self Help Groups for
operations
10. Integrated
DBFOT
Leh, Ladakh Capital cost: Blue Water
Company (Private entity)
Operating cost: User fees &
Municipal Council of Leh
1. FSTP 100% privately financed
under DBFOT
2. Desludging and FSTP
operations by one private
entity
3. Fee linked to desludging
service – pay for performance
model
11. Integrated
FSSM service
Lalsot,
Rajasthan
Capital cost: ADB grant
Operating cost: User fees
and/or municipality
1. Desludging and FSTP
operations by one private
entity
Risk Sharing in FSTP contracts
The success of procurement models hinges critically on the risk allocation between the client and service
provider. As FSSM is in a nascent stage, various risk sharing models have been attempted with different
degrees of success. In general, models where the liability of regular (monthly, regardless of service provided)
fee collection is placed on the service provider, are yet to establish considerable success. Burdening
service providers with obtaining approvals and permits also acts as a deterrent to project success due to
improper risk sharing. Finally, delayed payments pose the single most significant risk to the viability of
the project for a service provider. In most cases, this risk is borne entirely by the service provider, which
often makes these projects unattractive for them. Table 6 shows the ideal scenario for risk sharing across
a few important risk categories typical to FSTP contracts.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
69 Table 6: Ideal risk allocation across risk categories in various contracting models
Nature of risk
DBFOT & DBOT-
HAM
DBOT
Rate or
Lumpsum
contract
O&M only
contract
Design riskPSPPSP ULB ULB
Construction risk PSPPSP ULB Not applicable
Approvals (Electricity
& water connection,
pollution board
clearance etc.) risk
ULB; supporting
documentation to
be provided by
PSP
ULB; supporting
documentation to
be provided by
PSP
ULB; supporting
documentation to
be provided by
PSP
Not applicable
Capital financing risk PSP & ULB ULBULB Not applicable
Operating cost
financing risk
ULBULB Not applicable ULB
Delayed payment risk ULBULBULB ULB
Force majeure risk ULB and PSP ULBULB ULB
O&M performance PSPPSP Not applicable PSP
Legend:
ULB – Urban Local Body
PSP – Private Service ProviderFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
70 12. EPC MODEL ADOPTED BY STATE GOVERNMENTS FOR FSTP
CONSTRUCTION
Abstract
Almost 500 faecal sludge treatment facilities are already sanctioned in the states of Maharashtra,
Odisha and Tamil Nadu. These units shall cater to more than 600 cities and towns. A procurement
route of EPC has been adopted by all the states to fast-track the works and streamline the interventions
required by the different government agencies involved. Maharashtra with its EPC-rate contracts and
Odisha and Tamil Nadu with the EPC- lump sum contracts are all edging towards a cleaner, greener
and cost-effective approach to improving public health, reduce environmental pollution and overall
well-being of the states.
I. Context
In the three states of Maharashtra, Odisha and Tamil Nadu, managing
faecal sludge has gained prime importance. This is due to the excessive
amount of sewage that is discharged into the water bodies and the
determination of the states to manage their sewage more effectively. The
states realized that conventional sewerage sanitation as it is both time and
capital intensive. Therefore, adopting the non-sewer sanitation approach
for Faecal Sludge and Septage Management is crucial for achieving the
target of safely managed sanitation systems, especially in smaller cities.
The final leg of the approach is to set up treatment facilities that enable
quality treatment and reuse or safe disposal of the output products. With almost 500 treatment facilities
sanctioned, certain parallels can be drawn on the methods used by them in their approach to set up
these facilities.
In 2019, the Government of Maharashtra (GoM) has adopted a systematic approach to implement city
wide FSSM plans at scale. GoM decided to set up the independent FSTPs in 311 ULB across states
through statewide government resolution (GR) dated of 8th November, 2019
18
. An administrative approval
was granted to use 14th Finance Commission funds to set up FSTPs across ULBs of Maharashtra.
In 2016, Odisha decided to implement Septage Treatment Facilities under the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation
and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) scheme. Currently, the state has 11 operational treatment facilities.
But for overall coverage of 114 cities and towns more treatment plants are required, and the state has
allocated more than INR 300 crores towards construction of these facilities in a phased manner.
In 2018, the Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) adopted the State Investment Plan (SIP) focused on
scaling of treatment facilities across 663 Urban Local Bodies in phased manner. Along with the SIP, the
GoTN made a budgetary allocation of INR 200 crores for the construction of 49 Faecal Sludge Treatment
Plants (FSTPs). Subsequently, in 2019, an additional INR 31 crores were sanctioned for the creation of
FSTPs in 11 Town Panchayats.
II. Intervention
The states have adopted the EPC approach to procurement of civil contracts. While Maharashtra has
chosen an EPC-rate contract route, the states of Odisha and Tamil Nadu have gone ahead with an EPC-
lump sum contracts route for construction of treatment facilities. These contracting mechanisms are most
Figure 9: A plant under
construction in OdishaFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
71 commonly used for all types of engineering works financed by public or government bodies. This type of
contract is most suitable for small and medium towns in terms of technical and management capacity
of local staff to fast track implementation and ensure adequate participation from private contractors to
comply with criteria for competitive bidding.
UDD, Government
of Maharashtra
FSTP
MJP, State technical agency
Reuse
$
Design of FSTPs
State wide technical
sanctions of FSTPs
URBAN LOCAL
BODY
State wide
administrative
sanctions of FSTPs
using 14
th
FC funds
Construction of
FSTPs on
Rate contract
Private Sector
100% OPEX by ULB through Private sector/ link with SWM contractor/ manage by ULB
3
RD
Party quality
monitoring
(Engineering colleges)
Reuse at
co-treatment
with SWM
Quality control
and monitoring
100% CAPEX
by the ULBs
Figure 10: EPC contracts in Maharashtra
Maharashtra adopted a single-window clearance approach to implement state-wide implementation of
Faecal Sludge and Septage treatment facilities in the state. All ULBs in the state were classified into 3
categories, a) ULBs with functional sewerage treatment plant (STP), b) ULBs that can treat faecal sludge
at a nearby STPs and c) remaining ULBs that will need an independent faecal sludge treatment plant
(FSTP). The 311 ULBs which are entirely dependent on onsite sanitation systems and where no sewerage
projects are under consideration for the near future, had to construct their own FSTPs. For this, the state
government adopted single window approval system for both technical and administrative approvals at
state level.
Odisha, through the parastatal of Orissa Water Supply & Sewerage Board (OWSSB) floated tenders under
lump sum EPC contracts. These tenders wile floated by OWSSB are for contracts between contractors and
Public Health Engineering Organization (PHEO), Water Corporation of Odisha (WATCO) and ULBs. OWSSB
has adopted a competitive tendering process for the construction works of one year and one month of
trail run. Most projects have been taken by local players while some of the contracts are with players
from outside the state. The single tendering entity ensured that a single entity specializing in setting up
treatment facilities could utilize its experience and abilities to push Odisha forward in construction.
The complete documentation work for the EPC model of contracting was taken up by the OWSSB. The
Detailed Project Reports were prepared immediately for the sites along with the tender documents. The
technological specifications for the plants were specified in the Detailed Tender Call Notice (DTCN) and
the facilities’ construction is taken by the ULBs or Public Health Engineering Organization (PHEO).Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
72 In Tamil Nadu, the ULBs used standard civil works contracts, which were customized to suit local
requirements, to avail services for the construction of the 60 sanctioned FSTPs. Adopting a competitive
bidding process, ULBs awarded construction contracts, including O&M services for a trial period, to mainly
local private contractors.
III. Implementation
As a part of the FSTP implementation process, the GoTN considered three technology options. These
included discrete biological and mechanical systems as well as a hybrid biological and mechanical option.
The GoTN opted for the biological systems given their operational simplicity and lower Operation &
Maintenance (O&M) costs.
Subsequently, state-level orientation sessions on the treatment technology and type designs were organized
for ULB officers, engineers and contractors. The Detailed Project Reports prepared by ULBs were submitted
to the Commissionerate of Municipal Administration (CMA) for administrative and technical sanctions.
The GoTN with the support of the Technical Support Unit (TSU) of the Tamil Nadu Urban Sanitation
Support Programme (TNUSSP) assisted ULBs in the preparation of bid documents, Bill of Quantities, and
construction and hydraulic design drawings.
The ULBs issued standard civil works contracts, through a competitive bidding process, to local private
contractors for the construction of the FSTPs. This type of contract and contracting process is widely
followed in the State for most types of construction works.
Odisha’s implementation model is as shown below:
Detailed Project Reports
and tender documents
were prepared for each
site along with the
technical specifications.
The criteria for selecting
executing agencies to
participate in tendering was
formulated and the
announcement was published
Executing agencies which
emerged as the L1, were
awarded the LOAs by OWSSB.
The work orders were given to them by the respective implementing agencies (PHEO/WATCO/ULB)
1
2
After receiving applications, the dates for technical bid evaluation and financial bid evaluation were announced.
3
4
Figure 11: Odisha model of implementation
While in Maharashtra, a single window approval has been adopted for sanctioning of technical and
administrative approval for 311 FSTPs. It helped ULBs to curtail the long approval process. Pre-
approved technical design, structural and hydraulic design templates of FSTP helped ULBs to fast
track implementation of FS treatment facilities. Mandatory compliance of third-party technical audit
through the empaneled engineering/polytechnic college ensured quality assurance and quality control of
implementation of FSTPs.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
73 IV. Highlights
GThey made the contractor responsible for all project activities starting from the design through the
construction phase. Specifically, they make the contractor responsible for all design, engineering,
procurement, construction, commissioning and handover activities of the project, leaving the
owner with minimal responsibilities at the time of project delivery.
GA single window approval for implementation of FSTPs at state level helped ULBs to curtail the
long approval process. Pre-approved technical design, structural and hydraulic design templates
of FSTPs helped ULBs to fast track implementation of septage treatment facilities.
V. Reflections and lessons
It was observed that the executing agencies generally lacked the technical know-how for the construction
of FSTPs and hence there is a delay in the approval of the design and drawings by OWSSB as they were
subjected to multiple rounds of rectifications. Hence, it was realized that the capacity building of the
executing agencies is imperative to ensure their sensitization on FSSM.
VI. Impact
By the end of 2021, Maharashtra, Odisha and Tamil Nadu will have more than 500 treatment units
covering over 600 ULBs.
VII. Potential for replication
The models demonstrated in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Odisha is representative of around 7600+
towns of India, including 3600+ statutory towns and 3800+ census towns. In addition, many small
cities in South Asia and Africa are of similar size as these cities and can learn from state’s experience of
developing and implementing a state-wide strategy.
Lead case study contributor: Ernst & young LLP; Indian Institute for Human Settlements; and Center for
Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
74 13. CONNECTING URBAN SANITATION AND IMPROVED RIVER HEALTH–
MAINSTREAMING FSSM IN CHUNAR, UTTAR PRADESH
Abstract
Chunar is a small town situated on the banks of River Ganga, spread across 14 sq.km with a population
of 37,185. As part of its larger mandate to support effective septage management in Uttar Pradesh,
CSE has entered into a partnership with Chunar Nagar Palika Parishad (CNPP) to implement effective
FSSM for improved city-wide sanitation. A detailed report on excreta flow diagram was prepared
and subsequently technical assistance was provided to prepare DPR for FSTP which was accorded
approval under Namami Gange Programme. As a knowledge partner, CSE is working closely with
CNPP, Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam (executing agency) and Elefo Biotech Private Limited (contractor) to
oversee construction of 10 KLD FSTP plant on gravity based technology. The project once completed
will showcase FSSM interventions across sanitation chain including scheduled desludging and end
use /reuse of treated sludge (compost) of wastewater for cost recovery for other Ganga basin towns.
The project design is outcome oriented, and the bidder/ contractor is fully responsible for ensuring
compliance with the treatment and discharge norms in order to reuse treated wastewater. CSE through
its technical support unit is ensuring effective stakeholder management through engaging City Sanitation
Task Force members in the design, implementation and finally operations of the FSTP plant (once it
is completed). Adequate IEC support is being facilitated for households along with capacity building
of ULB staff to be able to overtake O&M post the contract period.
I. Context
Chunar is situated on the banks of River Ganga and River Jargo, in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The
city lies in the Vidhyan Range, 42 km from the district headquarters, Mirzapur, and at a distance of 273
km from the state capital, Lucknow. The population of the city, as per Census 2011 is 37,185. The living
conditions in the city are generally moderate with intermittent water supply and inadequate sanitation
facilities. The administrative area under Nagar Palika Parishad (NPP) or municipal council of Chunar is
14 sq.km (NPP, 2016), and the city is divided into 25 municipal wards. The primary mode of earning
livelihood is agriculture and agro-based business. Chunar is well known for its small and micro-scale
pottery industries, especially of clay toys. Chunar has 9% coverage of sewer network
19
but the field-based
study revealed that there is no functional sewer network. 69% of the population of Chunar is dependent
on on-site sanitation systems [OSS], either having septic tanks or lined pits. Overall, 97% of the excreta
is not being managed safely and is indiscriminately discharged in the local environment. Currently, there
is no treatment of the FSS being generated/collected in the city. Due to lack of awareness, motivation,
regulation, infrastructure, and governance, faecal sludge and septage (FSS) desludged from OSS is disposed
of in open spaces and open drains, or even in water bodies, causing severe problems of environmental
pollution, ground water contamination, and adverse impact on the health of local communities, especially
of women and children.
II. Intervention
Under the ‘Support to towns for achieving open defecation status and for effective faecal sludge and septage
management (FSSM)’ Water Programme, the Centre for Science and Environment has provided support to
the city in the field of sanitation, since 2016. In February 2019, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
was signed between the two organizations, wherein Chunar NPP sought continued technical assistance
from CSE to implement effective Faecal Sludge & Septage Management (FSSM) for improved city-wide Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
75 sanitation. CSE has set-up a Technical Support Unit (TSU) in Chunar to support, facilitate, and handhold
city-level agencies in planning, creating operating guidelines, and enabling frameworks, as well as, in
designing and executing FSSM practices across the city of Chunar.
III. Implementation Approach
CSE is the technical support partner of the upcoming faecal sludge treatment plant at Chunar. An FSTP
of 10 Kilo Litre per Day (KLD) capacity working on a gravity-based technology at Durgaji Marg in Dargah
Shareef Mohalla, Chunar, is under construction over an area of 2361 square metre (sqm), of which the
proposed built-up area is around 1366 sqm and the rest of the land (995 sqm) would be designated
for horticulture. The project is supported under Namami Ganga Programme. The State Mission for Clean
Ganga –Uttar Pradesh (SMCG) has selected Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam (UPJN) as the executing agency for
the project.
Technology and Treatment Process
This FSSTP based on Gravity-based technology is designed for 10 cum/day capacity. The faecal sludge is
first made to pass through the screening chambers for the retention of coarse materials/solid waste present
in the faecal sludge. The liquid sludge is conveyed to PDBs, where it is allowed to degrade naturally with
the help of specific varieties of plants called as Macrophytes such as Typha, Cana Indica etc. The planted
sludge drying beds are structures with sloped base for holding graded filter media. The sludge undergoes
liquid-solid separation and also drying.
The dried sludge from the planted drying beds is removed once in 1 or 2 years depending on rate of
feeding. The rest of the part which is the liquid percolate or effluent wastewater is conveyed to the
separate treatment units. The effluent wastewater is then treated in two stages (primary and secondary
stage) in DWWTs modules. The primary stages i.e. Settler is mainly meant for sedimentation of any solids
that have entered the modules along with the percolate. The secondary stage i.e. anaerobic filter is for the
anaerobic degradation of any dissolved and suspended organic matter. The partially treated wastewater
from the secondary treatment unit would be conveyed into the horizontal planted gravel filter where
partial aeration and nutrient removal takes place. The effluent from planted gravel filter is discharged to
tertiary treatment units such as Dual Media Filter, Activated Carbon Filter and UV Disinfection to treat
it appropriately. The treated wastewater is stored in a collection tank from where it can be reused for
agriculture through pumping.
Financial Aspects
Capital expenditure (CAPEX) of the facility for technical modulesINR 94.78 Lakhs
CAPEX for non-technical modules, including office, operator’s room, road,
wash area, parking, landscaping, storm water drains etc.
INR 79.78 Lakhs
Additional expense (to procure one vacuum tanker, develop the plantation
site and access road connecting the site)
INR 18.92 Lakhs
Total CAPEX including contingencies & labor cessINR 193.48 lakhs
Total OPEX for five yearsINR 47.86 lakhs
The total expenditure including capital and operational expenditure along with cost for creating enabling
environment for implementing city-wide FSSM comes out to INR 270.32 lakh. The project also has a
provision of (total INR 15.0 lakh) expenditure on the trainings of ULB and UP-SMCG officials and geo-Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
76 tagging of all the properties and for public participation. About INR 7 lakh will be spent on sanitation
surveys, geo-tagging all properties along with the web-based GIS & MIS. The revenue-generation through
collection of desludging fee will be around INR 6.25 lakh and through selling of compost will be around
INR 2.18 lakh. The total revenue generated will be INR 8.43 lakh; hence, there will be surplus revenue
of around INR 46,610 in year 1. In subsequent years the O&M cost is expected to increase and, hence,
desludging fees would have to be adjusted accordingly.
After completion of construction, O & M of FSTP will be carried-out by contractor for the period of 5 years.
After 5 years, O & M of the FSTP will be carried-out by Chunar Nagar Palika Parishad (CNPP). The cost
towards five years O&M of the project has been included in project cost sanctioned by NMCG. Until the
FSTP gets ready for the operation, Chunar Nagar Palika Parishad will maintain the temporary trenching
site for safe disposal of Faecal sludge. The treatment and discharged parameters will be complied to by
the contractor in order to reuse treated wastewater for horticulture/agriculture.
Proposed Business model
There can be two sources of revenue for this project; a) Emptying fees charged to the user, b) Revenue
generated by selling the compost and/or treated effluent. The compost from FSS will have a good market
value as compared to the sludge from sewage treatment plant. For increasing demand of compost from
the local farmers, ULB can demonstrate the increase in productivity of crops and vegetables by using the
compost and treated water on plantation site.
In the present pilot scale plant at Chunar, total FSS loaded will be approximately 60,480 kg. Assuming
losses during filtration and handling and conservative selling price, it is estimated that the plant will
recover INR 2,17,800 per year by selling the compost. Considering 1 trip/day of both smaller and bigger
tanker (1,000 liters and 5,000 liters capacity respectively)
20
, the total revenue possible from desludging
is estimated to be INR 6,25,000 per year.
Total Revenue = Resource recovery from
compost + Desludging revenue
INR 2,17,800 + INR 6,25,000 = INR 8,42,800
Cost of maintenance of tankers INR 25,000 in one year
Cost of fuel for all tankers INR 5,000 per month, i.e. INR 60,000 in one year
Salary of drivers and labor working in
desludging operations
INR 24,000 per month, i.e. INR 2,88,000 in one year.
Cost of site O&M
INR 4,23,190 in first year. Total Expenditure = INR
25,000 + INR 60,000 + INR 2,88,000 + INR
4,23,190 = INR 7,96,190
Thus, it is expected to generate surplus revenue of INR 46,610 in first year. As the expenditure is going to
increase due to inflation, the desludging fee and selling price of compost will be adjusted accordingly every
year. Moreover, resource recovery can further be enhanced by selling the produce from plantation site. The
investment required can be kept at bare minimum by utilizing the by-products derived from the FSSTP.
IV. Highlights
The Chunar FSTP project will showcase FSSM interventions across the sanitation chain, including scheduled
desludging and end-use/reuse of treated sludge (compost) of wastewater to ensure cost recovery for other
Ganga basin towns. The treated effluent will be reused for horticulture/agriculture on site, and the plant
design will incorporate landscaping around the treatment modules. The Chunar NPP has in the meantime Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
77 also developed a temporary trenching site, which receives all the faecal sludge, emptied mechanically. This
trenching site is a stop-gap arrangement till the faecal sludge treatment plant (under construction) of 10
KLD capacity is operational. The contractual arrangements under the FSTP project have ensured that the
project design is outcome-oriented, and the bidder/contractor is fully responsible for ensuring compliance
with the treatment and discharge norms, in order to reuse treated wastewater for horticulture/agriculture.
Meanwhile, CSE, through its technical support unit, is ensuring effective stakeholder management through
engaging City Sanitation Task Force members in the design, implementation, and, finally, operations of
the FSTP on completion. Moreover, adequate IEC support is being facilitated for households along with
capacity-building of ULB staff, to ensure undertaking O&M following the end of the contract period.
V. Impact
The project once completed will help Chunar manage faecal sludge and septage in a sustainable manner
for its population. It will also assist in creating awareness for regular emptying of containment systems
and safe handling of faecal sludge and septage. The capacity-building initiatives will contribute towards
construction of improved septic tanks, regular desludging, and proper treatment supervision through CSTP
and NPP.
VI. Potential for Replication
The project has been envisaged to showcase FSSM interventions across the sanitation chain, including
scheduled desludging and end-use/reuse of treated sludge (compost) of wastewater for cost recovery. It will
also act as a learning center focused on citywide sanitation, effective FSSM, improved urban sanitation,
and river health for other small and medium ULBs across U.P (and India). The lessons from Chunar will
be useful for other cities in the Ganga basin, and within the state, to plan and implement viable solutions
for faecal sludge and septage management.
