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Mine to market: critical
minerals supply chain for
domestic value addition
in lithium-ion battery
manufacturing
June 2023
Enter >>Enter >> 2
Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Authors
NITI Aayog:
Sudhendu J Sinha, Adviser, NITI Aayog
Joseph Teja, NITI Aayog
Gautam Sharma, NITI Aayog
Nidhi Jha, NITI Aayog
Ernst & Young LLP:
Somesh Kumar, Partner & Leader (Power & Utilities)
GPS, EY India
Shuboday Ganta, Director, EY India
Ankit Idwani, Senior Associate, EY India
Authors and Acknowledgements
Contacts
For more information, contact Joseph Teja <jay.teja@nic.in>
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the team at ADB led by
Mr. Jiwan Acharya (Principal Energy Specialist) and Mr. Keerthi
Kumar Challa (Project Officer Energy) for their contributions
and guidance in shaping this report.
Suggested Citation
NITI Aayog, From Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply
Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing,
June 2023.
This report was produced as a part of TA 6726-IND: Promoting Clean
Energy Usage Through Enhanced Adoption of Electric Vehicles and
Grid Integration of Battery Storage System, co-financed on a grant
basis by the Asian Clean Energy Fund, established by Government of
Japan, under the Clean Energy Financing Partnership Facility and
administered by ADB. Advanced chemistry cell (ACC) batteries are the bed rock of future low carbon transportation and energy systems. India’s domestic ACC battery
manufacturing industry is fast emerging with support from government initiatives on both demand and supply side. Critical minerals supply chain,
especially lithium, cobalt, nickel and spherical graphite, refining for active materials are vital to achieve domestic value addition in the manufacturing of
ACC battery electrodes. By localizing the mining and refining value chain of critical minerals, India can reduce its reliance on imports and help build
resilience in global supply chains.
NITI Aayog has been studying the mine to market landscape of critical minerals and active materials used in the production of lithium-ion batteries (LIB).
As global demand for lithium-ion batteries continues to rise, India has a unique opportunity to support resilient supply chains of critical minerals,
establish self-reliance and reduce imports. Some developed countries have combined demand side incentives for consumers and businesses to purchase
clean vehicles with programs to expand domestic manufacturing and sourcing of critical minerals and battery components. In these countries, the
battery’s critical minerals must meet certain requirements for sourcing or processing domestically for eligibility of EV demand side incentives.
India has become the newest partner in the US led Mineral Security Partnership (MSP) to bolster critical mineral supply chains. The partnership aims to
accelerate the development of diverse and sustainable critical mineral supply chains. Apart from this, G2G dialogues are advancing with friendly
countries for joint exploration and mining. Government of India has set up KABIL to ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals through
G2G negotiations and acquiring mining assets abroad.
This report provides useful information and insights to policymakers, industry, investors, partners and stakeholders in the ACC battery and critical
minerals ecosystem. The report may serve as a catalyst for transformative change and drive India's sustainable development agenda forward. We are
confident that it will lay a foundation for informed decision-making and enable stakeholders to capitalize on the immense opportunities presented by the
localization of the ACC battery value chain in India.
Mr. Sudhendu J Sinha
Adviser (Infrastructure Connectivity – Transport and Electric Mobility)
NITI Aayog
3 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Foreword 4
A thriving domestic lithium-ion battery (LIB) manufacturing industry will need resilient supply chains of critical minerals and raw materials, such as lithium (Li),
nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and spherical graphite to manufacture key LIB components and boost domestic value addition.
The first two chapters in the report provide in-depth analysis of the bill of materials for manufacturing LIBs, demand outlook for critical minerals and raw
materials essential for supporting domestic value addition. A status quo analysis of the current landscape of critical mineral reserves, production, refining
capacity, trade statistics and market participants is drawn from the Indian Minerals and trade statistics published by relevant authorities.