Lead case study contributor: Center for Science and Environment (CSE)Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
78 14. HYBRID ANNUITY MODEL (HAM) FOR FSTP CONSTRUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT IN ANDHRA PRADESH
Abstract
About 99% of Indian cities have been declared ODF as of August 2020. These 4324 cities are now
aspiring to achieve total sanitation through the safe management of faecal sludge. The challenge is to
finance the capital and operating costs of Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants. Equally challenging is the
availability of technical capacity at municipal level for sustained operations of the treatment facilities.
This document provides a detailed account of an innovative Hybrid Annuity Model of PPP used to
develop 147 treatment plants in two states of India – Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The experience
presents important lessons for replication at scale in India and beyond.
I. Context
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has articulated a vision to make urban areas free from open defecation.
AP is one of the first states in India to declare all its 110 Urban Local Bodies (ULB) Open Defecation
Free (ODF) by universalizing access and use of toilets. The intent is to go beyond ODF and achieve total
sanitation, which will include faecal sludge management, drainage, solid waste management, and facilities
for safe treatment and disposal of waste. Currently, the state is facing a large burden of untreated faecal
waste indiscriminately disposed-off in water bodies and open spaces, causing large public health and
environmental risks extending beyond the boundaries of the city/ town.
To achieve safe sanitation, it is envisioned that all ULBs should achieve ODF++ status through safe
management of faecal sludge and septage. As a result, a policy and operative guidelines for safe handling
of Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) in urban local bodies was notified by the GoAP in
2017. The policy was introduced to regulate the provision of toilets, safe collection, treatment, and
disposal/reuse of faecal waste in urban areas of Andhra Pradesh. In line with the policy, the state had
decided to set-up faecal sludge treatment facilities in all the towns. The state aimed to achieve this by
promoting co-treatment of faecal sludge at functional Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) and establishment
of standalone Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants (FSTPs) in towns without STPs.
GoAP planned to establish 76 FSTPs in small and medium towns. The techno-economic studies (Detailed
Project Reports) helped ascertain funding requirements for establishing FSTPs. However, financing the
capital and operating costs was a significant roadblock for achieving the vision of safe sanitation. The
technical expertise of municipalities to build and operate these plants was a concern.
II. Intervention
Against this backdrop, to bridge the financial and technical gaps in the ULBs, the state government of
AP took an innovative step to introduce Public-Private Partnership (PPP) for developing FSTPs in 76
ULBs on Design, Build, Operate &Transfer (DBOT) basis. The Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM) of PPP, with
a ten-year Operations and Maintenance (O&M) contract, was considered as the most appropriate mode of
procurement. As O&M is a crucial component for sustaining FSTP operations, a long-term O&M support
was considered. Under the HAM model, Government pays 60% of the cost of the project during the
construction period and the remaining 40% is paid on an annuity basis, along with the O&M fee, during
the O&M period. The Administrative Staff College of India (ASCI) provided technical assistance to GoAP
to implement FSSM and decentralized sanitation improvement programs in all towns of Andhra Pradesh.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
79 GoAP/SACPrivate Developers
Escrow
SPV
Lenders
FSTP Asset Creation
& Maintenance
Project Construction
Conditions precedents:
• Council Resolution
• Land
• Electricity
• Approach road
• 50% capex paid within 6
months of construction
preiod (3 installments)
• 50% capex and O&M for
concession period of 9.5
years (38 equal quarterly
installments)
• Quality control & Project Monitoring
• Performance linked payment advice
• Technical expertise
• Designs
3rd Party Agency /
Independent Engineer
ULB
Hybrid Annuity Model – Project structure
III. Implementation approach
GThe concessionaire shall be responsible for the construction, operation, and maintenance of
the FSTPs at the sites being provided by the Government/Urban Local Body (ULBs), and in
conformity with the specifications and standards
G76 FSTPs are clustered into seven packages to promote economies of scale and to attract
credible and established operators
GMunicipalities ensure the availability of land on a lease (~0.5 to 1 acre) for establishing FSTPs.
A permanent approach road for trucks to decant septage at the treatment plant is made available
by the ULB. Further, ULB facilitates access to water and power for O&M of FSTP
GThe technology-agnostic approach was considered during procurement and, therefore, the bidder
was free to employ well-established technology options for establishing FSTPs. Technologies
that are appropriate, environment friendly, and low on O&M cost were preferred. A technology
evaluation committee validated the proposals and undertook necessary due diligence.
GA two-stage procurement process was adopted: EOI, followed by a detailed RFP, covering
technical and financial components, was issued; A Quality and Cost Based Selection (QCBS)
process of procurement was followed
GThe technical and financial bids of the bidders were evaluated using Least Cost Selection (LCS)
process. The bids were evaluated based on the lowest assessed Bid Price (the “Bid Price”).
The Bid Price is the summation of (a) Bid Project Cost and (b) Net Present Value (NPV) of
O & M Cost (the O & M Cost) during the O & M Period. The bidder quoting the lowest price
considering CAPEX (capital expenditure) and OPEX (operational expenditure O&M) for ten years
was considered.
GConcession period of 10 years in a design, build, operate & transfer (DBOT) model requires the
construction to be completed in 6 months and the plant to be operated over the balance of 9.5
years
GThird-party technical agencies (Independent Engineers) were appointed for regular technical
scrutiny
GCost benchmarks, with key performance indicators, were defined at the outset
GThe process held the bidder responsible for the effective treatment and safe disposal of faecal
sludge and septage, and for complying with the environmental and other regulatory norms that
are in vogue from time-to-time during the entire concession periodFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
80
GBidders could monetize resources recovered like biogas, treated wastewater, biochar, and
compost; bidders were encouraged to employ a low energy usage option
GMunicipalities were directed to regulate desludging operators and authorize them to deliver
faecal sludge at the project site for treatment
IV. Highlights
GThe HAM model enables the influx of private capital for infrastructure development and helps in
mitigating risk related to capital investment through a risk-sharing approach
GUnlike typical PPP projects, HAM distributes financing risks between government and private
players and, hence, is becoming the preferred choice for developers, banking institutions, and
government alike, among all other PPP models
GHAM developer is incentivized to take a lifecycle view to reduce O&M costs in the future. This
results in longer life of the asset
GHAM projects are less prone to delay vis-à-vis EPC projects due to the availability of capital
GHAM ensures staggered cash flows for the Government
V. Impact
GIncrease in private sector investments
GMore than 40 operators from MSME sector capacitated to invest in FSTP.
GSeveral innovative technologies promoted, tested, and readied for replication at scale
VI. Reflections and lessons
The Hybrid Annuity based PPP models in India have been adopted successfully in roads and highways
development. Implementing HAM in establishing FSTPs at scale is a unique experiment by GoAP. The
model is well balanced with clear commitments and risk-sharing from both parties. One of the most
important features of this model is that both the Annuity and O&M payments are linked to the performance
of the FSTP. This will ensure sustained usage of the assets created due to better accountability, ownership,
and optimal performance.
The role of transaction advisory is important not only in developing a balanced Request for Proposal
but also for market development through promoting the project with the right target group. Continued
engagement with the private sector through the life of the project is essential for building trust.
VII. Potential for replication
The PPP engagement for establishing FSTPs using HAM is a first of its kind and has significant potential
for replication. Several states have reviewed AP experience. The State Government of Telangana has
replicated the model and is implementing FSTPs in PPP (HAM) in its 71 ULBs. As the FSTP projects are
being operationalized, both the states have started developing plans for accepting sludge from rural areas
within a 10 km radius, thus leading the way for another innovative model of rural-urban integration in
sanitation.
Lead case study contributor: Administrative Staff College of IndiaFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
81 15. FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT, LEH, J&K
Abstract
BORDA identified Leh municipality in Jammu & Kashmir as a city in need of an FSSM solution. Leh
is a high-altitude, cold desert municipality with a high dependence on groundwater. Most of the local
population uses eco-san toilets (no desludging required), whereas water flush toilets are provided for
tourists who throng the town in thousands on a daily basis. Hence, the hotels and homestays were the
key customer segment. BORDA along with Blue Water Company partnered with the Municipal Council
of Leh (MCL) to pilot integrated Collection, Transportation and Treatment of Faecal Sludge. Design for
the FSTP was undertaken by CDD Society (BORDA 2018).
I. Context
Leh, a high-altitude coldest desert at 12,000 feet in Jammu & Kashmir, India, has rapidly become a
popular tourist destination with a footfall of 2 80,000 visitors, annually. The city is building a sewerage
system that, in the near future, will connect about 40% of the city, but today, households, hotels, and
guesthouses use a septic tank and soak pits for on-site containment of sewage. As most of the septic tanks
are poorly designed, and the underground water table is high (only 30 feet in some places), in 2017,
there was early evidence of water contamination, possibly due to overflowing septic tank.
Therefore, the Municipal Committee of Leh (MCL) ordered that septic tanks be made watertight and be
mandatorily desludged every year. The town needed an FSTP to treat and reuse the sludge safely.
II. Intervention
GPlanning and scheduling desludging of septic tanks in an efficient manner
GSafely transport faecal sludge to a treatment plant
GOperate a faecal sludge treatment plant to meet effluent standards at high altitude
GSell and reuse the byproducts from treatment of effluents
GFSTP implementation through PPP
GWorker Safety and dignity at the heart of sustainable operations.
III. Implementation approach
Detailed step-by-step process followed and activities undertakenFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
82 Leh Municipality
1. Create monthly cleaning schedule
2. Issue schedule notice to customers,
collect fees
3. Pre-visit to ensure tank access
6. If tank is inaccessible, reschedule
+ inform MC
5. Clean tank, take sludge to FSTP4. Reminder (24 hrs before cleaning)
7. Second cleaning : If inaccessible,
inform MC
8. Issue notice and collect fine 9. Pay BWC based on No. of
cleaning/month
CDD Society
Designed FSTPFinancial InvestorProvided Land
BORDALeh Development Authority
Supervise system
Provide a truck
Blue Water Company
Finance + Build FSTP
Delivers FSM Services
Stakeholders Funding/ investments Roles Played
Leh Autonomous Hill
development council
Municipal Committee
BORDA
CDD
Blue Water Company
BORDA & Blue Water
Company
Leh Autonomous Hill development
council – provide land
Municipal Committee – Supervise
system, provide the truck, fixing
and collecting user fee
BORDA – Financial investor
CDD – designed FSTP
Blue Water Company – Finance &
build FSTP and FSSM services
Monitoring and roll-out
The municipality monitors desludging and FSTP operations. According to the integrated contract, the
BWC is responsible for managing FSTP operations and the provision of scheduled and demand-based
desludging services. The MCL provided one existing desludging vehicle. The BWC prepares the schedule
for desludging, which is shared with the MCL, who notifies customers of the desludging dates. Scheduled
desludging is undertaken twice a week. The remaining days in the week are reserved for on-demand
desludging. Once the desludging service has been provided, the BWC is paid 90% of the revenue (INR
3,500 for each trip) upon submission of documentary evidence of service provision.
Timeline across planning, implementation, and monitoring post-implementation
2017: Officials from Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council visited Devanahalli FSTP in
February 2017.
In April 2017, BORDA was requested to support in creating an effective system to manage
faecal sludge in Leh.
Blue Water Company was identified as the BOT contractor to finance the FSTP, with payment
for return financial arrangementFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
83
GFSTP construction was undertaken in May-July 2017
GFSTP was inaugurated in August 2017
Technology used or implemented
Screen Chamber, Planted Gravel Filter (PGF), Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter (HPGF) and Polishing Pond.
Flow charts/visuals /data analytics
Treatment Process Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant, Leh, J&K
IV. Highlights
GLeh FSTP brought to fore the applicability of PPP model for FSSM
GProfessional Service – All the personnel involved in FSSM operations from BWC are trained to
provide professional service – being trained on customer etiquette apart from being provided
with Uniforms and PPE. BORDA also ensured that these personnel had access to State-of-
the-Art facilities in their operator room in terms of lounges, toilet facilities etc. – which further
motivated the personnel.
V. Impact
GMore than 6 Million Liters of FS treated, and 7,100 people served till December 2020
GThe technology for high altitudes/cold climate areas has been demonstrated
GSuccessfully piloted the double booster pump so as to provide accessible desludging services to
households/hotels in narrow lanes
VI. Reflections and lessons
Key success, lessons
GFSSM interventions can be implemented quickly if the political will is strong
GIntegrated FSSM services handled by one party as in this case makes FSSM operations efficient
GA good working environment can motivate sanitation personnel to contribute more effectively.
GInnovation and experimentation are essential to improve the service quality in sanitation
GPayment for Results–Appropriate financial arrangements and sharing risk and responsibility
between the government and private operatorFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
84 Challenges
GLong and cold winters
GTourist season during summer
GLow pump power
GNarrow streets and gradient
GResistance to scheduled cleaning and political risk
GPerformance of the treatment plant during peak winters
GMajority of black water problem is not solved – as a result there is plan for expansion of capacity
of facility
VII. Potential for replication
Sinnar: First city in India to set up its FSTP using the DBO model
financed through ULB funds
Sinnar Municipal Council (SMC) with a population of 72,000 is a model city that has set up its faecal
sludge treatment plant (FSTP) through a DBO approach. With support from Center for Water and
Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT University, SMC had issued a Design- Build- Operate (DBO) tender
in May 2017 for construction of its 70 KLD FSTP. Under this tender, the awardee was responsible
for planning, designing, constructing as well as operation and maintenance for the first three years of
operations. The Sinnar FSTP is in operations since March 2019 and has treated around 12+ Million
litres of septage till date.
Salient features
GA technology neutral and performance based tender document
GA bidder selected through a transparent and competitive open bidding process
GThis FSTP is fully financed by local government using its 14th Finance commission grant
GInitial three years of operation and maintenance are included
GEscrow mechanism is used for timely payment to the private operator. This helps to reduce
the risk of delay in payment to contractor
GThe Bidder has to obtain all the necessary approvals from the competent authority
Based on the Sinnar experience, a model tender document has been developed.
21

Sinnar FSTP

Lead case study contributor: Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination Society
Other contributors: Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
85 EXHIBIT 3
CSR FUNDED PROJECTS IN FSSM
Background
Along with government funding, the sanitation sector has seen increased interest and funding
from the corporate sector.
Many corporates have funded projects in the sanitation sector including Faecal Sludge and
Septage Management (FSSM) through the CSR route.
Companies like HSBC, HT Parekh Foundation have been front runners and have contributed
their CSR funds for various FSSM projects.
Intervention
HSBC supported the city of Sinnar in Maharashtra to enhance the quality of existing FSSM
infrastructure in partnership with Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS). The key intervention
areas were decided based on the ongoing ODF sustainability and FSSM activities by the municipal
council. Major interventions for FSSM included online monitoring system for scheduled emptying
of septic tanks; creating resource center at the Faecal sludge treatment plants (FSTP), landscaping
and creating urban forest around FSTP to create a model FSTP facility among others.
HT Parekh Foundation was already supporting the construction of individual household toilets
in cities of Maharashtra. However, it was found that many of these toilets are connected to
septic tanks which require proper desludging, treatment and reuse. Hence the support was
extended to achieve safely managed sanitation systems with a focus on Faecal Sludge and
Septage Management (FSSM). The HTP foundation is supporting the cities of Kolhapur and
Satara in Maharashtra through a partnership with CWAS. The key activities envisaged under this
CSR grant included citywide FSSM plan with special focus on slums, scheduled desludging of
septic tanks, co-treatment of Faecal load at STP in Kolhapur and FSTP expansion in Satara city;
setting-up the monitoring mechanisms for safe desludging and treatment operations; Support in
converting the STP/FSTP into resource centers and capacity building of ULB officials, etc.
The HT Parekh Foundation had agreed to fund one FSTP in the peripheral of Hyderabad and
signed an MoU with HMWSSB, given how over 50% of households / establishments in the
Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) and peripheral areas lacked sewerage network
and was dependent on onsite sanitation systems namely septic tanks. The team also worked
with 80-100 desludging operators as well as the Greater Hyderabad Water Board to create
a platform called Dial-a–Desludger to enable households to request for desludging services
whenever required.
Macquarie bank supported a sanitation workers training program, piloted in Bhiwandi,
Maharashtra. The activities included provision of safety gear and PPE to sanitation workers, on-
the-job training to clean sewers and septic tanks, and access to government schemes.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
86 Landscape and resource center at Sinnar FSTP Online monitoring system for
FSSM- SaniTrack
Impact
These CSR investments are intended to support cities, where toilets have been provided but
citywide services for safely managed sanitation are needed. The investments will help assess,
plan, implement and monitor FSSM services across entire sanitation service chain, including
desludging, treatment and reuse.
There is willingness by city government to adopt and implement FSSM plans. The city officials
are looking forward to partnerships with corporates to undertake innovative solutions to waste
management.
The above case examples will encourage other corporates to support projects in FSSM sector.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
87 16. ENABLING THE SCALE-UP OF CO-TREATMENT IN STPS ACROSS
TAMIL NADU
Abstract
To address the prevalence of unsafe disposal of Faecal Sludge (FS) due to both lack of adequate
treatment facilities and underutilized treatment capacity, the Government of Tamil Nadu adopted a
co-treatment model in 2018 to allow co-treatment of faecal sludge at existing Sewage Treatment
Plants (STPs), with spare treatment capacity, and new STPs. Following a thorough assessment
of STPs across the state, co-treatment was enabled at 50 STPs, through infrastructure and
operational changes, supplemented by capacity-building and governance measures.
I. Context
In Tamil Nadu, nearly 70% of urban households depend on On-site Sanitation Systems (OSSs). The Faecal
Sludge (FS) and septage accumulated over time in the OSSs need to be safely treated and disposed.
However, the lack of adequate treatment facilities, within reasonable distance from its origin, often leads to
open disposal of faecal sludge and septage on land and in water bodies, which poses a significant threat
to public health and the environment.
II. Intervention
To promote and regulate the process of collection, transportation, and treatment of FS, the Government
of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) issued the ‘Operative Guidelines for Septage Management for Local Bodies in
Tamil Nadu’ (OG) in 2014. Given that Tamil Nadu has been practicing co-treatment of faecal sludge with
sewage in Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) for nearly two decades, the OG emphasized the potential to
scale-up treatment of FS through co-treatment of septage and sewage at underutilized Sewage Treatment
Plants (STPs) in the state on the basis of a cluster approach.
In 2018, through the State Investment Plan (SIP), the GoTN adopted a co-treatment model for treating
FS at all existing and potential STPs, with the following objectives:
GTo prevent open dumping of FS and contamination of water resources by providing adequate
treatment and disposal facilities; and
GTo saturate the utilization of existing and proposed sewage treatment facilities
Co-treatment is the process by which faecal sludge and/ or septage collected from on-site sanitation
systems is treated at STPs, along with the sewage. Since FS is a concentrated waste compared to sewage
(for e.g., FS has higher values of BOD), its treatment at STPs requires understanding of its characteristics
and impact on the STP performance. The FS is received at decanting stations (generally pumping stations
with FS receiving facilities) connected to the STP. The decanting stations help in diluting FS with sewage
and, hence, avoid shock-loading. In terms of operation and maintenance, co-treatment requires regular
monitoring of FS quality, and maintenance of overall decanting infrastructure.
III. Implementation approach
Key steps involved in the implementation of co-treatment include:
1. Adoption of a State Investment Plan: In 2018, by GoTN was the first step towards scaling of
treatment infrastructure, including the process of co-treatment across the State. The SIP was Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
88 developed based on two key principles: 1) Co-treatment of FS at existing STPs, and, 2) optimum
utilization of treatment facilities through clustering of ULBs. Of the five phases proposed in
the SIP, Phases I and II focused on enabling co-treatment at existing and proposed STPs,
respectively. The two phases covered nearly 60% of the total urban population.
2. Infrastructure Assessment: To enable co-treatment, infrastructural improvements such as
provision of decanting stations and suitable pumping stations at STPs, were required at certain
locations. Therefore, a detailed field assessment of all STPs in Tamil Nadu was initiated to
assess the feasibility of implementing co-treatment at STPs and decanting at pumping stations.
The assessment included evaluation of STPs and Sub-Pumping Stations (SPS) on performance,
co-treatment potential, and flows (network and pumping stations), including:
a. Access to infrastructure for decanting and pre-treatment
b. Current inflow, characteristics of sewage and plant performance
c. Improvements required to enhance or enable co-treatment
d. Assessment of network and SPS for potential leakage of sewage
e. Review of O&M and financing options
f. Assessing current desludging practices
g. Assessing sludge treatment and method of disposal of treated water
Based on the assessment, STPs were categorized according to the criteria set out in the table
below.
Table 7: Classification of STP based on assessment
Criteria
A1
Co-treatment
not practised
A2
Co-treatment
practiced
B C D
STP working
status o
All equipments in working condition,
and has unutilised capacity
All equipments
in working
condition, and
has unutilised
capacity
working at
full/ near
full capacity
Equipments
not
functioning/
breakdown
Investment or
modification
required to
adopt co-
treatment
Requires Minimal investment
(Upto 3 Lakh Rupees)
Requires
moderate
investment
(Between 3 to
20 Lakhs)
Requires
high
investment
(More than
20 Lakhs)
Requires
high
investment
(More than
20 Lakhs)
3. Implementation of co-treatment: With the support of the Tamil Nadu Urban Sanitation Support
Programme (TNUSSP), the GoTN operationalized co-treatment model at 50 STPs across the
State. Along with improvements at the STPs and pumping stations (decanting facility), the
following activities were carried out:
a. Capacity building and behavior change communication of desludging operators
b. Development of an App for digital tracking of desludging vehicles
c. Design and institutionalization of FS testing protocols, using digital tools (such as an online
testing mechanism for industrial waste)
d. Implementation of a Memorandum of Understanding to facilitate co-treatment for clusters
of ULBs using a common treatment facilityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
89 TNUSSP also worked with the ULBs to implement activities at the STPs and pumping stations (decanting
facility) by providing support on:
a. DPR review and integration of decanting facility at proposed STP
b. Implementing and monitoring decanting facility at STPs/ pumping stations
c. Capacity-building of ULB engineers and STP operators
The scale-up of co-treatment being enabled at 50 STPs across Tamil Nadu ensures over 1,000 KLD of
additional treatment capacity in the State
IV. Highlights
The key differentiators of this co-treatment model include:
1. Requirement of minimal modifications to enable co-treatment (like creation of a decanting
facility) and those that can be easily undertaken in a short period of time at minimum cost
2. Improving O&M procedures and the capacity of key personnel like DSOs and plant managers for
long term sustainability
3. Self-sustenance, as existing infrastructure is improved to implement co-treatment
4. The cost-sharing model between cluster ULBs, which allows the host ULB to bear all expenses
related to co-treatment, subject to periodic review
5. provision of investment for decanting stations at STPs by the ULBs
V. Similar initiatives from other states
1. Maharashtra model
for scale-up of
co-treatment
Government of Maharashtra
(GoM) initiated a state-wide
adoption of Faecal Sludge and
Septage Treatment facility.
The state took two-pronged
approach towards state-wide
FSSM strategy: a) co-treatment
of faecal sludge at own or
nearby STPs, and, b) setting-up
independent FSTPs at city level
for faecal sludge treatment.
State level strategy for co-
treatment of faecal waste with
functional STPs
Maharashtra is one of the few states in India to institutionalize co-treatment of faecal waste with functional
sewerage treatment plants (STP). This was done through a resolution (GR: SMU-2018 /Cr No. 351/UD-
34) in 2018 to promote ULBs to initiate co-treatment practices in ULBs. GoM identified ULBs in two
categories for co-treatment; a) ULBs with functional sewerage treatment plant (STP) but without full
sewerage coverage could treat septage collected from on-site systems in their own STPs, and, b) ULBs Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
90 could co-treat their septage at an STP in a nearby ULB, located within 20 km of radius from existing
STPs. As per the co-treatment GR, 35 STP cities and 36 sending cities, that could co-treat their septage
at respective 21 receiving cities with STP, were identified.
Institutionalization of co-treatment of faecal waste with functional STPs
GoM conducted several rounds of capacity-building
workshops to initiate co-treatment practices in selected
ULBs. A ‘standard’ MoU was also developed to facilitate the
co-treatment process between sending and receiving cities.
This MoU clearly defined the roles and responsibilities of
sending and receiving cities. It also captured identification
of designated location for discharge of faecal waste. It also
provided necessary directives to receiving cities and private
STP operators to accept the faecal waste load from nearby cities. A record keeping and monitoring format
on receipt of quantity and quality of faecal waste was also developed and shared with the ULBs.
Memorandum of Understandings (MoUs) between receiving city (Nagpur) and sending cities
Successes and lessons learnt
About 69 ULBs have attained ODF++ status by initiating co-treatment practices with own or nearby STPs
in Maharashtra. A government resolution on co-treatment enabled ULBs to implement safe sanitation
practices. It is important to recognize the need for a robust monitoring system to ensure that treatment
efficiency of STP is maintained as per standards.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
91 2. Scaling-up FSSM through Co-Treatment – Uttarakhand’s Approach
A City-Wide Inclusive Sanitation (CWIS) initiative is being taken up in Uttarakhand with a focus on FSSM.
In a multi stakeholder collaborative initiative of the state government, the National Institute of Urban
Affairs (NIUA) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) along with state departments are improving the
sanitation infrastructure in the state. A detailed study on current FSSM practices is being carried out by
mapping the areas of the city and peri-urban areas that remained uncovered by the existing and proposed
sewerage networks. With most of the STPs found to have spare treatment capacity, it is envisaged to
use the existing treatment sites for co-treatment of FSS with sewage as an interim solution. In order
to demonstrate the benefits of co-treatment, a technical feasibility study was performed to support the
implementation of a co-treatment facility of 40KLD at an upcoming 18 MLD STP in Raipur, Dehradun.
The proposed infrastructure will benefit 24000 HHs for 15 years.
With similar support, a 130 KLD co-treatment facility is upcoming at 68 MLD capacity Kargi STP,
Dehradun. The co-treatment at Kargi Chowk STP involves utilization of space and spare mechanical
equipment available at the STP; see figure below for the process flow of co-treatment method. Furthermore,
it also takes into consideration the existing STP treatment capabilities to ensure seamless and maximum
treatment of FSS as well as sewage.
Process flow diagram of co-treatment method
Having cognizance of the study has brought technical purview for co-treatment of septage with sewage in
the state. The state is using this knowledge for scaling-up treatment of FSS by using Co-treatment method
at their current STPs having the spare capacity and for upcoming sewerage plans as well. The state of
Uttarakhand, India, is now mainstreaming FSSM at a city-wide scale through Co-treatment method. This
is evident through various notifications and advisories on Co-treatment and FSSM being circulated by
authorities.
VI. Impact
The scaling of co-treatment across existing and potential STPs will enable access to FSSM services for
60% of the urban population (excluding Chennai), and contribute towards reduced untreated FS being Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
92 let-out into the environment. By the end of 2021, the existing treatment facilities will be optimally utilized
as they will be operating as co-treatment facilities.
VII. Reflections and lessons
A key advantage of the co-treatment model is the minimum cost and time required to initiate the process
and provide critically needed treatment capacity by saturating underutilized capacity at existing STPs.
While there are challenges anticipated in relation to the characteristics and quantity of faecal sludge
received at co-treatment facilities, it is important to initiate the process and make changes based on
understanding gathered from field operations. Continuous monitoring and learning is required to ensure
that the plant performance and effluent quality are maintained as per standards.
VIII. Potential for replication
With STP acting as the more commonly available treatment facility across many cities and states, minimum
investment and resources are required to initiate and scale co-treatment. This would significantly contribute
towards the reduction of untreated faecal sludge and septage being disposed into the environment.
Lead case study contributors: Indian Institute for Human Settlements, Center for Water and Sanitation
(CWAS), CRDF, CEPT University, NIUAFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
93 EXHIBIT 4
CO-LOCATION OF FSTPS WITH SWM PLANTS ACROSS
MAHARASHTRA, ODISHA AND TAMIL NADU
Background
Regardless of the stringent pollution control norms in place, in many cities where FSSM has
not received due attention, untreated septage collected from septic tanks and pits is dumped in
open drains and other areas posing an environment and health hazard.
In comparison to the disposal of municipal solid waste, there is little exposure to or understanding
of the need to set-up septage treatment plants, and the process of septage treatment and safe
disposal. This is a huge deterrent to India achieving ODF+ and ODF++ status.
Safe and sustainable sanitation requires the proper disposal of faecal waste at designated
disposal sites, along with their safe treatment. The end-products from treatment can also be
harnessed as useful resources such as fertilizers, compost.
However, land availability is a pre-requisite to the setting-up and running of such treatment sites.
The absence of adequate public awareness and the lack of adequate land availability in cities
make the construction of FSTPs lengthy and time-consuming process.
Intervention
ULBs across states have sought to optimize land use by leveraging unused capacity of Sewerage
Treatment Plants, where available, or by setting up FSTPs within, or near solid waste management
(SWM) sites
SWM sites in particular are sought given how organic solid waste procured through SWM can
be co-treated and co-composted along with faecal sludge. Examples of states leveraging this
option are as follows:
The FSTP located in the Resource Recovery Park at Periyanaickenpalayam (PNP) Town
Panchayat in Coimbatore, which has a capacity of 25 KLD, has been co-located within the
solid waste treatment facility, also enabling co-compositing
Similarly, in Maharashtra, all 311 of the FSTPs sanctioned in November 2019, of which
120 have been set-up and 100 are in the pipeline, are co-located within the solid waste
treatment plants.
The FSTP in Dhenkanal, Odisha, also employs co-composting technology, with the treatment
system also consisting of a co-composting unit, where the dried sludge from the STP is
composted with municipal solid waste.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
94 Impact
Co-locating allows for ULBs to not have to identify separate land for FSTPs and go through a long
and time consuming land acquisition process.
It has the added advantage of being able to leverage existing infrastructure – like roads and
buildings – as well as resource costs such as labor, water and electricity, across solid waste and
septage treatment facilities.
Co-locating FSTPs within SWM plant sites also allows for easier proximity and transportation
of solid waste for co-composting. The co-composting process results in a by-product of higher
nutrient value which can be sold as manure for agricultural purposes, generating revenue for the
ULB.
Co-locating FSTPs within SWM sites also has the added advantage of highlighting / creating the
realization that FSSM is as important as SWM, and both need to go hand-in-hand to ensure total
and sustainable sanitation.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
95 Existing FSTP technologies and capacities in select cities
The landscape for Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants (FSTPs) varies widely depending on the capacity,
technology used, and ancillary infrastructure (roads, compound wall etc.) provided. Table 8 below provides
a snapshot of FSTPs built in 10 different States – with contexts ranging from the extreme cold and tourism
driven Leh, J&K, to the hot, small town of Lalsot, Rajasthan–using various technologies. Three technical
approaches have been adopted widely – i) passive, low energy/low skill technologies, ii) mechanical
systems, requiring a certain minimum scale but low land foot print, iii) Thermal technologies, that aim to
combust a part of the faecal sludge to treat the rest. The capital costs provide a clear indication of the
cost-effectiveness of FSTPs, though they are not strictly comparable due to different levels of infrastructure
and degree of treatment. They also point to the operations costs of FSTPs being more affordable for a
typical ULB, increasing the chances of FSSM infrastructure being maintained in the long run.
Table 8: Snapshot of existing FSTPs of a range of capacities in 10 States
Sr. No.CityState
Year of
Commiss
ion Designed
Capacity
(KLD)
Type of
Technology
Land
Alocated
(Acres)Capital
cost (INR
crores)
Operati
on Cost
(INR
lakhs/M
onth)
Reuse - resource
utilised
++
1SircillaTelangana 2019 18Passive 0.62 1.60 0.58 None
2LehJammu & Kashmir 2017 12Passive 0.18 0.52 1.00 Nutrients & Water
3Devanahalli Karnataka 2015 6Passive 0.16 0.90 1.10 Nutrients & Water
4Brahmapuram Kerala 2015 100Mechanical 0.25 4.00 1.48 Energy, Water & Nutrient
5Nashik
+
Maharashtra 2017 20Passive 1.48 8.00 0.75 Energy & Nutrients
6SinnarMaharashtra 2019 70Mechanical 0.38 2.05 1.53 None
7WaiMaharashtra 2018 20Thermal 0.50 1.75 2.00 Energy
8Bhubaneswar Odisha 2019 75Passive 2.50 2.85 1.01 Nutrients & Water
9BrahmapurOdisha 2019 40Passive 1.50 2.48 0.78 Nutrients & Water
10DhenkanalOdisha 2018 27Passive 1.50 2.96 0.80 None
11Puri*Odisha 2017 50Passive 0.25 1.74 1.09 None
12NarsapurAndhra Pradesh 2018 15Thermal 0.29 1.50 2.50 Energy & Water
13WarangalTelangana 2017 15Thermal 1.00 1.50 1.50 Energy & Water
14UnnaoUttar Pradesh 2019 24Passive 1.60 3.50 1.79 None
15LalsotRajasthan 2019 20Passive 1.85 3.75 0.33 None
16Phulera & Sambar** Rajasthan 2019 20Passive 1.30 2.82 0.72 None
17Periyanayakan Palayam**Tamil Nadu 2019 25Mechanical 0.50 2.50 1.5Nutrients & Water
18Kovilpatti Tamil Nadu 2020 40Passive 1.80 3.94 1.5Nutrients & Water
19Tirumangalam Tamil Nadu 2020 40Passive 1.80 4.30 1.5Nutrients & Water
Source: Rao, Krishna C.; Velidandla, S.; Scott, C. L.; Drechsel, Pay. 2020. Business models for faecal sludge management in
India and additional inputs from Indian Institute for Human Settlements (IIHS), Bengaluru
Notes:
+ Treats both FS and organic waste simultaneously
* Co-treatment of Faecal Sludge in an existing STP
** FSTP catering to cluster of towns
++ This is the current state, most FSTPs will be able to reuse Nutrients and Water in futureFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
96 Background
Wai and Sinnar are two cities in Maharashtra that are providing first of it its kind scheduled
septic tank emptying services and have set up a Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant (FSTP) of 70KLD
capacity. These interventions have been implemented through technical support from Center for
Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT University. In Bhubaneshwar, Odisha Water Supply
and Sewage Board (OWSSB) has implemented 75 KLD FSTP.
In Wai, the construction and operation of FSTP is done by a private firm while it is funded by
BMGF. The Sinnar FSTP is funded by council’s own funds and is being operated by a private firm
through a Design Build Operate (DBO) contract. The Bhubaneshwar FSTP is operated by WATCO
(Water Corporation of Odisha) which is a utility of Government of Odisha.
Wai and Sinnar FSTPs are mechanized treatment plants The FSTP at Wai is based on thermal
treatment process (Pyrolysis) and the Sinnar FSTP is based on UASB technology. Bhubaneshwar
FSTP is based on nature-based system with minimal mechanization.
Intervention
With an aim to generate renewable energy and to meet the electricity requirement of the FSTP,
all the three cities have set up Solar Power Plants at the FSTPs.
The electricity requirement of Wai FSTP is about 15Kw for 10hrs a day, while that at Sinnar is
7.5 Kw and for Bhubaneshwar its 10Kw. Based on this, the designed capacity of the on-grid solar
power plant in Wai, Sinnar and Bhubaneshwar were setup at 30 Kw ,10Kw, 10Kw respectively.
In Wai, the solar installation had been designed over sludge drying beds. Whereas in Sinnar and
Bhubaneshwar, they have been provided over the resources center of the FSTP.
The on-grid solar systems at all the three FSTPs are operational.

Solar power plant at Wai FSTP Solar power plant at Sinnar FSTP Solar power plant at Bhubaneshwar FSTP
Impact
As the FSTPs are mechanical, the installed solar plant helps the municipal councils to save on
electricity costs.
After meeting the electricity requirement of the FSTP, the excess electricity is being used at SWM
site.
The solar plants also help reduce carbon footprint
EXHIBIT 5
SOLAR POWER PLANTS AT WAI, SINNAR,
BHUBANESWAR FSTPSFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
97 17. ENGAGEMENT OF WOMEN AND TRANSGENDER SHGS FOR O&M OF
FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS IN ODISHA
Abstract
In the effort to generate sustainable livelihood opportunities, and drive an inclusive sanitation agenda,
the State Government of Odisha has handed over the operations and maintenance of septage treatment
plants to seven women and one transgender SHG in the cities of Angul, Balasore, Berhampur, Baripada,
Cuttack, Dhenkanal, Rourkela and Sambalpur, respectively. A phased and participatory approach was
adopted at all stages, beginning with selecting the SHGs, to creating training modules, to their capacity
building to finally handing over the infrastructure by signing an agreement. The path breaking pilot
has also proven to be an effective cost optimization process to the state, given how it employs
an alternate strategy in plant operations and maintenance. Its success has encouraged the state to
consider replicating it across all ULBs, as when septage treatment plants get set-up in the state.
I. Context
Entrepreneurship has long been recognized as an important
source of poverty alleviation, economic empowerment and a
means to mitigate gender inequity. However, social norms and
gender specific barriers have inhibited economically and socially
marginalized groups, such as women and transgender, from
making their mark in entrepreneurship. Micro-entrepreneurship
thus offers such vulnerable individuals with limited education
and skills, a viable avenue to participate in economic activities,
provided the same is accompanied by long-term technical,
financial and incubation support. Cognizant of the same, the
state of Odisha has been involving such marginalized members from the community in the state’s sanitation
endeavors through partnerships and associations with community organizations like Self Help Groups
(SHGs). Accordingly, SHGs are involved in a number of sanitation initiatives from CT/PT construction to
its O&M, composting, solid waste management, to mechanized desludging of toilet septic tanks/ cesspool
operations, and more recently, a unique pilot in maintaining of septage treatment plants in 4 cities across
the state.
II. Intervention
The deliberate engagement of women and transgender SHGs for the O&M of Septage Treatment Plants
(SeTPs) in the cities of Angul, Balasore, Berhampur, Baripada, Cuttack, Dhenkanal, Rourkela and Sambalpur
was undertaken as a pilot in an effort to strengthen SHG engagement in liquid waste management in
Odisha and as a step towards gender parity and inclusivity. It was undertaken in a phased manner,
beginning with the identification of those groups interested and invested in sanitation activities, then
orienting them through a capacity building process which included trainings and exposure visits, as well
as engagement with all stakeholders involved in the plant’s functioning, and, finally, with the selection of
those who passed the final evaluation. The handover of plant maintenance was also motivated by the need
to optimize costs through alternate ways of septage management. Though the plants required external
assistance in O&M, the low-technology/‘no-technology’ model adopted by the state relied on a natural
biological process; thus, daily maintenance of plants was easily assigned to semi-skilled human resources, Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
98 particularly, given the limited availability of external operators who could manage such plants. With a
total of 100+ SeTPs expected to be operational in the state by 2021 to treat all the septage generated
in urban Odisha, the engagement of SHGs would yield the state gains in terms of improved efficiency. It
will also improve community ownership over sanitation and facilitate the creation of sustainable livelihood
opportunities in the space.
III. Implementation approach
The process flow for the physical handover of the O&M of the
treatment plants to the SHGs began with the identification
and role definition of various stakeholders. At the state level,
OWSSB and PHEO provided technical guidance and the State
Urban Development Authority (SUDA) supported with capacity
building and in leveraging the SHG network under the NULM
programme. The local representatives of the OWSSB, PHEO,
and the city level unit (CMMU) of the NULM program also
supported the ULBs. Following this, steps were taken to select
the appropriate SHG, beginning with preparing a selection
criterion, then inviting interested SHGs, orienting them on the
process, short-listing eligible SHGs for the final evaluation, and
then selecting the SHGs based on their performance through
the entire process.
After selection, but prior to the capacity building of selected
SHGs/ federations, a detailed Standard Operating Procedure
(SOP) was prepared, with the intention of facilitating the
selected SHGs to carry out routine, specific and critical
tasks relating to FSTP O&M. Once the SOP was in place, capacity building was initiated, through a
combination of classroom and onsite training. The key modules covered included the orientation on routine
maintenance and periodic maintenance activities, crucial tasks for ensuring safety measures at the SeTP,
among other procedures. The selected SHG members were also compensated for wage loss during the
trainings, through a stipend.

This was followed by the signing of a service contract between the group/federation and the concerned
ULB. The preparation of the contract was done taking into account the interests of SHGs. Given the nature
of SHG functioning, flexibility was built-in to ensure they could work with multiple stakeholders. The
documents were also made available in Odia, and the SHGs were provided draft copies for discussion and
consultation with their own legal experts. All concerns raised by the SHG members were duly addressed,
prior to the signing of the contract. Once the modalities were finalized, the final contract signing and smooth
transfer of the FSTP to the selected SHG/Federations followed. Following the handover, a handholding
Standard operating
procedure for O&M
of SeTP/FSTPsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
99 exercise was also built into the process. A performance monitoring criterion was evolved to monitor the
management by SHGs, and to help them with any teething problems.
IV. Highlights
When turned into service providers, SHGs have a distinct advantage over private players, of being able
to better mobilize the local community and incentivize their participation since they come from the
community itself.
SHGs also represent members from vulnerable communities like women and transgender, who are deprived
of benefits like safe and hygienic sanitation services, so their involvement also promotes inclusivity in
sanitation.
From the perspective of the state, this process has resulted in the exploration of alternatives, and sustainable
models of septage management, a thinking which can be adapted to other sanitation processes as well.
It has also allowed the state to scrutinize the process of septage treatment functioning and examine the
specific roles and responsibilities of different state actors in the sanitation-value chain, from ULBs to
parastatals to government departments, thereby improving their synergy and mutual coordination.
V. Impact
The process has helped generate sustainable livelihood/employment opportunities for poor urban women
and vulnerable groups like transgender, who are often deprived of income and social security benefits.
The involvement of CBOs/SHGs has also strengthened community ownership, pride, and dignity over
infrastructure, and in turn, has created long-term, sustainable and low-cost methods to deliver essential
services. Lastly, their involvement has also gone a long way towards mainstreaming sanitation work and
breaking stereotypes on how only men are capable of handling physical and mechanical work at treatment
plants.
VI. Reflections and lessons
From a long-term perspective, the pilot process has revealed the need for strong capacity building to
deliver outcomes in a timely and meaningful manner. It has also highlighted the need to mainstream
gender concerns, such as providing gender sensitivity training to those interacting with the SHG members,
as well as the need to create gender appropriate PPEs that appeal to the sensibilities of the SHG groups.
Other lessons learnt involved the need for SHG members to adhere to the strict work timings employed at
the septage treatment plants, and for the ULBs to create processes to make timely and prompt payments
to the SHGs
There is also a need to ensure timely payments against the service provided as these CBOs are from lesser
means and require timely payments for working capital.
VII. Potential for replication
The pilot engagement of SHGs/federations for O&M of SeTPs has certainly encouraged Housing and Urban
Development Department to extend the same to all septage treatment facilities that may come up across
the state. However, the path breaking model has also motivated other states to consider initiating activities
along similar lines. One such activity involves the engagement of SHGs in Sinnar, Maharashtra, to manage
the landscaping of the resource center near the STP in Sinnar.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
100 Management of landscaping at resource centers by SHGs in Sinnar
22
The Sinnar FSTP carries out scheduled desludging, resulting in huge quantities of water being
generated. This had proven to be a mammoth task to manage. The city thus decided to set up a
reuse plan, which included landscaping of around 8000 sq. mt. of land around the FSTP, and creating
an urban forest. This area was then designated a resource center where the government could hold
training sessions and other such programs for government stakeholders. The government then floated
a tender, which was made open to only SHG groups, to select an agency who could help with the
management of this area, through the reuse of wastewater and through composting. A 10 member
SHG was eventually selected for the job recently, becoming the first SHG to be engaged by the state
in FSTP-centric work. This is expected to pave way for other ULBs in Maharashtra to adopt similar
models, and eventually even build up to engaging SHGs in the actual O&M of the plants themselves.
Lead case study contributor: Ernst & Young LLP
Other contributors: Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
101 18. CREATING AN ECOSYSTEM FOR SUSTAINABLE SANITATION IN
MADHYA PRADESH
Abstract
The State of Madhya Pradesh has made considerable strides to improve its urban sanitation landscape
since the launch of Swachh Bharat Mission in year 2014. Barring 49 bigger urban Local Bodies which
are covered through sewerage networks, most rely on on-site sanitation systems for their faecal sludge
and liquid waste management. To particularly meet the FSSM needs of these smaller ULBs (with a
population of 20,000), the Directorate of Urban Administration and Development has created a low-
cost mini FSTP model which has been successfully piloted in Shahganj and is being replicated across
the state.
The State’s commitment towards ensuring sustainable sanitation for all has led to Madhya Pradesh
winning the title of the third cleanest State in Swachh Survekshan (SS) 2020
23
with 108 towns
having been declared ODF++
24
in comparison to only 14 towns from 2019’s survey, which has, to
a large extent, been made possible due to the mini FSTP innovation introduced and implemented by
the State.
I. Context
Madhya Pradesh is geographically the second largest State of the country, with 378 Urban Local Bodies
(ULBs). More than 45% of the total urban population of the State resides in 16 Municipal Corporations
and around 31% urban population resides in 98 Municipal Councils.
After the commencement of the SBM-Urban Mission, there has been a wide prevalence of on-site
sanitation system in the state. There has been an increase in the percentage of pit latrines and public
toilets by 21.1% and 6.3% respectively since 2011
25
. Out of 378 towns, 49 towns (majorly Nagar Palika
Nigam and Nagar Palika) have ongoing and proposed sewerage projects, which are in various stages of
implementation and are expected to be completed in the next 5 years. However, most other ULBs rely
on on-site sanitation and therefore become the prime focus when it comes to holistic FSSM coverage in
the State.
Besides, there is still a lack of awareness among community members and other stakeholders such as
desludgers and ULB staff on the ill effects of improper faecal sludge management. There is a need to focus
on capacity gap assessment and its fulfillment at the level of ULBs in terms of manpower, finance, skills,
expertise and capacity building for various stakeholders at different levels in order to create an enabling
environment for FSSM.
II. Intervention
While continuous efforts are being made to expand the sewerage network in the cities, considering the
present limited sewerage infrastructure across urban centers in the State, faecal sludge and septage
management are expected to play a pivotal role in the safe, hygienic and sustainable sanitation service
delivery. Keeping the above context in mind, the State has identified the following areas of interventions
based on a need assessment study:
1. Strengthening of the policy and regulatory environment for FSSM
2. Identifications of various technological options for faecal sludge treatment, especially for smaller
townsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
102 3. Capacity building and training of various stakeholders to create awareness about faecal sludge
management, its importance and adverse effects in case of negligence.
4. Innovation in service delivery mechanism through Information & Communications Technology
(ICT) based interventions
5. Provisions of environmental conservation in the context of sanitation service delivery to prioritize
FSSM implementation in towns situated on important riverbanks of the State.
III. Implementation Approach
In order to understand the FSSM scenario in the State in terms of existing system, infrastructure availability
and provisions, the Directorate of Urban Administration and Development (UADD) conducted a rapid
survey with selected ULBs. Towns were selected to cover different groups of ULBs such as – Nagar Nigam,
Nagar Palika and Nagar Parishad and the predominant sanitation system such as towns with existing
sewerage system and those with no treatment system.
Based on the survey study:
GDirectorate-UADD has drafted the State’s FSSM Policy and Guidelines for effective implementation
of FSSM at ULB level. The policy is presently under approval.
GUADD has disbursed INR. 8.5 crore to all ULBs for purchasing of mud pumps (for cleaning of
on-site sanitation systems).
GTo give a boost to the existing FSSM infrastructure and to particularly reach out to the smaller
ULBs, the Directorate has proposed a mini Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant in compliance with the
State’s engineering cell and sanitation experts post its successful implementation by Shahganj
ULB.
GFocusing on the aspect of capacity building, UADD has organized frequent divisional workshops
for multiple stakeholders to make them aware about the FSSM value chain.
GA dedicated FSSM team has been formed at the Directorate level monitor the above activities
and ensure its successful implementation.
IV. Highlights
The Mini FSTP developed by UADD is an FSSM innovation. This concurrent development has put Madhya
Pradesh in a unique position where provisional treatment for faecal sludge and septage can be made
available to almost every town. Through this development and speedy implementation in 100+ ULBs,
the State has received a big push when it comes to building effective sanitation infrastructure in FSSM.
The Mini FSTP is a combination of sludge drying bed and planted dying bed with leachate collection
tank and a polishing pond for treated water. The entire system is a gravity-based model and requires
no mechanical and electrical interventions. This model developed will work in most of the geographical
locations of Madhya Pradesh and other similar states.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
103 V. Impact
The initiative taken by UADD encouraged bigger ULBs officials to think in the direction of providing a
sustainable FSSM solution for all its citizens.
GAlmost all ULBs which have existing sewerage infrastructure adopted the co-treatment mechanism
to treat the faecal sludge and allowed nearby ULBs through inter ULB agreement to treat their
faecal sludge in STP.
GFew ULBs such as Jabalpur, Ujjain, Vidisha, Ratlam, Singrauli etc. adopted the modular FSSM
treatment systems.
GFew ULBs which fall in the river basin areas adopted in-situ bioremediation techniques to treat
the wastewater before merging with river.
GAround 50 lakh people have been benefitted through these FSSM initiatives undertaken by the
State in the last 3 years.
VI. Reflections and lessons
After its successful implementation at Shahganj town, UADD took this initiative as a challenge for
implementing a low-cost solution for treating the faecal sludge and septage being generated by the smaller
towns. The following are the key factors contributing to the successful implementation of this project:
Political will: The administrative officials of UADD took this as a challenge to provide a low-cost efficient
treatment system to smaller and financially weak ULBs and started a pilot project in Shahganj and
supported it with technical assistance for its successful implementation. Use of locally available technology
and community support were the key factors to maintain this political will.
Sustainability: This plant could be a possible sustainable sanitation solution to small ULBs. It is a low-cost
gravity-based treatment plant with minimal O&M cost, which is easy to manage. Revenue generated from
the septic tank cleaning services can be used in vacuum emptier and plant maintenance.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
104 Proliferation of FSSM in MP through SBM-Urban: Today, FSSM has become an integral component of
the SBM-Urban Mission As per SBM-U guidelines, a ULB must have an FSTP or co-treatment mechanism
to get the ODF++ certification. Madhya Pradesh has taken a big leap in Swachh Survekshan 2020,
by scaling up this low-cost model to achieve more numbers of ODF++ certified towns. In Swachh
Survekshan 2019 only 14 cities achieved this status but in 2020, 108 cities have achieved this status,
which is an almost 771% jump from the previous year. This result has given a renewed thrust to the State
when it comes to adopting non-networked solution for treatment of black water.
VII. Potential for replication:
This Mini FSTP will help in safe treatment and disposal of faecal waste for ULBs which have a population
size up to 20,000. Nearly 200 ULBs will be benefitted from this initiative. Since this is a low-cost
treatment plant and due to the low capital expenditure involved, it can be implemented at almost all ULB
independently with their own funds. The O&M cost of the plant is negligible since there is no mechanical
and electrical interventions involved.
Lead case study contributor: KPMGFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
105 INTEGRATED
MODELS
(ACROSS TRANSPORT AND
TREATMENT)
SECTION-E 19. FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT, DHENKANAL, ODISHA
Abstract
In Odisha, and specifically in Dhenkanal, latrines connected to septic tanks and pit latrines predominate
in urban households. When these septic tanks/pits were full, they were desludged and the Faecal Sludge
was disposed-off unsafely in water bodies, or on vacant lands. Hence, Project Nirmal was designed
and intended to demonstrate the feasibility of a city-wide low-cost decentralized sanitation system
for small and medium cities/towns incorporating faecal sludge and septage management (FSSM) for
on-site sanitation systems. The sanitation situation in the Dhenkanal municipality of Odisha required
intervention across the sanitation value chain. The Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant with a capacity
of 27 m3 per day was set-up in Dhenkanal, and an integrated service contract model was put in
place–having a designated call center to demonstrate effective, low-cost town scale faecal sludge
management system.
I. Context
Dhenkanal Municipality is located in the district of Dhenkanal, Odisha. The total area of the Municipality
is 30.92 Sqm, and it is centrally located in the district with a population of around 67,414 and 14,908
households. It is surrounded by Kendujhar to the north, Jajpur to the east, Cuttack to the south, and
Angul to the west.
Dhenkanal, like 7000+ small towns in India, did not have access to the centralized Sewage Treatment
Plant. The entire town was dependent on onsite-sanitation systems (OSS) such as septic tanks and
pits. The OSS was emptied by cesspool trucks when they became full, but there was no facility to
ensure treatment of the faecal sludge. This project was piloted to demonstrate sustainable faecal sludge
management using a nature-based treatment system in Odisha under Project Nirmal.
II. Intervention
GPartnership with state government and ULBs.
GDemonstration of FSSM technologies
GCapacity-building of key stakeholders
GFSSM awareness campaign
GIntegrated FSTP operations and desludging services
III. Implementation approach
Detailed step by step process followed and activities undertaken
City Sanitation Plan
Strengthening organizational
structure
Policy/By-Laws at town scale
Outsourcing O&M
Monitoring & Evalution
Developing Business and
Operations Model
FSTP design & implementationFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
108 Stakeholders and their roles:
BMGF and Arghyam Foundation – Funding organisations
Practical Action – Planning and Implementation of FSSM in Dhenkanal
Center for Policy Research (CPR) – Policy recommendation
Dhenkanal Municipality–Provide Land and pass the policy resolutions, regulatory authority.
CDD Society – Design of FSTP and FSSM business plan and operation model, implementation
support
Blue Water Company–Managing the FSTP and desludging operations, which included continuous
handholding of the staff, especially the truck operators.
Monitoring and roll-out
The operation and maintenance of the desludging trucks and FSTP were integrated and tendered. This
eased the process of managing and monitoring the implementation of FSSM in the town. The integrated
service provider was chosen through quality and cost-based selection. Blue Water Company, a start-up in
the FSSM service arena, was awarded this contract for a period of one year.
Timeline across planning, implementation, and monitoring post-implementation
2017: Baseline assessment, FSSM planning, and FSTP design, FSTP Construction (August
2017 to November 2018)
2018: FSTP inauguration
2019: FSTP and truck operations by Blue Water Company
2020: FSTP and truck operations handed over to the local self-help group as part of the state
policy for FSSM operations
The technology used or implemented
Anaerobic Stabilization Reactor + Unplanted Sludge Drying Bed (ASR + UPDB) with DEWATS–Screen
and Grit Chamber, Anaerobic Stabilization Reactor, Unplanted Sludge Drying Bed (UPDB), Integrated
Anaerobic Baffled Reactor & Anaerobic Filter (ABR & AF), Planted Gravel Filter (PGF), Collection Tank,
Sand and Carbon Filter, Pasteurization Unit.
Flow charts/visuals /data analytics
Treatment Process Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant, DhenkanalFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
109 Value Chain of Dhenkanal FSTP Business Model
IV. Highlights
The detailed planning of the business model and financial sustainability, with due consideration to the
socio-economic and spatial realities, enabled FSTPs to cater to a much wider user base. Additionally, FS
from rural areas was also being accepted in the FSTP demonstrating urban-rural integration in FSSM.
The reskilling of the former informal workers demonstrated the possibility of rehabilitating them within
sanitation services. However, this required continuous efforts and monitoring of their behavior for relapses.
V. Impact
GState Government and the ULBs demonstrated commitment to urban sanitation service delivery
by providing FSSM as one of the solutions
GThe disposal of FS was regulated and illegal disposal of FS was addressed
GThe FS was treated at FSTP and the by-products were reused, thereby, closing the sanitation
loop
GTechnical capacity of the State and ULBs was augmented by establishing Project Management
Units (PMUs)
GSmall cities were introduced to data-based GIS planning tools
GCommunity-level demand generation for city-wide sustainable sanitation through IEC strategy &
Committees
GUrban sanitation training programs were institutionalized in regular state training for urban cadre
GThe city of Dhenkanal demonstrated a commitment to urban sanitation service delivery by
providing FSSM services and integrated truck and plant operations to increase reach and reduce
costs
GMore than 6 Million Liters of FS was treated, and 4980 people were served till 15th December
2020Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
110 VI. Reflections and lessons
Key success and lessons
GAppropriate engagement of stakeholders in various project intervention processes creates better
results
GMass awareness is required to institutionalize the FSSM concept at various levels
GWomen’s participation is more in comparison to men; the activities should be designed with
pro-women perspectives
GLocal politicians, particularly the ward councilors, should be handled with great caution to
ensure smooth implementation of the project activities
GConstant and continuous follow-up with the government officials is required for timely
implementation of the project activities
GProper processes must be followed to minimize legal conflict
Challenges
GTime-Intensive
GHigh level of Bureaucracy and lack of ownership
GLack of protocols/standards and policies for governance and management:
GLack of understanding and capacities
GAdverse socio-political factors
VII. Potential for replication
This model can be replicated in those towns having a good urban-rural convergence. Also, the towns
relying upon private sector operations and maintenance of the entire value chain with regulations/
guidelines provided by ULB. The connection between the Dhenkanal FSTP with the surrounding
cluster is operationalized through the passage of Municipal Council Resolution by the Dhenkanal
Municipality, as well as resolutions by the concerned GPs. This intends to create a convergence model
which can be replicated in the other cities and towns of the state and ensure that there is ownership
by community/elected representatives or leaders and government officials who can sustain the gains
realized. This intervention is first of its kind in the entire state, where systematic activities are being
undertaken through a districtwide approach to plug in rural areas within the existing FSSM solution
available at a municipality level. This effort is a step towards managing the waste of the entire district
of Dhenkanal, therefore, will address the issue of environmental pollution and contribute significantly
to the future management practices of ground and surface water sources, which in turn will affect
Indians’ access to clean and drinkable water. This, in turn, will support the communities being served
in being healthier and live in contamination-free environments for children to play and thrive in.
Lead case study contributor: Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination SocietyFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
111 20. CLUSTER APPROACH TO SCALE FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT IN
TAMIL NADU
Abstract
Recognizing the need for creation of treatment facilities within reasonable distance from customer
sites, the Government of Tamil Nadu adopted a State Investment Plan in 2018 to scale treatment
across the State. The SIP incorporated the cluster approach, wherein Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
were clustered around both new and existing treatment facilities, within a 10 km radius. Clustering of
ULBs capitalized on existing resources and capacity, and optimized investment requirements to scale
treatment.
I. Context
As per 2011 Census, 48.4% of population resides in urban areas in Tamil Nadu. The urban areas in
the state are categorized into a three-tier hierarchy with Municipal Corporations, Municipalities and Town
Panchayats. Within these urban areas, on-site sanitation systems (OSS) remains the largest household
sanitation arrangement across the state, with nearly 70% of the households connected to septic tanks
and pits.
There were large deficits in treatment facilities for faecal sludge and septage generated by households.
This shortage of adequate and appropriately located disposal facilities was a significant reason for the
prevalence of unsafe disposal, which in turn caused severe environmental pollution and contamination of
water bodies.
Recognizing the need for the creation of treatment facilities within reasonable distance from customer
sites, the Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) adopted a State Investment Plan (SIP) based on the cluster
approach to scale the treatment across the State. The cluster approach aimed to ensure that the treatment
facilities were located at optimal distance from customer sites to ensure business viability for desludging
operators.
II. Intervention
The GoTN, in its Operative Guidelines for Septage Management issued in 2014, adopted an approach
of clustering Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) around treatment plants that optimized their utilization. The
cluster approach advocated the clustering of existing and potential treatment plants within 10 km radius
– identified through discussions with desludging operators across the state, as the optimum travel distance
from customer sites to disposal / treatment facilities.
In 2018, using the cluster approach as a key underlying principle the GoTN developed and adopted a
SIP. The SIP proposed to scale treatment infrastructure across the State in a phased manner, clustering
ULBs around both existing and proposed treatment facilities. By clustering larger Municipal Corporations/
Municipalities with smaller Town Panchayats, the SIP optimized investment requirements to scale
treatment, and capitalized on the existing resources and capacity.
III. Implementation approach
The significant steps involved in the implementation of the cluster approach included:
1. Adoption of the State Investment Plan for scaling of treatment facilities
26
: In 2018, GoTN
adopted the SIP and the cluster approach formed the basis for statewide scaling of treatment Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
112 facilities across 663 ULBs. The SIP proposed a five-phased approach, wherein Phases I and
II focused on enabling co-treatment at existing and proposed Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs),
Phase III on provision of Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants (FSTPs) that are shared by clusters
of Municipalities and Town Panchayats, and Phases IV and V on provision of FSTPs or other
treatment solutions for clusters of Town Panchayats or standalone ULBs.
The GoTN allocated a budget of INR 200 crore for the implementation of 49 FSTPs in Phase
III of the SIP, in 2018, and subsequently earmarked INR 31 crore for an additional 11 FSTPs,
in 2019. There are currently 60 FSTPs under various stages of construction, while the co-
treatment has been enabled at 50 STPs. These treatment facilities would serve 192 ULBs
through the cluster approach.
2. Adoption of governance mechanisms: With the treatment facilities coming into operation, the
GoTN recognized the need to formalize the cluster approach and establish mechanisms that
would govern the operationalization of the approach. Therefore, the GoTN issued the following
two governance mechanisms in May 2020 through Government Order (G.O (2D) 35)
27
:
a. Drafting of a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to formalize the working arrangements
between cluster ULBs for the usage of shared treatment facilities including cost sharing
of Operation and Maintenance (O & M) was carried-out. The MoU detailed a set of
obligations for the Host ULB i.e. the ULB where the treatment facility is located, as well
as Participating ULBs i.e. ULBs that form the cluster around the shared treatment facility.
The key objectives of the MoU were:
i. To define the stakeholders involved in the O&M and use of FSTPs, and in the co-
treatment process
ii. To set-out the responsibilities of ULBs along with the terms and conditions for the use
of the shared facility
iii. To encourage the usage of treatment facilities, while affording host ULBs the right to
recover costs of operating and maintaining these facilities
iv. To establish the principles by which O&M costs would be shared between the ULBs
served by an FSTP
b. Creation of a Standard License Agreement (SLA) for private desludging operators to
regulate the collection and conveyance process, ensuring safe disposal of faecal sludge and
septage. The SLA aligns the desludging operations with the cluster approach, mandating
the Host ULB to license private desludging operators serving within the cluster.
3. Operationalization of governance mechanisms: The MoU and SLA are being operationalized
across Tamil Nadu through capacity building webinars and digital learning modules.
Also, bye-laws for Septage Management, framed as a part of the OG, have been updated to align with the
provisions of the MoU and the SLA. The bye-laws, once enacted by the ULBs, will be central to enforcing
the sharing of O&M costs between cluster ULBs, as well as the licensing of desludging operators at the
cluster level.
IV. Highlights
The cluster approach has allowed the GoTN to capitalize on existing resources and capacity to optimize
the investment required to scale treatment. The clustering of ULBs has assigned the O&M of facilities to
the larger and better equipped ULBs, while allowing for potential expansion of Faecal Sludge and Septage
Management (FSSM) services to rural areas.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
113 The approach has been operationalized through innovative governance mechanisms that are key to
strengthening the sustainability of FSSM services. The MoU promotes the shared use of treatment facilities,
and safeguarding of funds for the O&M of FSTPs, to ensure their financial sustainability. The SLA, while
also encouraging the use of treatment facilities, both, enables and regulates the private desludging market.
V. Impact
The most critical impact of the cluster approach has been the optimization of treatment infrastructure.
This, in turn, has had implications on capital investment, as clustering together with the co-treatment
approach allows for the utilization of existing treatment facilities to their full capacity. In the case of
FSTPs, through the MoU, the approach has enabled sharing of O&M costs, thereby, securing the financial
sustainability of the treatment systems. Furthermore, with different types/sizes of ULBs sharing a common
treatment facility, the approach has facilitated the optimum use of resources.
VI. Reflections and lessons
The cluster approach has been critical to scaling FSSM in Tamil Nadu. It has facilitated smaller ULBs to
share treatment facilities with larger, better-equipped ULBs, thereby, optimizing the use of the existing and
upcoming treatment infrastructure.
However, there are challenges to operationalizing the cluster approach. The MoU, which has been the first
such agreement in the area of sanitation to be institutionalized at the state level, needs a clearly defined
processes for its execution. Nevertheless, these processes will crystallize as clusters of different types of
ULBs adopt the MoU, and commencement of FSTPs/co-treatment operations is initiated.
VII. Potential for replication
The cluster approach has several replicable features including:
1. Clustering of Local Bodies (expanded to cover rural areas)
2. Sharing of FSTP O&M costs between Local Bodies
3. Ring-fenced account to safeguard funds for O&M of treatment / disposal facilities
4. Recording and sharing details of facilities’ performance to promote transparency and accountability
5. Standardized licensing system for private de-sludging operators
6. Addressing sanitation workers’ safety and welfare requirements through licensingFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
114 The Proposed Cluster-based Model for Odisha
Once the cluster model is implemented in Odisha, the state will be able to extend services to three
towns, with immediate effect, through the existing operational FSTPs. An additional eight towns
will be serviced once the plants, proposed under phase 2 of the state-wide scaling strategy, are
commissioned. This approach of clustering urban settlements will save the Odisha Government nearly
INR 40 crores. Letter issued by Odisha Water Supply and Sewerage Board formalizing the cluster
model can be accessed here.
Extending FSSM services to rural areas in Balasore as a pilot
Odisha Government has decided to extend the services of the FSTP in Balasore district to the rural
areas of 90 Gram Panchayats, located within the 20 km radius of the facility. This will ensure that
the households within the catchment area are desludged regularly, and the faecal sludge and septage
is collected to be treated at the facility, without any hindrance.
1. Charges for availing desludging services will be kept to a minimum, with only a nominal fuel
charge included in the cost of the trip, to incentivize the households to desludge regularly.
2. Various IEC campaigns will be launched to incentivize the households to avail the facility
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between Dhenkanal Municipality and Dhenkanal
Sadar
In pursuance to the understanding with PR Department, H&UDD, UNICEF, and CPR, a pilot project for
SLWM in rural areas of Dhenkanal is being undertaken. The urban FSSM facilities in the Dhenkanal
district are being extended to select Gram Panchayats, located within a radius of 10 km. In a bid to
formalize the extension of delivery of urban FSSM services, Dhenkanal Municipality and the relevant
stakeholders have entered into an MoU. The roles and responsibilities to be adhered to by both
stakeholder groups have been clearly defined in this MoU.
Lead case study contributor: Indian Institute for Human Settlements
Other contributors: EYFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
115 21. 5 YEARS OF OPERATIONS OF DEVANAHALLI PLANT IN KARNATAKA
Abstract
28
The Devanahalli FSTP was inaugurated on World Toilet Day, November 19 in the year 2015. At the
time, it was the first planned town-scale FSTP in the country. The term “Faecal Sludge Management”
was almost unheard of, apart from a few sector experts. Against this background, there was a conscious
effort from CDD Society to ensure that the Devanahalli FSTP design should stand the test of time and
that it will be operational with minimal expert supervision even in a small town like Devanahalli. The
FSTP was handed over to the TMC in April 2019 and they have been able to operate it with minimal
expert supervision. More importantly, the last six months of 2020 have seen full utilization of FSTP
capacity.
I. Context
The town of Devanahalli is located 10 km away from the Bangalore International Airport and has seen
rapid growth over the last decade. With no sewer networks, the town is dependent on Onsite Sanitation
Systems. The sludge emptied from these systems by vacuum trucks was dumped in the open environment
– like in most Indian towns. The key issues were -
GDesludging at irregular intervals
GInsanitary toilets
GIndiscriminate disposal of faecal sludge into surface water bodies/storm water drains
GReuse of faecal sludge without treatment on farmlands
II. Intervention
A Sanitation Safety Planning exercise was undertaken for Devanahalli in 2012-13 that highlighted how
water stress in the town was making farmers use faecal sludge (FS) (with rudimentary treatment methods)
as a source of water for irrigation amongst other issues. It exposed the numerous pathways of contamination
that existed, as a result of raw faecal sludge being indiscriminately dumped into the environment.
In 2015, Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination (CDD) Society was looking for a demonstration site for
showcasing approaches to FSSM. This was in alignment with the Devanahalli TMC’s need (as a result of
the SSP) to identify ways of minimizing exposure pathways from harmful contaminants and pathogens in
faecal sludge. Discussions between CDD and TMC led to the idea of implementing a 6 KLD Faecal Sludge
Treatment Plant (FSTP) that would help achieve the following:
GA cleaner town (dedicated space for disposal as well as treatment of FS)
GProduction of a safe by-product from FS (safe water and nutrients available for farmers)
GAesthetically beautiful treatment plant (contrary to the belief that treatment plants are dirty
places)
GNo direct human contact with FS (minimizing health concerns)
GA self-sustainable facility (to ensure infrastructure is built to last)
III. Implementation approach
After Devanahalli was identified as the town for FSTP implementation–a workshop was conducted for
town officials and private sanitation players, and an MoU was signed for:Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
116 1. Implementing holistic FSSM systems
2. Constructing a FSTP
Site identification and technical planning started right away, given the enthusiasm of local officials. Funding
was tied up through – BMGF & BORDA
The image below depicts the process flow for FS treatment in Devanahalli FSTP.
Timeline
G2015 – Inauguration of 6 KLD FSTP, followed by Operations & Maintenance by CDD Society
G2016 – Regulations passed for safe disposal of FS, outsourcing O&M of truck and FSTP,
monitoring construction of OSS and inclusion of Fee for FSSM in Property Tax
G2017 – First batch of soil conditioner is provided to farmers for safe reuse
G2017-19 – Tech improvements in sludge digestion process through introduction of Anaerobic
Stabilization Reactor and augmenting drying bed performance through use of Mangalore Tiles,
Solar Roof
G2019- Operations totally taken over by the TMC
G2020- FSTP reaches full utilization in the 2nd half of the year.
IV. Highlights
GFirst planned FSTP in the country through Unplanted Drying Bed technology that has been
replicated widely – “Devanahalli Model” is a colloquial term.
GWorks entirely on gravity, with power sources being used only for exhaust fans for greenhouse
roof
GProduces soil conditioner that is not only pathogen free but meets FCO standards – that has
enhanced yield of farmers – who were otherwise using raw FS. Sale of soil conditioner contributes
to 29% of the revenue in FSSM
GPrice fixing by TMC to make desludging affordable.
V. Impact
GIt is possible to put treatment infrastructure in place that can be easily operated and maintained
in a small town like Devanahalli.
GThe enhanced FSTP designs, based on the initial Devanahalli FSTP design, have been widely
adopted by different states in the country
GIt has successfully demonstrated that soil conditioner that is pathogen free can be produced
through co-composting process – efficacy of soil conditioner is validated by continuous demand
from farmers.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
117
GDifferent cities have come up with their own FSSM policies and guidelines–adopting context-
specific measures
GLandscaping, operator and office rooms becoming a key feature of almost every FSTP
GCSR investment has flowed into Devanahalli to help continue its journey towards a model
Sanitation Town
GMore than 3000 Visitors from India and Abroad have visited the FSTP to understand FSSM and
FS treatment.
VI. Reflections and lessons
Stakeholder engagement is essential at all stages of the Project, especially to avoid delays in implementation
and ensure long term sustainability.
Reuse needs to be integrated into treatment process – it cannot be an afterthought. Co-composting was a
viable option in Devanahalli because the farmers who intend to use the soil conditioner are nearby to the
FSTP. They were handheld and trained to understand the need for using treated FS rather than raw FS.
VII. Potential for replication
The Devanahalli FSTP design was enhanced by adding Anaerobic Stabilization Reactor and
optimizing performance of drying beds. Dhenkanal, Angul, Siriclla, Siddipet are all FSTPs designed
using the enhancements and more than 25 FSTPs across Tamil Nadu are under construction using
the enhanced designs.
These designs are ideal for towns with treatment capacity needs up to 25-30 KLD – thus helping in
keeping the operating costs low.
Devanahalli FSTPField trials for evaluation of Co-composted FS efficacy
Lead case study contributor: Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination SocietyFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
118 REUSE AND
RESOURCE
RECOVERY
SECTION-F 22. REUSE AND RESOURCE RECOVERY AT WAI AND SINNAR FSTP
Abstract
With several Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants (FSPTs) constructed across the country, there is great
potential of reusing the by-products generated from FSTPs. The reuse and resource recovery approach
helps in viewing treated waste as a valuable resource and can help move towards a more circular
economy. This can also help cities attain Water plus status as defined by Ministry of Housing and
Urban Affairs (MoHUA). Wai and Sinnar are examples of such cities, where the treated wastewater and
dried sludge have been reused for landscaping, urban forest and agricultural purposes, and business
models for reuse have been developed.
I. Context
Wai and Sinnar are two medium-sized towns in the state of Maharashtra, India. In their sanitation
characteristics and challenges, they are representative of most small and medium Indian towns in India
that are home to nearly 40% of India’s population. Wai is located at the foothills of Panchgani and has
a population of 43,000; Sinnar is located near Nashik and is a fast-growing industrial town, with a
population of 72,000.
These two cities overcame a myriad of sanitation issues such as open defecation, untreated disposal of
faecal waste and growing environmental pollution to be declared ODF++ by MoHUA. Wai and Sinnar
have shown that it is possible for cities, dependent on on-site sanitation systems, to deliver high quality,
affordable, equitable, and inclusive sanitation services to its citizens. Wai and Sinnar also became the
first cities to implement scheduled desludging of septic tanks as a service, and also to setup FSTPs where
the treated wastewater and dried sludge are being reused for landscaping, urban forestry, and agricultural
purposes.
II. Intervention
In order to tackle the issues of growing environmental pollution caused by infrequent desludging of septic
tanks and unavailability of adequate treatment facilities, both Wai and Sinnar Municipal Councils devised
a Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) plan. The FSSM plan included provision of scheduled
desludging service and execution of adequate treatment facilities. As per the plan, all the septic tanks in
the city would be emptied once in three years and the collected septage would be treated at a dedicated
septage treatment facility. To treat the septage, a Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant (FSTP) of 70 KLD
capacity was set-up on the land allocated by the council, which is about 5 km away from the city center.
The Wai FSTP was funded by a BMGF grant, and the Sinnar FSTP was funded by Sinnar Municipal
Council. The operations of both these FSTPs were carried-out by a private operator.
As the volume of treated wastewater from the FSTPs was quite high, the cities decided to explore on-site
and off-site reuse options. Based on the detailed assessments, the cities decided to reuse the byproducts
on-site. At Sinnar and Wai FSTP, both the councils allocated 8000 sqm of land to set-up a resource
center with landscaping and urban forest. In Sinnar, the council engaged with the SHGs groups through
a tender for O&M of this landscaped and urban forest area, whereas in Wai this was managed by the
FSTP operator.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
120 III. Implementation approach
Identification of possible options: The first step in strategizing a
reuse and resource recovery plan was to understand the quantity
and quality of the byproducts generated. After assessing the
quantities generated, quality tests of the byproducts were conducted
to understand their possible applications. Once found to be within
the recommended limits, an exhaustive list of various on-site
and off-site options of reuse of byproducts was developed. These
options were then assessed based on the following parameters:
a. Physical parameters like land availability, quantity and
quality of byproducts, distance of reuse option from site
b. Financial parameters like the capital and O&M cost for
reuse option
c. User perspective in terms of demand for byproducts.
Stakeholders involved: During the assessment stage, various
consultations were undertaken with the local government
officials, FSTP operator, and possible consumers of byproducts
to understand their perspective and requirements. Based on this
understanding, the final proposal of urban forest and landscaping
was implemented at both the FSTPs. In case of Sinnar, the council
entered into a contract with an SHG group, through the bidding
process, to manage the urban forest and landscape at the FSTP, for
one year. Similarly, the Council of Wai entered into an agreement
with the FSTP operator to develop and manage the urban forest.
Funding: At both the FSTPs, council
provided 8000 sqm of land for
landscaping and urban forest. The
capital cost of setting-up the urban
forest and landscape at Sinnar FSTP
was provided by BMGF and HSBC,
and in Wai it was funded by the FSTP
operator. The O&M cost for landscape
and urban forest management at
Sinnar FSTP was borne by the Sinnar
Municipal Council, while at Wai, it
was borne by the FSTP operator.
Implementation process and phases: In Sinnar, the phase I of landscaping and urban forest was
implemented, wherein plant species suitable to the soil type were cultivated. Meanwhile, drip irrigation
systems were installed to transfer treated wastewater from the FSTP site to the urban forest area. Based
on this experience, the phase II of urban forest was implemented in Sinnar.
In the case of Wai, the landscaping was done first and the treated byproducts were used in the landscaped
area and in the garden on the SWM site. Based on the soil type, revenue generating plant species for
urban forest have been identified, and the proposal is, currently, under implementation. The treated
wastewater will be pumped for reuse at the urban forest. The council will be signing an agreement with
Urban forest and landscaping at
Sinnar FSTP
Urban forest and landscaping at Wai FSTPFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
121 the private operator for developing and managing the urban forest, and the revenues generated from the
sale of these plants will be handed over to the Wai Municipal Council.
The treated solids are used as soil-enricher at both the urban forest and landscape sites in both the cities:

Landscaping and urban forest at Sinnar FSTP

Landscaping at Wai FSTP
IV. Highlights
GThe process that was followed for implementation of reuse options was led by the Council
officials, which ensured strong ownership from the local government of these activities
GAt Sinnar FSTP, women from the SHG were engaged by the council through a contract for
maintenance of urban forest and landscaped area.
V. Impact
The urban forest and landscaped area at both the FSTPs have added aesthetical value to the infrastructure.
As model sanitation towns, Wai and Sinnar receive many visitors (approximately 500 every year) at the
landscaped resource centers that have been developed at these FSTPs. The city carries out training and
visits of various stakeholders at these centers and shares the sanitation journey of the city. Also, Sinnar,
being a water scarce city, has greatly benefitted by using the treated wastewater and avoiding cost to
alternative water sources.
VI. Reflections and lessons
The reuse and resource recovery approach helps in shifting the focus from waste being regarded as
something that must be disposed-off to something that can be used as a valuable resource to move
towards a more circular economy. Few of the key factors that help to make this approach a success are –Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
122 1. Ownership at city level – The Municipal Councils at Wai and Sinnar recognized the need and
benefits of taking a reuse and recovery approach, thereby, getting involved in all the stages of
project implementation. As a result, they enjoy full ownership of the interventions that have been
implemented for reuse.
2. Evidence-based approach for selecting an option – There is a need to look at both off-site and
on-site reuse options to assess certain parameters before the decision for identifying an option
is made
3. Active consultation and dialogue with stakeholders – To build consensus around a particular
option, active stakeholder engagement needs to be done with all the stakeholders, including the
government and private entities
VII. Potential for replication
With many FSTPs coming up in India, there is a huge potential for scaling up the reuse options
explored in Wai and Sinnar. In Maharashtra, around 311 FSTPs are being constructed as per a state
level directive, and cities have been instructed to reuse the byproducts. Many cities like Khopoli and
Vita have implemented landscape gardens at their FSTP and have started to reuse the byproducts.
Similarly, in Satara, reuse options are being planned.
Lead case study contributor: Center for Water and Sanitation, CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
123 ENABLERS FOR
FSSM PLANNING,
SCALING UP AND
SUSTENANCE
SECTION-G 23. A STATE INVESTMENT PLAN FOR SCALING FSSM IN TAMIL NADU
Abstract
The practice of unsafe disposal of septage into water bodies around cities causes contamination
of potential drinking water sources. Recognizing creation of treatment facilities as a critical step to
reducing such practices, a State Investment Plan (SIP) focused primarily on treatment was developed
to cover 663 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in Tamil Nadu. The plan was based on the premise that
in most cases, access level investments come from the households to finance construction of toilets
and septic tanks, and while private sector would finance desludging trucks, investments for decanting
and treatment would come from the Government. The plan was adopted by the Government of Tamil
Nadu, in 2018, for implementation in phased manner, with an aim of covering 75% of the urban
population.
I. Context
Recent statistics show nearly 70% of households across urban Tamil Nadu are connected to On-site
Sanitation Systems (OSSs) and 30.3% are connected to piped sewer system. The sewage generated in
piped sewer systems is treated in Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs). In 2017, the sewage generated from
urban areas of Tamil Nadu was three times higher than the installed capacity for treatment in the state.
In addition to the lack of adequate treatment capacity, there was a prevalence of unsafe disposal of Faecal
Sludge (FS) accumulated from OSSs into water bodies around cities, causing contamination of potential
drinking water sources due to the absence of adequate treatment facilities like a Faecal Sludge Treatment
Plant (FSTP). Recognizing the creation of treatment facilities as a viable solution to reducing such practices,
the Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) adopted the State Investment Plan (SIP) for state-wide scaling
of treatment facilities, in 2018. The focus of the SIP was on providing treatment infrastructure, as other
investment requirements along the sanitation chain such as the cost of construction of toilets and septic
tanks were largely borne by households or the private sector, in the case of desludging trucks.
II. Intervention
In 2014, the GoTN issued Operative Guidelines (OG) for Septage Management for Local Bodies in Tamil
Nadu
29
. The Guidelines aimed to go beyond the objective of constructing toilets, by ensuring the regulation
of collection and provision of treatment facilities for safe disposal of septage. Creation of adequate treatment
facilities was recognized as a critical step for implementation of the OG. To support the state-wide scaling
of treatment facilities, in 2018, the Technical Support Unit (TSU) of the Tamil Nadu Urban Sanitation
Support Programme (TNUSSP) developed the SIP. The plan was formulated to estimate the investment
required to ensure full coverage of sanitation across 663 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in a phased manner.
It was framed on the basis of three principles:
1. Utilization of existing treatment facilities by co-treatment of septage with sewage: The OG
highlighted the potential for co-treatment of FS using the spare capacity of the existing Septage
Treatment Plants (STPs). Co-treatment at existing and new STPs came to be one of the core
principles in the implementation of SIP. The SIP proposed a co-treatment model, in which co-
treatment could be initiated with minimal time and cost through provision and upgradation of
decanting stations and pumping stations at existing and potential STPs.
2. Adoption of a cluster approach: The cluster approach advocated in the OG, grouped ULBs
into clusters around both existing and potential treatment facilities within a 10 km radius. This Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
126 approach was incorporated from Phase I to Phase IV of SIP. It allowed SIP to take advantage
of the existing resources and treatment capacity, and optimize investment requirements to scale
treatment.
3. Implementation in phases: The SIP aimed for maximum coverage of the urban population
through a five-phased approach. For instance, Phases I and II focused on serving more than
50% of the state’s urban population through sanitation systems by co-treatment and clustering
of ULBs.
III. Implementation approach
The SIP proposed scaling of treatment facilities in five phases as follows:
1. Phase I and II: Provision of decanting stations at STP sites: Large STPs have spare capacity
that can be utilized for treatment of faecal sludge and septage. Therefore, in Phase I and II,
it was proposed that faecal sludge and septage from ULBs within 10 km radius of an STP
would be co-treated along with sewage at existing and proposed STPs, around which they were
clustered.
2. Phase III: Utilizing Solid Waste Management Sites in Municipalities: ULBs are mandated to
reserve space for Solid Waste Management (SWM) for composting. These sites are underutilized.
Consequently, in Phase III, FSTPs were to be located on municipal SWM sites.
3. Phase IV: Utilizing Resource Recovery Parks in Town Panchayats: Phase IV will utilize land
available at Resource Recovery Parks (RRPs) in Town Panchayats for construction of FSTPs, and
similar to Phase III, each FSTP will serve a cluster of ULBs.
4. Phase V: Stand-alone Cities: This phase covers ULBs that have not been included in any cluster
in the previous phases, and will require standalone treatment options.

Figure 12: Coverage through the Five Phases of the SIP
Source: TNUSSP Analysis, 2018
Securing investment for Phase III: In 2018, GoTN adopted the SIP through a Government Order which
included a budgetary allocation of INR 200 crore for the implementation of 49 FSTPs under Phase III of
the SIP. Subsequently, in early 2019, the GoTN issued Government Order (Ms.) No. 12 that sanctioned
an additional INR 31 crore for the construction of 11 FSTPs in Town Panchayats. Currently, the GoTN is
working on the implementation of Phases – I and III – simultaneously.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
127 Implementation of FSTPs: There are 60 FSTPs, currently, under construction across the State. The Tamil
Nadu Urban Sanitation Support Programme has been assigned the responsibility of providing Quality
Assurance (QA) and technical support for the implementation of the new FSTPs in Tamil Nadu.
Implementation of co-treatment at STPs: Co-treatment is being enabled at 50 STPs across the State.
A detailed assessment of STPs was carried-out to suggest necessary infrastructure and other operational
improvements, which require minimal investment to enable co-treatment.
As these treatment facilities come into operation, they will serve a total of 192 ULBs, either as standalone
facilities or as a common treatment facility shared by a cluster of ULBs. A Memorandum of Understanding
(MoU) has been created to establish a formal process, by which ULBs would utilize the upcoming shared
treatment facilities.
IV. Highlights
The key innovations adopted through SIP include:
1. Scaling of treatment by saturating the utilization of existing treatment facilities through co-
treatment.
2. Clustering of ULBs that allows smaller ULBs to share treatment facilities and its O&M cost with
other larger ULBs.
3. Mitigating land availability issues by co-locating new FSTPs at existing SWMs and RRPs.
V. Impact
The adoption of the SIP has enabled Tamil Nadu to not only rapidly scale treatment infrastructure but
Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) as a whole across the State. With a nominal investment
of a little over INR 230 crores, it is anticipated that 75% of the State’s urban population will be covered
by the end of 2021 as shown in table below.
Table 9: Anticipated roadmap for coverage of urban population (excluding Chennai)
No.DetailsP1 P2 P3
1 No. of STP locations41 34 49
2 City Coverage-
2.1Corporations (excl. Chennai) 83
2.2Municipalities26 30 51
2.3Town Panchayats35 53 59
2.4Total cities covered69 86 110
3 Households Coverage- 24,08,835 13,39,048 9,48,335
3.1HH covered under UGSS7,41,487 1,95,131
3.2HH covered under FSTP 16,67,348 11,43,917 9,48,335
3.3No. of persons/HH3.86 3.82 3.89
4 Population Coverage 92,91,118 51,11,371 36,90,113
5 Cumulative population coverage 40% 60% 75%Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
128 These upcoming facilities will also provide new income generation opportunities while contributing
towards resource recovery and reuse. The SIP contributes significantly towards increased provision
and improved operation of treatment systems that meet quality standards and thereby positively im-
pacts public health and environment in the State.
VI. Reflections and lessons
Tamil Nadu was one the first states to recognize the importance of FSSM to achieve safe, sustainable
and inclusive sanitation across the state. However, even as the state set the pace in adopting FSSM,
both, as an economical standalone solution, as well as a complementary solution to networked systems,
significant efforts were needed to build credibility and support for FSSM as a whole. In this regard, the
adoption of the SIP provided impetus to other interventions along the full cycle of sanitation and affected
better sanitation outcomes by generation of greater awareness of FSSM and WASH practices, across urban
communities in the state.
VII. Potential for replication
The key principles underpinning Tamil Nadu’s State Investment Plan have already been adopted in a few
other states across India. The approach offers cost-effective and resource-optimizing means to accelerated
scale-up of treatment infrastructure and FSSM more broadly.
Lead case study contributor: Indian Institute for Human SettlementsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
129 EXHIBIT 6
Background
Sanitation is a state level subject, and ULBs are responsible for the last-mile implementation of sanitation
initiatives on-ground, including FSSM. While national and state policy interventions in FSSM provide a
framework to act under, it is the effective functioning of local actors that help drive outcomes on the
ground. While political will and local champions have been able to create positive change, uniform
outcomes in FSSM can only be demonstrated through the presence of institutional arrangements and via
structured monitoring. States have realized that the absence of such institutional mechanisms result in
poor awareness of roles and responsibilities among various stakeholders, leading to poor co-ordination
and collaboration among them. Its absence also inhibits capacity building of resources within the
local governance systems, and can hinder community-buy in. They have therefore invested in setting-
up dedicated institutional structures and nodal bodies that can help drive the FSSM agenda through
strategizing, designing and monitoring. ULB too have been encouraged to set-up institutional structures
that help strengthen ownership of FSSM initiatives and build consensus between all stakeholders to
deliver time-bound outcomes. Depending on the needs of each area, these structures take the form of
City Sanitation Task Forces (CSTFs), ward secretariats, project monitoring committees, septage cells, etc.
Community Based Organizations like SHGs are also co-opted in to ensure community buy-in through
social mobilization and awareness building activities.
Intervention
A few states have created dedicated engagement platforms at the state and grassroots level with a specific
focus on FSSM and have provided them with dedicated resources and invested in their capacity building.
Mechanisms at the state level seeking to help centralize and drive such initiatives include:
State Project Advisory or Monitoring Committees: Such platforms were created in the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Tamil Nadu amongst others to streamline respective
state works on FSSM and decision making. It consists of all the key decision makers responsible
to drive the work such as the Principal Secretary, the Director of Municipal Administration, the
Additional Secretary, the Member Secretary and Project Directors of engineering departments,
district/ city representatives, practitioners and advisors and other experts. The Committees come
together on quarterly basis to assess the progress on FSSM and take the timely decisions to fast
track the work.
Dedicated Septage Cell for FSSM – A Septage cell is created within the Odisha Water Supply
& Sewerage Board. The cell is a formal body which is responsible for the execution of all FSSM
related activities in urban Odisha. This consists of a designated group of officials, led by a Chief
Engineer, supported by project engineers and deputy project engineers. The Cell is dedicated to
overseeing FSSM initiatives, reviewing designs, and managing timely project executions.
Swachh Andhra Corporation in Andhra Pradesh–In an effort to achieve universal access to
sanitation across urban and rural areas, the state established the Swachh Andhra Corporation
in 2015. From the perspective of FSSM, it undertakes construction of household toilets, CT/PTs,
as well as a number of IEC and BCC activities. SAC is also responsible for releasing tenders for
the construction of FSTPs in the state. Additionally, it also surveys and maintains a dashboard
on the status of construction and maintenance of toilets across ULBs in Andhra.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AND STRUCTURED
MONITORINGFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
130 Municipal Council
City Sanitation Task force
Gender Resource Center
Gender Forum S-Line
Communit y
Municipal
Commissioner
NSS Ce ll
ASCI Capacity Building &
Support
Ward Secretariat
Gender Sub-
Group
Member of
CSTF
Examples of grassroots / local level structures that have helped systemize and institute measures
to achieve FSSM by bringing together various stakeholders, including the local community,
include the following:
The Ward Secretariat, a recently introduced model unique to Andhra Pradesh–Instituted under
the Municipal Commissioner in the ULB, the officials in the Secretariat, work closely with Gender
Forum members to address the sanitation concerns of the community and for improvement of
the sanitation situation in their respective wards. Monthly meetings are held with gender forums,
which allow for quick grievance redressal, enabling the fast-tracking of sanitation projects.
The Single Window Forum, Bhubaneshwar – In an effort to encourage periodic desludging
across residents in Bhubaneshwar a Single Window Forum was across all BMC wards. The
initiative has been successful in linking 513 HHs with private operators, and provides services
at a subsidized cost for over 152 of the households. The process functions at 3 levels,–city,
ward and slum or settlement. At the city level, one representative of the trained SWF will remain
available every day at the BMC office to flag off and monitor the movement of cesspool vehicles
from the BMC office to the different slums. This will be recorded and while it is being tracked,
the information will be conveyed to the Ward-level Single Window Forum members. They, in
turn will confirm the day’s plan with the Community Management Committee (CMC) members.
The CMC members will in turn ready the households along with a team of volunteers, who
are supporting them in tracking and recording the quality of desludging at the household level.
Here, the CMC takes care to prioritize vulnerable and marginal households with/of pregnant and
lactating women, families with chronically ill person, disabled and SC/ST etc.
Impact
Having institutional mechanisms at various levels, aide in recognizing the urgency of FSSM
initiatives, ensure better monitoring and adherence to timelines.
These structures resulted in better understanding of roles and responsibilities amongst stakeholders
and better coordination.
Structured institutional mechanisms also act as platform to facilitate multi-stakeholder interactions,
which go a long way towards garnering community buy-in, thereby ensuring inclusive sanitation.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
131 24. CAPACITY BUILDING FOR NON-SEWERED SANITATION: LEARNINGS
FROM SANITATION CAPACITY BUILDING PLATFORM, NIUA
Abstract
30
The Sanitation Capacity Building Platform (SCBP) was set-up in 2016 to build capacity of town
and city officials for planning, designing and implementation of non-sewered sanitation and Faecal
Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM). Over the years, SCBP has evolved as a platform of
partners collaborating to develop training modules and learning content on FSSM, at both the state
and the national level. The platform caters to the capacity building needs of state and non-state
actors by partnering with national nodal training institutes under the existing national urban sanitation
programmes and missions of Government of India. In the drive to upscale FSSM, the platform has
been instrumental in its outreach to about 500 towns, across 17 states of India.
I. Context
According to the Census of India 2011, India’s urban population was about 37.7 crore, or just under
one-third of the overall population of the country. The urban population witnessed a jump between 2001
and 2011, and has continued to increase rapidly, putting stress on the existing sanitation infrastructure.
Further, only a small number of Indian cities are serviced by networked sanitation infrastructure, and
the pace of urbanization is faster than the rate of expanding infrastructure for networked sanitation.
This is pushing cities and states to adopt decentralized sanitation services and related infrastructure to
compliment networked sanitation. In order to realize the full scope of decentralized sanitation, extensive
capacity building and advocacy measures are required.
With this aim in mind, multiple organizations working on non-sewered sanitation systems came together
under the National Faecal Sludge and Septage Management Alliance (NFSSMA), to converge efforts and
resources, increase efficiency, avoid duplication of work, and to foster a learning environment for all
stakeholders.
II. Intervention
In order to strengthen national and state level interventions in the area of non-sewered sanitation,
Sanitation Capacity Building Platform (SCBP) was set-up in 2016, to build capacities of the town and
city officials for planning, designing and implementing non-sewered sanitation and Faecal Sludge and
Septage Management (FSSM).
31
Program Timeline
Platform Creation
CB Needs Assessment
State Engagement: UP
Content Development
AMRUT Institutes
State: Rajasthan
Standardized Modules
Innovative Learning
State: Uttarakhand
TMRC operationalizedAcademia Engagement
State: Uttarakhand
2016
Platform Building
Advocacy
Centre for
Urban Sanitation
at NIUA
Scaling Up Capacity
Building Efforts
State Normative CB
Framework
Paradigm Shift
for Non-sewered
Sanitation
201720182019
2020-22
Institution arrangements
Knowledge Hub
Technical & PolicyFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
132 SCBP evolved from developing the capacity of only a few towns to becoming a platform of partners
collaborating to develop training modules and learning content at the national level
32
The program developed
and tested its capacity development approach in 3 states, and carried-out dissemination outreach to state
and town level government administrators and engineers through the national nodal training institutes,
under the existing national urban sanitation programs and missions of the Government of India. From
curating FSSM training modules, engagement with academia and nodal training institutes, a normative
state FSSM capacity development framework was developed.
33
III. Implementation approach
While the initial focus was on enhancing capacities of partner organizations, the long-term goal was to
strengthen these organizations to provide technical assistance to state and city governments, led by a
central capacity building hub.
Based on the understanding that effective capacity building could only take place when a minimum
engagement and outreach was achieved, SCBP scaled-up its efforts to undertake a paradigm change for
FSSM, at the state and national level. Partnerships were forged with an array of organizations/institutes
for the development of training content and delivery of trainings. Further, support was also provided for
policy and technical assistance.
Over the years, SCBP has expanded its reach to about 500 towns across 17 states of India. Besides
capacity building for officials of urban local bodies, state and para-state agencies, SCBP now supports
capacity building in FSSM for private sector consultants, elected representatives, academia, and NGOs.
The engagements can be clubbed into three main areas:
1. State level capacity building
a. Capacity building of officials of 91 towns and cities of Uttarakhand, in partnership with
ATI, Nainital
b. State FSSM perspective (Rajasthan and Uttarakhand)
c. City Sanitation Plans (4 towns of Odisha) with FSSM perspective
d. 191 ULBs of Rajasthan and 91 ULBs of Uttarakhand supported for ODF and FSSM
e. 61 AMRUT towns of UP and 15 NMCG towns in Uttarakhand supported for FSSM
f. First Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) for setting up Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants in 5
towns (Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, Port Blair and Rajasthan)
2. Institutional capacity building at national level
a. Capacity building of 13 Nodal AMRUT Institutes
b. State and para-state agencies supported for planning and technology
c. 5000 officials from 17 states provided with FSSM trainings
d. 80 ULB officials from 7 states were taken for exposure visits to the Devanahalli FSTP plant
3. Evidence-based advocacy
a. Training Needs Assessment for FSSM undertaken for 4 states (Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar and
AP)
b. Thematic and Spatial Research on Urban Sanitation undertaken for 10 states
c. State FSSM Policy Drafts prepared for 3 states (Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan)
d. 17 training modules and 21 digital content courses (online trainings, gamification and self-
learning courses) developed
e. Resource book of government advisories (16) and practitioners’ resources (18)Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
133 Other than the above, a state level deep-dive engagement in Uttarakhand, including a plan for scaling up
of FSSM across the state, is currently being developed.
IV. Highlights
Conceptualizing and implementing FSSM signals a paradigm shift in the urban sanitation approaches in
India, and therefore, it is vital that contextual training content be used for capacity building of government
officials, as opposed to the use of existing content prepared in a non-Indian context. Consequently,
a Normative Framework for state-level capacity development for FSSM was developed as a strategy
note, aided by a digital dissemination strategy, in light of the restrictions imposed due to the Covid-19
pandemic.
34
Here are a few highlights:
GQuality assurance of training modules was a vital part in the training content developed by
SCBP on various aspects of FSSM. This was facilitated by the constitution of a Training Modules
Review Committee (TMRC) comprising members of the NFSSMA, anchored by SCBP
GSuccessful models were documented, as case studies, to be presented to the officials, in order
to explain practical aspects of planning and implementing FSSM in cities. These case studies
ranged from towns lying in various agro-climatic regions, such as Port Blair, Bhubaneshwar, Wai,
to Devanahalli.
GSCBP worked closely with the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, which endorsed a set of
three FSSM Training Modules and the Policy Framework and Workbook for Water and Wastewater
Management in 2019. SCBP also submitted its learnings on capacity development to the draft
National Urban Sanitation Policy 2.0.
GSCBP engaged with academia to integrate FSSM as part of the course work and curriculum of
Indian universities and institutions, representing engineering, urban planning, and humanities
streams.
V. Impact
SCBP website is a one stop solution for all capacity building needs, training modules, government policies,
guidelines, orders and reports, training modules, tender documents, case studies etc. The platform also
shares the most relevant work on non-sewered sanitation from other organizations including reports and
publications, videos and learning material.
Content
17 training
modules,
12 research
studies,
13 technical
reports
3,00,000+
website
hits
5000+
registered
users
150+ documents
uploaded online;
100,000+ downloads
Training
3000+
government
officials
(ULB/State) trained
on FSSM
250+
students;
30+
faculties
trained
8+
gamification
models
developed
40+ NIUA trainings; 17
nodal institues trainings;
11 exposure visits
Impact
Paradigm
Shift for
FSSM
6 FSTP in
UP, Raj,
Port Blair,
Rudrapur
FSSM funds
UP: 640 Cr;
Raj: 400 Cr
Partners & Nodal training
institutes using NIUA
developed training content
Partnerships
Partnership
with
10+ NFSSMA
partners forged
MoU with
9 Academic
Institutes
Int?l partners:
EAWAG
SuSanA, IRC
Engaged with 8 AMRUT
nodal institutes for FSSMFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
134 VI. Reflections and lessons
Challenges
GUrban sanitation systems thinking has been dominated by centralized sanitation systems. To
achieve safely managed systems in due time along with efficient fund utilization, decentralized
and non-sewered sanitation systems (as complimentary systems), needs to be focused upon.
This requires working at scale with the highest levels of political, policy-making and executive
authorities of all the towns and cities in a state.
GConstraints of training institutes in terms of limited staff and resources, , and curriculum being
more focused towards centralized sanitation systems hinders scaling-up of capacity development.
GState and city government officials often have limited resources at their disposal, while also
handling multiple portfolios in many cases. This hinders their availability and focus for capacity
building activities.
Lessons learnt
GDeveloping original learning content for training programs, delivered as a professional training
or course work, is required. Training modules should be contextualized, and a one-size-fits-all
approach should be avoided. A practical vision of the 21
st
century urban sanitation system,
demonstrated for an Indian town, is useful to assure urban local body and town officials
GInstitutional development, enabling FSSM policies at state level, and engaging with decision-
makers are essential for promoting FSSM. Under SCBP, this was undertaken for the states
of UP and Rajasthan to develop state FSSM Guidelines. A similar approach was adopted for
Uttarakhand to roll-out a state FSSM protocol
GEncouraging peer-to-peer learning through informal and formal workshops, meetings and visits,
and knowledge exchange programmes among different state and town officials and experts are
beneficial
GThere is a need to work collectively, share and collaborate, as no single agency or partner can
deliver “end-to-end FSSM solutions”
GEngagement with the private sector, collaboration in research and projects with academic
institutions and with media, advances the capacity building agenda
VII. Potential for replication
The current approach followed by SCBP needs to be scaled-up. This requires regularly updating the
training content, which has been developed over-time, to ensure quality assurance in the delivery of
training by creating a pool of trainers, beyond the facilitators from the NFSSMA network. It is important to
use new platforms (face-to-face; online), and teaching-learning methodologies to disseminate and impart
knowledge and action research. Besides, forging new partnerships with state and non-state institutions,
in order to scale and add the non-sewered sanitation approach in the academic curriculum, is a step to
success.
Lead case study contributor: National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA)Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
135 25. STATEWIDE APPROACH FOR SCALING UP FSTP: MAHARASHTRA
Abstract
The state of Maharashtra has 60 million people living in 396 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). Most of
these ULBs depend on the on-site sanitation systems. Therefore, the state government decided to
implement a state-wide programme for Faecal Sludge and Septage Plants (FSTPs). It also decided to
co-treat faecal sludge and septage at nearby Sewage Treatment Plans (STPs), where possible.
After the state became ODF in 2017, the focus shifted to ODF Sustainability and FSSM. The state
government resolution in December, 2018, identified 70 cities that would treat its faecal sludge and
septage at its own, or nearby, STPs. The remaining ULBs planned their own FSTPs. As of December
2020, 120 FSTPs are operational and others are under various stages of implementation.
I. Context
Maharashtra is the second-most
urbanized state in India accounting for
nearly 10% of India’s urban population
residing in 396 ULBs. It has been a
pioneer state in the implementation of
the Swachh Bharat Mission in urban
areas.
Maharashtra was one of the first states
to be declared as ODF on 1
st
Oct 2017.
On that occasion, the government of
Maharashtra (GoM) issued a 7-point
sustainability charter that drew focus
on ODF Sustainability and ensuring
effective collection and treatment of
faecal sludge and septage in all cities.
There are 47 ULBs in the state that
have sewage network. Thus, FSSM is
the key priority of the state as a large number of ULBs are dependent on on-site sanitation systems.
Without adequate treatment facilities in these cities, the septage was disposed in open lands or used in
farmlands without any treatment.
II. Intervention
The Government of Maharashtra (GoM) adopted systematic approach to implement city-wide FSSM plans
across the sanitation service chain in the ULBs. The GoM received support from CWAS, CRDF, CEPT
University, funded by Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF), housed at its Swachh Maharashtra Mission
for Urban Areas (SMMUA) for implementation of FSSM strategy.
The state government decided to implement a state-wide programme for Faecal Sludge and Septage
Plants (FSTPs). It also decided to co-treat faecal sludge and septage at nearby Sewage Treatment Plants
(STPs), where possible. After the state became ODF in 2017, focus was on ODF Sustainability and
FSSM. The state government resolution in December 2018, identified 70 cities that would treat its faecal
Figure 13: Map of MaharashtraFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
136 sludge and septage at its own, or nearby, STPs. The remaining ULBs planned their own FSTPs. It was
decided to adopt a simple technology for FSTP that would have low capital outlay and low operation and
maintenance expenses.
III. Implementation approach
All ULBs were classified into 3 categories, a) ULBs with functional sewerage treatment plant (STP), b)
ULBs that could provide FS co-treatment to the STPs in nearby ULBs, and c) ULBs that would need
independent Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant (FSTP).
a. Co-treatment of faecal sludge at own, or nearby, STPs: The Government of Maharashtra issued
a government resolution (GR) on co-treatment of faecal waste to own or nearby STPs (GR: SMU-
2018 /Cr No. 351/UD-34 on 15
th
December, 2018). ULBs that had a functional STP, but did
not have full sewerage coverage could treat septage collected from on-site systems in their own
STPs. The GR identified potential ULBs that could do co-treatment of their septage at STPs of
nearby ULBs, located within a 20 km of radius from existing STPs. A model MoU was drafted
and provided to sending and receiving ULBs, with a view to institutionalize the co-treatment
process. Currently, 70 ULBs are practicing co-treatment of faecal sludge at their own, or nearby,
STPs.
b. Setting up independent FSTPs: GoM decided to set-up the independent FSTPs in ULBs that
are entirely dependent on on-site sanitation systems, and where plans for sewerage projects in
the near future are not foreseen. 311 ULBs were identified for setting-up independent FSTPs
in Urban Maharashtra. A GR of 8
th
November, 2019 (SMM – 2019 / Circular No. 124 /
UD–34, dated 8
th
Nov, 2019) allowed construction of independent FSTPs in ULBs. This GR
also indicated that an FSTP shall have to co-locate with an existing Solid Waste Management
(SWM) site.
Systematic approach towards building faecal waste treatment infrastructure:
Rather than employing a conventional approach–where each ULB would have to seek technical and
administrative approval of its FSTP–the state government decided on a set of technologies for implementation
of FSTPs at scale. A single-window approval and fast-track implementation was designed. The availability
of pre-approved technical design, as well as structural and hydraulic design templates of FSTP, helped
ULBs to fast-track implementation of FS treatment facilities. For fast-track implementation of independent
FSTPs, a single-window approval process was developed.
State level Mechanism for implementing FSTPs
DPRs and approvals
GState Government shared the tender documents, drawings, and estimates with Detailed Project
Reports (DPRs) for different capacities of FSTPs, with the ULBs.
GTechnical and administrative approval was given to all the ULBs to construct as per DPRs. The
ULBs were required to agree to construct the FSTPs from their own funds and maintain the
assets.
Procurement process
GULBs were required to float a short tender notice for construction of FSTPs.
GIn case a ULB received 3 bids or more, ULB could award the work to the lowest bidderFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
137
GMeanwhile, if a ULB received fewer than 3 bids, ULBs were instructed to extend the notice
period and then award the tender to the lowest bidder, after the end of notice period
GULBs were encouraged to explore SHGs and/or private sector for O&M of FSTPs.
Model DPRs for 4
technologies
Technology
vetting by NEERI
State FSSM strategy Technology selection
Technical DPR Technical sanction
Training workshops Construction of
FSTPS
Work orders
Administrative
sanction
O&M plan
Procurement plan
and floating of
tenders
Financing
GCapital costs of these FSTPs would be financed through the 14th finance commission grants,
available to each ULB
GO&M costs would be financed by the ULB
IV. Highlights
Adoption of cost effective and less mechanized FSTP technology
The technology involved five major treatment modules namely Screening Chamber, Sludge Drying Beds
(SDB), Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR), Horizontal Planted Gravel Filter (PGF), and Disinfection unit.
The facilities had a gravity flow-based system, where septage collected through vacuum emptier trucks
was discharged to screening chamber from where it flowed to different units owing to gravity.
Treated wastewater was reused for landscaping/tree plantation, and dried sludge was co-composted at
co-located solid waste composting plant.
Many benefits were achieved due to the single window process
GA single window approval helped ULBs to curtail the complex and lengthy approval process
GPre-approved technical design, structural and hydraulic design templates of FSTP helped ULBs
to fast-track implementation of FS treatment facilities.
GMandatory compliance of third-party technical audit through the empaneled engineering colleges,
ensured quality assurance and quality control during construction of FSTPsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
138 Septage from septic
tank
Liquid
Platform for Drying or
storage
Anaerobic Baffle
Reactor (ABR)
Horiz ontal Planted
Gravel filter (PGF)
Disinfect ion unit +
Treated Water tank
Solid treatment unit
Liquid treatment unit
Reuse for
landscape
Reuse
Sludge Drying Bed
Solid-liquid
separation
unitCo-com post with municip al
solid waste
Dried
Solids
V. Impact
120 FSTPs are operational within a span of 1 year and another 100 are in various stages of construction.
ULBs in Maharashtra are now considering implementation of scheduled desludging.
VI. Reflections and lessons
The systematic efforts of state government of Maharashtra in sanitation space and particularly for FSSM
sector have been recognized by both national government and other sector experts. It is clearly reflected
in the recent result of Swachh Survekshan 2020, where a large number of ULBs in Maharashtra secured
high ranks. The lessons from Maharashtra’s experience can be very useful for policymaking and developing
state-wide strategy for other states of India. In the past, Maharashtra’s experience has been instrumental
in developing ODF/ODF+/ODF++ framework. Most of the operational FSTPs are being operated by ULBs
by assigning its own staff from sanitation department. Most of the FSTPs are using treated water for
gardening on FSTP site. The dried sludge is used after mixing it with compost from solid waste.
The UDD, GoM developed various guidelines for septage management, and conducted regular capacity
building programmes for all ULBs to implement FSSM plan. UDD conducted regular review meetings to
track the progress at city, district, division, and state levels. A state-wide monitoring system and dashboard
was developed to track the implementation of FSSM plan. A series of field visits and on-call assistance
was provided by technical experts to guide the ULB officials during the implementation and operation of
FSTPs. Consequently, Maharashtra is also developing a strategy on convergence of NULM and SBM for
improved sanitation service delivery, with participation of SHGs in operation and maintenance activities.
VII. Potential for replication
The work in small and medium towns of Maharashtra is representative of around 7000+ towns of
India, including 3600+ statutory towns and 3800+ census towns. The experience in Maharashtra could
potentially impact 150 million people, who live in small and medium towns of India.
Lead case study contributor: Center for Water and Sanitation, CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
139 EXHIBIT 7
QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSURANCE MECHANISM
ACROSS STATES
FSSM being a nascent sub-sector, novel approaches have been adopted across all the phases of a typical
project, i.e., planning, procurement, implementation, and operations. As these methods and processes
mature into standard procedures, there is a need for Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC)
processes to ensure that desired outcomes are achieved consistently over the desired life span of the
project.
A review of the QA/QC processes adopted by four states during their FSSM roll-out at scale brought out
the following observations:
1. State mandated processes are predominantly aimed at QC during construction and limited to
compliance and vigilance checks. Checks for functional quality are not a focus area.
2. Personnel limitations lead to infrequent and inadequate site visits. In addition, the personnel
require intensive training before conducting the site visits.
3. As a result, most states augmented their capacities by relying on private personnel – through
mechanisms such as Independent Engineer or third-party personnel for QC checks.
4. QA mechanisms, i.e., processes aimed at mitigating avoidable risks during the planning phases
were deployed with the support of sector experts in most states.
Quality Assurance Framework
for FSSM
Access
Emptying &
Transportation
Treatment
for
Disposal
Treatment for
Reuse
Legislation, Rules and Policy
Framework
National FSSM Policy 2017 and State policies
Defining Quality
Standards
Outcome quality
Quality standards that influence outcomes, e.g., biosolids
standards
Process qualityStandards and guidelines for processes
Service quality
Benchmarks for services, including the citizen perspective,
e.g., 100% coverage, response time for filling service
requests etc.
QA Guidelines
Ownership Who is responsible for each aspect of FSM?
Quality guidelines
What provisions and guidelines exist to ensure quality
programs are implemented and compliance ensured based
on risk assessment
Tools for QA
QA Matrix developed - Checklists, templates etc., that help
operationalize the Quality Guidelines
Figure 14: The Quality Assurance Framework for FSSM will help implement quality processes
across all project phases
As FSSM scales up there is an urgent need for institutionalizing these Quality initiatives in order for
them to be effective. To this end, Quality Assurance processes have been developed for the sector with
typical interventions such as detailed checklists, guidelines, and SOPs. These processes now require Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
140 institutionalizing within the State machinery in order for the QA to be an embedded process rather than
an afterthought.
An overview of the Quality Assurance framework is presented in Figure 16. The QA framework for FSSM
has been developed by the NFSSM Alliance based on international best practices in Quality.
ISO Certification for FSSM in a city:
Odisha is the first and only state in the country to have all its operational Septage Treatment Plants
(SeTPs) ISO (International Organization for Standardization) certified. All the plants have obtained 3
certifications namely, ISO 9001: 2015, OHSAS 45001: 2018, ISO 14001: 2015. These certifications
assure quality of treatment.
Bhubaneswar became the first Indian city and second city in the world to get
an ISO 9001:2015 certification for Faecal Sludge and Septage Management
(FSSM) services. This certificate confirms that the services provided in the
city for FSSM meet the highest industrial standards. Bhubaneswar Municipal
Corporation (BMC) has issued a notification in the newspaper for registration
of private operators and private cesspool vehicles with an incentive that first
50 vehicles coming forward for registration will be fitted with GPS devices
free of cost by BMC. As a result, 29 cesspool vehicles operated by private
operators in the city have been registered with BMC and fitted with GPS
device for monitoring purpose. BMC has taken steps to form enforcement
squad to check illegal disposal of sludge by the cesspool operators. Further,
the corporation has taken steps to provide affordable cesspool services to the urban poor residing in slums
areas of all 67 wards.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
141 EXHIBIT 8
STATE LEVEL SYSTEMS FOR FSSM MONITORING
Background
At a state level, districts or even ULBs it is essential to monitor the progress of FSTP construction
activities. Monitoring mechanisms shall enable to ensure timely completion and have the potential to
ensure quality of works.
In the same manner several activities are performed at each town and city in regards of Faecal Sludge
and Septage Management (FSSM). Some of these are milestone (like allocation of land for treatment
plant), some which are frequent (like desludging operations). A solution is required to make sure that
the activities are performed as required. The monitoring maybe being taken up at various levels of the
government machinery.
Intervention
Dashboards to monitor daily and milestone level events are prepared by states. These dashboard help
monitor construction and other activities (more than 50 information points). This helps key decision
makers to intervene wherever and whenever necessary. Some of the dashboards are shown below:
Before FSTP ConstructionDuring FSTP ConstructionPost FSTP Construction
Weekly Follow-up
with ULB through
phone calls
Weekly Follow-up with ULB
through phone calls for the
completion of FSTPs as per
designs provides
Call support to resolve any
issues faced or delays in
the process
Site visit for Quality check
during FSTP construction
Prepared posters of Do?s
and Don?ts for construction
Training on operation
and maintenance manual
for ULBs.
Ensure third party quality
check of FSTP construction
Identifying a testing
laboratory in proximity
to the city
Call support to resolve any
doubts and help identify a
reuse plan
Call support to
resolve any issues
faced or delays in
the process
Figure 15: State level FSSM monitoring
dashboard Maharashtra
Figure 16: Construction monitoring
dashboard Maharashtra
Figure 17: State level FSSM monitoring
dashboard: Odisha
Figure 18: Construction monitoring
dashboard: OdishaFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
142 Figure 19: Construction monitoring
dashboard: Tamil Nadu
Figure 20: App based FSSM monitoring
dashboard: Tamil Nadu
Impact
The dashboards have enabled the following outcomes
Daily monitoring at the highest level of bureaucracy and follow ups with anyone necessary
Quality of works in line with QA/QC protocols
Timely completion of works and milestones
Ensure all milestones are reached
Service quality of the highest standardsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
143 26. QUALITY ASSURANCE SUPPORT FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF FAECAL
SLUDGE MANAGEMENT PLANTS IN TAMIL NADU
Abstract
Sixty Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants (FSTPs) were under construction in Tamil Nadu. Since FSTPs were
constructed in the state for the first time, the knowledge of various government and private stakeholders
on the Design, Construction, and Operation and Maintenance (O&M) needed to be strengthened. This
case study explores how quality assurance support not only ensured safe and sustainable construction
practices, adherence to quality, and monitoring and evaluation, but also secured multi-stakeholder
engagement and participation for knowledge-sharing, and continued operations and maintenance.
I. Context
The Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) issued the Operative Guidelines for Septage Management in
2014 to ensure safe sanitation in the State by eliminating open defecation and preventing environmental
pollution. To address these objectives, in 2018, the GoTN, with the support of Tamil Nadu Urban Sanitation
Support Programme (TNUSSP) finalized a State Investment Plan (SIP) with a phase-wise approach for
scaling treatment.
The implementation of the SIP commenced with the construction of 60 new Faecal Sludge Treatment
Plants (FSTPs). Given that the technology for FSTPs was a relatively new concept for both the private
players undertaking construction as well as the government officers supervising the construction across
the State, the GoTN setup a process of Quality Assurance (QA) with the key objectives of which were to
ensure adherence to quality and timely escalation of issues to the relevant authorities during the various
stages of construction.
II. Intervention
The QA process aimed to monitor the construction progress and quality of all FSTPs, by a dedicated team
of qualified engineers from the TSU and a third-party contractor. It was also designed to strengthen QA
during the commissioning and initial Operations & Maintenance (O&M) stages. Various mechanisms, such
as periodic field visits, digital reporting and monitoring tools, exposure visits and detailed checklists were
used by the QA team to review progress, check for compliance with design and quality standards, as well
as to resolve implementation issues. The process was further enabled by a mobile-based construction
monitoring platform application. The application included two checklists, one for stage-based reporting
of construction progress, and the second for conformity of construction with design specifications and
construction quality parameters.
III. Implementation approach
The GoTN instituted the QA process with the help of the Technical Support Unit (TSU) of the TNUSSP.
This involved constituting a QA team with specialists from the TSU, along with qualified engineers from
third-party private contractors.
The QA team monitored and supervised the implementation of FSTPs from the tender stage to the
completion of construction, commissioning, and field trials. The scope essentially covered seven key stages
of the implementation of the biological treatment systems:Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
144 1. Pre-construction stage: which included checking of site clearances and drawings as well as the
marking stage.
2. Excavation, ground preparation and laying of Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)
3. Laying of Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC): which included review of final PCC/RCC levels
and masonry, dimensions of treatment modules, and excavation of Planted Gravel Filter or other
tertiary treatment.
4. Fixing of pipes and floor levels: involving inspection of inlet, outlet, baffles, all pipes, and filter
material and marking for laying filter material.
5. Finishing works: which included review of plastering works, painting, and placement of filter
material, perforated slab, manholes.
6. Commissioning: involving support for commissioning process and advice on performance testing.
7. Testing and trial run: involving inspection of water flows, plantation quality, plastering and water
tightness in water retention structures.
During the above stages of FSTP implementation, QA support was provided through the following set of
activities:
1. Planning and orientation sessions: QA support was initiated through orientation workshops and
training sessions for ULB staff and private contractors to familiarize them with the process.
2. Periodic field visits: routine visits to the field by engineers from the QA support team as well as
expert visits to address specific issues were undertaken.
3. Reporting and monitoring: ULB staff were required to regularly document progress, which would
be inspected by the QA team. Additionally, weekly calls, a WhatsApp group and a helpline were
setup for sharing of day-to-day progress as well as resolving site-related issues.
4. Exposure visits: to FSTPs in Karunguzhi Town Panchayat, Periyanaicken-Palayam and
Narasimhanaicken-Palayam town panchayats in Coimbatore district, and Odisha were organized.
5. Documentation support: The QA team provided documentation assistance such as detailed Site
Investigation Report template with field inspection checklists, FAQs on design and construction
aspects, and templates to help ULBs obtain Consent to Establish (CTE) and Consent to Operate
(CTO) certificates.
Daily updates and progress were documented using presentations, photographic compilations, spreadsheets
and Gantt charts. A virtual reality video of FSTPs in Dhenkanal, Odisha, and Karunguzhi and Kangeyam
was prepared for government officials, and an IT Dashboard was also created for them to monitor and
review the progress of construction. Funded by grants from a donor organization, the entire QA process
budget was set to be one per cent of the cost of construction of a single FSTP.
IV. Highlights
The QA support team was able to bridge any knowledge gaps by regular monitoring and inspection at all
critical stages of construction. The process leveraged technology and a variety of other mechanisms, such
as:
1. FAQs: developed to address general queries regarding the design and construction aspects of
FSTPs
2. Field Inspection Checklists: covered all important activities during field visits, all aspects of FSTP
after implementation, and during O&M activities at sites after completionFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
145 3. Digital review and monitoring tools: Helpline, WhatsApp groups, Virtual Reality video with a
360-degree view for government officials
4. IT Dashboard: created to help government officers to efficiently monitor the progress in all 60
FSTPs
5. On-site cross-learning and orientation programmes
The simultaneous construction of 60 FSTPs in various locations of the state meant that the government
officers would have had to travel to each site to monitor and review the progress of each work. However,
the use of digital support tools ensured swift resolution of issues as well as regular updates on progress.
The IT Dashboard also enabled the officers to monitor all the FSTP sites at near-real-time from their
respective locations. Additionally, the virtual reality video offered realistic, 360-degree view of the FSTPs
and their O&M aspects, and facilitated seamless transfer of knowledge. Knowledge transfer was also
enabled through peer-to-peer learning among ULBs.
V. Impact
The systematic recording of updates and progress as a part of the QA process has ensured adherence
to quality of construction and timely completion of activities. It has helped avoid mistakes during key
stages of implementation, which would have resulted in significant losses of money, resources, and time,
by ensuring proper communication and exchange of information among all stakeholders. The QA process
contributed towards building the capacity of both public and private sector in general, by facilitating peer-
to-peer learning among ULB officers and even enabling private contractors to seek-out other Faecal Sludge
Management projects.
VI. Reflections and lessons
The review meetings with all stakeholders during the pre-construction stage ensured that ULB engineers
acquired proper drawings and layouts from the QA support team, which helped in preventing mistakes.
The dedicated involvement, cooperation and learning by ULB staff and private contractors ensured the
successful completion of tasks and assessments on time.
The use of technology like virtual reality video and IT Dashboards was helpful in providing better insights
and monitoring the quality and pace of construction, near-real-time. The successful training programmes
and workshops to private contractors have helped them bid for more FSTP projects.
Challenges: The initial stages of the FSTP construction involved extensive planning and support, which
required considerable investment in terms of human resources and time. Also, since the FSTP construction
and QA support was a new area of work, it demanded substantial capacity building for all private players.
VII. Potential for replication
The standardized approach and use of technology to provide Quality Assurance support can be easily
adapted to a range of contexts and treatment technologies.
Lead case study contributor: Indian Institute for Human SettlementsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
146 27. MALASUR–MAKING THE INVISIBLE, VISIBLE: A CITIZEN FACING SOCIAL
AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGN ON FSSM
Abstract
India has made significant progress in addressing sanitation challenges under the Swachh Bharat
Mission. But there is little awareness about the sanitation value chain among populations, and little
or no care for what happens to faecal matter after it is flushed. The challenge, therefore, posed is for
communication to make a seemingly invisible issue relevant to people in urban India by making the
threat personal. Malasur (the demon of defecation) is a social and behavior change communication
(SBCC) campaign that was developed to influence attitudes towards faecal sludge and septage
management (FSSM) practices. The campaign was launched on World Environment Day (5 June
2020) by Hon’ble Sh. Hardeep Singh Puri, Minister of State (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs),
GoI. In partnership with the state technical support units, cities and states have begun to implement
it at scale.
I. Context
With the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), there has been a dramatic increase in the
number of toilets being constructed. While this helped in preventing open defecation, it is one of the
aspects of the sanitation value chain. Without proper collection, transportation and treatment, faecal waste
from these additional toilets will amplify the urban sanitation challenge. India has been making strides
towards establishing service delivery mechanisms for the management of faecal sludge, especially where
underground sewer systems do not exist, but without a corresponding demand for the FSSM services,
sanitation targets would remain unattainable. SBCC campaigns are, therefore, imperative to shift attitudes
among populations to adopt correct FSSM practices.
BBC Media Action in partnership with the state level technical support units (TSUs) and with funding
from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) designed an evidence-based, insight-driven SBCC
intervention with the overall goal of heightening risk perception around FSSM.
BBC Media Action conducted formative research (qualitative exploration and quantitative survey) in
Narsapur, Trichy, and Berhampur among 1740 households to assess the barriers, triggers, attitudes, and
current practices towards FSSM. Three segments in the population were found, based on their actual
sanitation practices and their response to the statement ‘It is okay to wait to clean/empty the septic tank
until it is full’. Out of the households surveyed, 22% were classified as proactive desludgers. About 66%
were classified as reactive desludgers, who would desludge only when they are faced with the problem of
a backflow or overflow, and cannot use the toilet. A full 11% were found to be connected to open drains.
The findings across these segments showed that the predominant attitudes were to avoid the problem for
as long–and by any means possible – by building enormous tanks that do not need to be cleaned in their
lifetimes, or by desludging as an emergency measure, once the tank overflows. This was also combined
with the thinking that it is someone else’s responsibility – the sense that an individual household doesn’t
create the problem and, therefore, should not be held responsible for the solution.
Few of the significant findings were:
G90% believe faecal sludge flowing into open drains spreads diseases. Only 53% are bothered
by the open drains in their surroundings
G78% believe a septic tank should be as large as possibleFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
147
G66% believe it is okay to wait to empty septic tank until it is full
G80% believe the government should construct septic tanks while 78% believe the municipality
is responsible for desludging
II. Intervention
Based on the formative research, the communication objectives were to increase awareness, heighten risk
perception and build a sense of urgency. The team needed to pivot faecal sludge to something precious–
what could be more compelling than a link to water and to bring the issue up close and personal. The
key insight that came out of the immersion process (which included desk research, in-depth conversations
with partners and stakeholders and experts within the urban sanitation networks) was ‘out of sight, out of
mind’. FSSM is an invisible issue for households. It is not a matter of conversation or concern, as they do
not understand it or recognize the risks associated with unsafe FSSM. The basic tenet for the campaign
was to raise the profile of faecal sludge management by positioning faecal sludge as a clear and present
danger to households, if ignored.
The team worked through an idea that was insight-driven, user-centric, media agnostic, and disruptive.
The team focused on using Indian mythology and the traditional tales of good and evil, of gods and
demons. Consequently, Malasur – the demon of defecation–was conceptualized.
Malasur is a visual personification of faecal sludge. Malasur is this unseen demon who lives under your
feet, bubbling away, biding its time, waiting until that opportune moment when it can erupt into a
backflow or an overflow. Malasur is a threat to your water unless you build the right kind of septic tank,
do regular desludging, and keep an eye on where your faecal sludge is being dumped.
A 360-degree campaign was developed using film, radio, outdoor, GIFs, outreach material, and a
comprehensive toolkit to enable stakeholders (government and non-government) to implement the
campaign across different geographies and platforms. The Malasur campaign and toolkit (in 11 languages
to help implement the campaign) was unveiled by the Minister of State, Shri Hardeep Singh Puri, Ministry
of Housing and Urban Affairs, on 5 June 2020 – World Environment Day, marking FSSM as a national
priority and establishing Malasur as the national campaign on FSSM.
The toolkit contains all Malasur campaign collaterals or outputs in ready-to-print, open files across various
platforms. These are outputs on outdoor media (hoardings, wall paintings), in-transit media (cesspool
truck, auto rickshaw/ tuk-tuk and van), mid-media (miking, street play) and audio visuals (cinema slides,
animation films, GIFs). These have been developed in 11 languages to cater to the language diversity in
India. The toolkit is not only a compendium of digital artworks but also contains instructions on scientific
and strategic implementation and monitoring (e.g. roll-out the campaign for a minimum of 3 months, in
two bursts, each message to be implemented sequentially and so on). This plug-and-play model ensures
that anyone who wants to implement the campaign has to just add their relevant logos and telephone
numbers and push it out for production and implementation as per the guidelines in the toolkit.
The campaign has been rolled out across Warangal (Telangana), Rajam (Andhra Pradesh), 114 urban
local bodies in Odisha, and will also be released in Lucknow and Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh, and Pithampur
in Madhya Pradesh. The campaign is being implemented as part of Swachh Survekshan 2020 and 2021.
In the first two weeks after its launch on social media, the film earned 525,000 impressions on Twitter
and was watched more than 300,000 times.
The Malasur campaign has been piloted, pre-tested and evaluated, providing valuable learnings on how
to design communication strategies and solutions around FSSM behaviors:Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
148
GDisruption works – a campaign benefits greatly from a hook that can break through clutter in
highly crowded urban landscapes, mass media and social media platforms
GEach output needs to carry uni-focused messaging – faecal sludge is complex, so break it down
to simple, easy actions
GPivot to water is compelling – faecal contamination of water provides a strong reason to believe
the threat, leading to intent and action
GA clear call to action – link to a helpline number/licensed desludging operator adds to the
credibility of the campaign
GBespoke implementation plans specific to each city are more useful
III. Key learnings from Malasur reach and effectiveness study in Warangal:
[Malasur campaign was launched in 48 wards out of a total of 58
wards in Warangal].
GDespite COVID, campaign has a high reach in Warangal @61% with Swachh Autos contributing
most to the reach numbers (for comparison mass media ad reach norms = 46%)
GReach is higher among people with relatively better financial capacity to undertake desludging
– indicating stickiness of campaign among relevant target groups.
GLinking Faecal Sludge to Water Contamination has highlighted the already established link
between contaminated water and ill health and therefore linking faecal sludge to health. Malasur
has given a handle to talk about faecal sludge which is an ‘unmentionable’ topic otherwise
GHigh motivation observed to act towards understanding septic tanks and desludging within next
3 months.70% positively disposed to calling helpline
GReinforces collaborative effort (state TSUs and BBC Media Action) and implementation support
are critical pillars
Note: Reach % is the percentage of people in the target universe (state/ city/ ward) who have seen or been exposed to the
campaign when asked through a random survey. For our study, in particular, an independent research agency conducted
1577 random listing interviews across selected blocks of Warangal city. From these face-to-face interviews, it was determined
that 61% of the people they met had seen the campaign either on swachh autos or hoarding or CTPTs. The largest share
of the reach i.e. 50% was from people who had seen it on Swachh Autos – which goes to show that this was the most
effective medium among all. The research agency had also provided benchmarks based on other campaigns that they had
tested and it is 46% across TV ads.”
As FSSM outcomes become increasingly critical in improving the total sanitation landscape of a country,
as more faecal sludge treatment plants come up, there is a growing realization within the WASH sector,
that behavior change and demand creation are as important a part of the conversation as infrastructure.
Malasur with its beady eyes and tentacles gives a face to a problem that did not exist in public and proves
that a big idea, implemented well can move the needle towards safe water and healthier citizens.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
149 IV. Similar initiatives from other states
1. Kakkaman (shit man)– A behavior change and communication
campaign for FSSM, Tamil Nadu
The Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) recognizes the importance of Full Cycle of Sanitation (FCS) for
an improved standard of public health. To create a supportive environment for ensuring and sustaining
urban sanitation across the state, GoTN has created a Behavior Change and Communication (BCC)
campaign to engage citizens to actively to ‘speak’ about sanitation and give a ‘call to action’ to move
towards safe sanitation. To take the key concept of total sanitation to the public in a simple and fun
way, a mascot called ‘Kakkaman’ (Shit-man) was developed. The campaign was launched digitally on
World Toilet Day 2020, to educate the public on the importance of proper sanitation practices through
the voice of ‘Kakkaman’. A pilot and a statewide roll out for the campaign is being planned in 2021.
The GoTN has commissioned 60 Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants (FSTPs) across the state which are
under various stages of construction, and is also enabling the co-treatment of faecal sludge along with
sewage at 50 Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs). While the establishment of these designated treatment
facilities are an important first step, their effective utilization depends on the uptake by a range of
sanitation stakeholders along the FCS.
Initial research conducted under the Tamil Nadu Urban Sanitation Support Programme (TNUSSP),
indicated that there was widespread taboo and stigma surrounding sanitation. This highlighted a need
to openly discuss the problems of sanitation, and possible approaches, rather than approach it with
fear. It also highlighted a need to reposition sanitation as something aspirational, linking it to quality of
life and thereby enabling consumers to have agency. To mainstream sanitation as a topic of discussion
and introduce the concept of full cycle of sanitation, a mascot called ‘Kakkaman’ or ‘Shit-man’ was
conceived.
The mascot was envisioned as an identifying element for sanitation and FSSM amongst the public.
The characteristics of Kakkaman were consciously designed to make the State’s sanitation mascot look
friendly and approachable. This was seen as key to encourage conversations around safe sanitation.
Additionally, an innovative campaign film featuring Kakkaman in a musical narrative that conveyed the
idea of FCS along with the initiatives of GoTN was created. With an engaging narrative along the FCS,
the film aims to instill a sense of responsibility towards the larger sanitation outcomes starting from
one’s home, and eventually their neighborhood, city, district and the state on the whole. The campaign
aimed to increase a sense of ownership with respect to sanitation among individual consumers,
households and other stakeholders.
Starting from 2017, the Kakkaman mascot was pre-tested in Coimbatore and Trichy districts to
get public feedback and response. The mascot was well received amongst the pre-tested audience
owing to the lively and interactive methods adopted, which engaged citizens to actively ‘speak’ about
sanitation and take up the ‘call to action’ to move towards safe sanitation.
Kakkaman would inform the people of Tamil Nadu about the upcoming treatment facilities near
them, the importance of their functioning and usage. ‘Call to action’ messages were designed for
key stakeholder groups who will be the main enablers of this change including government officers,
users of these services (households, establishments etc.), service providers across the FCS (sanitation
workers including de-sludging operators, contractors etc.) and WASH sector professionals.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
150 The Kakkaman campaign was launched digitally on World Toilet Day 2020 to engage with the public
and promote key messages on achieving safe sanitation through a series of posters, polls, quizzes,
competitions, and stakeholder interviews on TNUSSP handles on various social media platforms. The
first set of campaign messages were on creating awareness about FCS, followed by a ‘call to action’
for stakeholders across the FCS to build a safe Tamil Nadu. The Kakkaman film was released on social
media by sanitation organizations and social media influencers.
To engage audiences in a complex subject like faecal sludge management, it becomes important
to personify the subject and the risks to enable dialogue and the intention to adopt correct FSSM
practices.
2. Communication for sustainable sanitation in Wai, Maharashtra
35
In 2018, Wai was chosen as one of eight cities globally for the City Wide Inclusive Sanitation
(CWIS) Programme supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF). During different
stages of support by Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CDRF, CEPT University to make Wai
a model city for sanitation, various communications and awareness initiatives were developed and
carried out. In fact, the success of the effective implementation of FSSM and CWIS principles in
Wai is in part due to the communication protocols.
Awareness activities are critical for successful implementation of community based programmes such
as Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) and increasing coverage of individual toilets.
In Wai, for achieving each milestone, the communications strategy took an adaptive approach to
achieve results depending on the interventions planned. To begin with, the communications approach
was developed through a consultative process with the city government keeping target audience
in perspective, as well as through formative research conducted through surveys and focus group
discussions with citizens to understand the sanitation situation and their perceptions. The protocols
were developed on the basis of a qualitative assessment of required messages to meet the objectives,
identifying the intended groups and choosing the appropriate mode for conveying these messages.
Various mass media and interpersonal communication channels were used to convey the interconnected
messages. For example, for sending out message to stop open defecation and sustaining ODF, audio
messages by councilors were used. Short cartoon video was made and shared on various social media
groups in the city and on local cable television. Various platforms and media such as poster, banners,
wall paintings, pamphlet distribution, fairs, workshops, trainings, and social media posts were used
for generating awareness, consultations and building capacities around achieving ODF, sustaining the
ODF status, providing citywide inclusive FSSM services.
Both the executive as well as the elected officials of Wai Municipal Council have now taken ownership
of the work on FSSM and have acknowledged the importance of addressing the CWIS principles.
The city of Wai is now declared ODF++. Also, lessons in sanitation planning from Wai have
been disseminated across all urban centers across the state of Maharashtra, under the Swachh
Maharashtra Mission for Urban Area.
Lead case study contributor: BBC Media Action
Other contributors: IIHS; Center for Water and Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF, CEPT UniversityFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
151
CONCLUSION
AND WAY
FORWARD
SECTION-H Safe sanitation as envisaged under Swachh Bharat Mission entails safe management of the human waste
generated in the 60% of urban toilets in the country that rely on OSS. This waste contains parasites and
pathogens with a high potential for spreading disease, and is largely disposed in the open. It therefore
needs urgent attention in order to ensure that the intended public health and environmental benefits of
safely managed sanitation are achieved.
FSSM provides a low-cost, easily scalable and inclusive sanitation solution. It can complement India’s
ongoing efforts to extend sewer networks by prioritizing safe management of human waste in a time
bound manner. As showcased through this compendium of leading practices, a number of states and city
governments are now implementing FSSM proactively across the country.
Drawing inspiration from the National FSSM Policy launched in 2017, these states and cities are moving
towards scaling up innovative and inclusive urban sanitation service delivery. This roll out is characterized
by private sector participation, local government leadership, civil society initiatives, human-centric
design approaches, and gender focused programs across the value chain. This body of case studies is
extensive, with solutions demonstrated for almost all contexts in the country. These can serve as a guide
to practitioners across India.
While this compendium is an important overview of the leading practices in the sector, several knowledge
products have also emerged from these experiences. The following are readily available for practitioners
to take up FSSM:
1. Model Concession Agreement and Model RFP Documents for liquid waste management by NITI
Aayog (Link)
2. Standards, specifications and benchmarks for FSSM (Link)
3. PPP models under HAM, DBFOT, DBOT formats (Link)
4. Model tenders specific to FSSM (Link)
5. Business and service delivery models for various FSSM implementations (along with cost
benchmarks) (Link)
6. Quality Assurance for FSSM – checklists, templates, SOPs, practitioner manuals (Link)
7. Monitoring and Evaluation processes – at various levels e.g.: Database of existing FSTPs for ready
reference, FSTP monitoring protocols (Link)
8. Training modules for orientation to advanced training on FSSM (Link)
9. BCC and IEC materials to drive positive FSSM behaviors (Link)
The NFSSM Alliance has played a catalytic role in the FSSM sector in India so far and serves as a ready
resource and platform for state and city officials and other key stakeholders who require support to take
up FSSM in their respective geographies.
It is estimated that India needs an investment of INR 12,000 crores in FSSM.
36
To ensure long term
sustainability and quality implementation, states and cities must undertake capacity building, quality
assurance and quality control, and monitoring. Moreover, it is critical that states take steps to institutionalize
FSSM in the long run through various structures such as the creation of accountable FSSM departments
at the state and ULB levels.
FSSM is a key pathway for India to meet the SDG 6.2 goals of safely managed sanitation by 2030.
Keeping the most vulnerable and underserved, women and urban poor at the center of this effort, states
and cities must move quickly to introduce innovative solutions. With that, India can become an exemplar
to the world for not only ending open defecation, but also for safely managed sanitation.Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
154
APPENDIX
SECTION-I CONTACT DETAILS FOR CASE STUDIES
Organization Contact
Administrative Staff
College of India (ASCI)
Prof. Srinivas Chary, Director, ASCI
Email: schary@asci.org.in
BBC Media Action Ms. Reethira Kumar, Senior Project Manager, BBC Media Action
Email Reethira.kumar@in.bbcmediaaction.org
Center for DEWATS
Dissemination Society
(CDD), Bangalore
Mr Krishna Swaroop Konidena
Email: Krishna.k@cddindia.org
Center for Science and
Environment (CSE)
Mr Suresh Rohilla, Senior Director
Email: srohilla@cseindia.org
Center for Water and
Sanitation (CWAS), CRDF,
CEPT University
Dr. Meera Mehta, Executive Director, CWAS
Email: meeramehta@cept.ac.in
Ernst & Young LLP (EY)Mr. Pragyal Singh, Partner, Business Consulting, Ernst & Young LLP
Email: pragyal.singh@in.ey.com
KPMGDr. Abhinav Akhilesh, Director – Human and Social Services
Email: abhinavakhilesh@kpmg.com
National Institute of Urban
Affairs (NIUA)
Mr. Depinder Kapur, Team Lead, Sanitation Capacity Building Platform,
NIUA
Email: dkapur@niua.org
The Indian Institute for
Human Settlements (IIHS)
Ms. Kavita Wankhade, Senior Lead-IIHS
Email: kwankhade@iihs.co.in
Wash-iKalimuthu Arumugam, Program Director
Email: akalimuthu@washinstitute.orgFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
156 ABBREVIATIONS
ABRAnaerobic Baffled Reactor
ADBAsian Development Bank
ALFArea Level Federation
AMRUTAtal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
ASCIAdministrative Staff College of India
BCCBehavior Change Communication
BEMCBerhampur Municipal Corporation
BMCBhubaneswar Municipal Corporation
BMGFBill and Melinda Gates Foundation
BWCBlue Water Company
CapexCapital Expenditure
CBOCommunity based organization
CCCCity Civic Center
CDDConsortium for DEWATS Dissemination Society
CEPTCentre for Environment Planning and Technology
CMACommissionerate of Municipal Administration
CMCCommunity Management Committee
CMMUCity Mission Management Unit
CMRCCommunity Management Resource Centre
CNPPChunar Nagar Palika Parishad
CPCBCentral Pollution Control Board
CPHEEO Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization
CPRCenter for Policy Research
CRDFCEPT Research and Development Foundation
CSCCommunity Sanitary Complexes
CSECenter for Science and Environment
CSPCity Sanitation Plan
CSRCorporate Social Responsibility
CSTFCity Sanitation Task Force
CTCommunity Toilet
CTEConsent to Establish
CTOConsent to Operate
CWASCenter for Water and Sanitation
CWISCity Wide Inclusive Sanitation
DBFOTDesign Build Finance Operate TransferFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
157 DBODesign- Build- Operate
DBOTDesign, Build, Operate &Transfer
DICCIDalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry
DPMSDevelopment Permission Management System
DPRDetailed Project Report
DTCNDetailed Tender Call Notice
EOIExpression of Interest
EPAEnvironment (Protection) Act
EPCEngineering, Procurement and Construction
EYErnst & Young LLP
FAQFrequently Asked Question
FCFinance Commission
FSFaecal Sludge
FSSFaecal sludge and septage
FSSMFaecal Sludge and Septage Management
FSTPFaecal Sludge Treatment Plant
GDPGross Domestic Product
GeMGovernment e-Marketplace
GOGovernment Order
GoAPGovernment of Andhra Pradesh
GoIGovernment of India
GoMGovernment of Maharashtra
GoOGovernment of Odisha
GRGovernment Resolution
GoTGovernment of Telangana
GoTNGovernment of Tamil Nadu
GPSGlobal Positioning System
GPSGlobal Positioning System
GSTGoods and Service Tax
GWMCGreater Warangal Municipal Corporation
H&UDDHousing and Urban Development Department
HAMHybrid Annuity Model
HMWSSB Hyderabad Metro Water Supply & Sewerage Board
HPGFHorizontal Planted Gravel Filter
ICTInformation Communications Technology
IHHL Individual Household LatrineFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
158 IIHSIndian Institute for Human Settlements
IHHTIndividual Household Toilet
ISOInternational Organisation for Standardisation
KLDKilo Liters per Day
KMCKhopoli Municipal Corporation
MAVIMMahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal
MBBLSModel Building By-Laws
MCLMunicipal Committee of Leh
MCVMini Cesspool Vehicles
MEMPAMission for Elimination of Poverty in Municipal Areas
MISManagement Information system
MLALADS Member of Legislative Assembly Local Area Development Scheme
MOHUAMinistry of Housing and Urban Affairs
MoSJEMinistry of Social Justice and Empowerment
MoUMemorandum of Understanding
MPLADS Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme
MSJVMini Sewer Jetting Vehicles
NBCNational Building Code
NFSSM-A National Faecal Sludge and Septage Management Alliance
NGONon-Governmental Organizations
NGONon-Governmental Organization
NIUANational Institute of Urban Affairs
NOCNo objection certificate
NPPNagar Palika Parishad
NUFSSM National Urban Faecal Sludge and Septage Management
NULMNational Urban Livelihood Mission
NUSPNational Urban Sanitation Policy
O&MOperation and Maintenance
O&MOperation and Maintenance
ODOpen defecation
ODFOpen Defecation Free
OEMOriginal Equipment Manufacturer
OpexOperating Expenditure
OGOperational Guidelines
OSSOn-Site Sanitation
OSSFOn-Site Sanitation facilitiesFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
159 OWSSBOdisha Water Supply & Sewerage Board
PCCPalin Cement Concrete
PGFPlanted Gravel Filter
PHEOPublic Health Engineering Organization
PLAMPerformance Linked Annuity Model
PNPPeriyanaickenpalayam
PPEPersonal Protective Equipment
PPPPublic–private partnership
PPTMSPattana Pragathi Toilet Monitoring system
PSPPrivate Service Provider
PTPublic Toilet
QAQuality Assurance
QCQuality Control
QCBSQuality and Cost Based Selection
RCCReinforced Cement Concrete
RRPResource Recovery Parks
SAShelter Associates
SACSwachh Andhra Corporation
SBCCSocial and Behavior Change Communication
SBMSwachh Bharat Mission
SBM-USwachh Bharat Mission-Urban
SCScheduled Caste
SCBPSanitation Capacity Building Platform
SDBSludge Drying Bed
SDGSustainable Development Goals
SDGSSustainable Development Goals
SeTPSeptage Treatment Plants
SHE Teams Sanitation and Hygiene Education Teams
SHGSelf Help Group
SIPState Investment Plan
SLAStandard License Agreement
SLFSlum Level Federation
SLWMSolid Liquid Waste Management
SMCGState Mission for Clean Ganga
SMMUASwachh Maharashtra Mission for Urban Areas
SOPStandard Operating ProceduresFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
160 SPCBState Pollution Control Board
SPVSpecial Purpose Vehicle
SPSSub Pumping Stations
SSSwachh Survekshan
STScheduled Tribe
STPsSewage Treatment Plants
SUISStand-Up India Scheme
SWMSolid Waste Management
TCCTiruchirappalli City Corporation
TiCToilet Integration Centers
TLFTown Level Federation
TMCTown Mission Coordinator
TMRCTraining Modules Review Committee
TNCD&BR Tamil Nadu Combined Development and Building Rules
TNUSSP Tamil Nadu Urban Sanitation Support Programme
TPTown Panchayats
TSUTechnical Support Unit
UADDDirectorate of Urban Administration and Development
ULBSUrban Local Bodies
UPJNUttar Pradesh Jal Nigam
WASHWater Sanitation & Hygiene
WATCOWater Corporation of Odisha
WAVE Federation Women’s Action in Village Empowerment Federation
WHOWorld Health Organization
WSHGWomen Self-Help GroupsFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
161 REFERENCES
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assumed as INR 1500/trip.
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163 28. Devanahalli FSSM Brochure – CDD Society 2019 - https://cddindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/
Devaanahalli-Brochure-2019.pdf and Strengthening O&M of Decentralized Sanitation Systems
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30. SCBP website: www.scbp.niua.org Normative framework document: https://niua.org/scbp/sites/
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31. www.scbp.niua.org
32. https://www.niua.org/scbp/
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CWAS(2018),” Pamphlet for scheduled emptying awareness”, Retrieved from https://pas.org.in/Portal/
document/UrbanSanitation/uploads/Pamphlet%20for%20scheduled%20emptying%20awareness.pdf
36. https://pas.org.in/Portal/document/UrbanSanitation/uploads/Financing FSSM Report_June 8 2019.pdfFaecal Sludge and Septage Management in Urban Areas: Service and Business models
164 The Alliance stands strong with 31 members having varied backgrounds including academic institutions,
consultants, implementing bodies, quasi-government organizations, data experts and research
institutes. Our strength lies in the diverse memberships, their network and our commitment.
MEMBERS
https://asci.org.in https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/ https://www.gatesfoundation.org https://www.athenainfonomics.com
https://cept.ac.in/center-for-water-
and-sanitation-c-was
https://www.cprindia.org https://cfar.org.in https://www.borda.org
https://www.cseindia.org https://cddindia.org https://www.dasra.org https://www.ey.com/
https://iihs.co.in http://www.indiasanitationcoalition.org https://www.giz.de/en https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org
https://www.psi.org https://www.niua.org https://home.kpmg/in https://www.rti.org
https://umcasia.org https://www.tidetechnocrats.com http://www.samhita.org https://www.unicef.org
https://www.wateraidindia.in https://www.washinstitute.org https://www.usaid.gov https://www.worldbank.org
https://www.intellecap.com https://www.janaagraha.org/home/ https://s3idf.org Copyright, NFSSM Alliance & Niti Aayog