In subsequent chapters, the report provides an international perspective of critical minerals processing / refining technologies for production of battery grade
raw materials and chemical precursors (viz. Li2CO3, LiOH, NiSO4, CoSO4 and Spherical Graphite) that are critical for domestic value addition. The bill of
ancillary chemicals, energy and emissions footprint typically involved in the domestic production of these critical minerals is analyzed. The report also
provides techno-economics of critical minerals extraction, global reserves and capital projects in pipeline for critical mineral commodities.
In the final chapter, the report provides key strategies adopted globally for building resilient supply chains of critical minerals, review of government
interventions and high-level recommendations (action plan) for different stakeholders involved in the development of critical minerals supply chain,
technologies and capital projects.
Overall, the report draws information from various sources in the public domain to analyze the critical minerals supply chain landscape and recommend
interventions for supporting domestic value addition in the LIB manufacturing industry by 2030. Some of the key highlights from the report are below:
►India’s advance chemistry cell manufacturing industry will need ~193 thousand tons/annum of cathode active material to produce ~100 GWh / annum of
batteries by 2030.
►Critical minerals and their active materials used in the production of lithium-ion batteries (LIB) account for approx. 33%-48% of the overall LIB pack cost
depending on cathode chemistry and supply chain costs for mining and refining of critical minerals.
►The synthesis of Li-NMC and LFP active materials from critical mineral precursors alone can contribute ~12% domestic value addition in lithium-ion battery
(LIB) pack manufacturing.
►Policy should focus on scaling up LIB recycling infrastructure with production linked incentives to complement mining and extraction efforts of critical
minerals. This will aid in promoting environmentally sustainable waste management practices, reuse and disposal.
►Promote R&D for earth abundant alternatives to critical minerals used in ACC batteries, support lab to market commercialisation of products, provide start-
up incubators and technology industrialisation centres, and facilitate demonstration projects.
Executive Summary
Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 5 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
40896 38 38 15
Spodumene concentrate H2SO4 CaCO3 NaOH Na2CO3
565348
Li2CO3 NiSO4 CoSO4
Thousand tons/annum
Thousand tons/annum
*(US$ 1695 million)*(US$ 275 million)*(US$ 261 million)
Domestic manufacturing capacity of LIBs ~100 GWh/annum by 2030
1939891 418 91
Cathode Active MaterialGraphite Aluminium Copper Electrolyte: LiPF6Others
Thousand tons/annum60% LFP
25% NMC
15% LCO
88% LiOH
12% Li
2CO
3
* As per
Apr 2023
spot price
Demand for critical minerals and raw
materials in the LIB value chain by 2030 6 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Demand for critical minerals and raw
materials in the LIB value chain by 2030
Source: Update of Bill-of-Materials and Cathode Chemistry addition for Lithium-ion
Batteries in GREET 2020, Argonne National Laboratory
ItemLMO NMC111 LFP NMC532 NMC622 NMC811 NCA
Active cathode material2.36 1.78 2.06 1.72 1.50 1.27 1.38
Carbon black0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.03
Graphite0.80 0.90 1.05 0.88 0.89 0.92 0.90
Binder (PVDF)0.07 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.05
Copper0.44 0.33 0.47 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.26
Aluminum0.24 0.19 0.26 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.15
Electrolyte: LiPF60.08 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05
Electrolyte: Ethylene Carbonate 0.21 0.18 0.29 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15
Electrolyte: Dimethyl Carbonate 0.21 0.18 0.29 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15
Plastic: Polypropylene0.04 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02
Plastic: Polyethylene0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Plastic: Polyethylene Terephthalate 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Subtotal cell4.50 3.78 4.70 3.61 3.33 3.21 3.17
Module components sans cell (kg)
Copper0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Aluminum0.20 0.18 0.23 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15
Plastic: Polyethylene0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Insulation0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Electronic part0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Subtotal : Module components sans cell 0.22 0.20 0.25 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.18
Pack components sans module (kg)
Copper0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Aluminum0.47 0.44 0.52 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.41
Steel0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02
Insulation0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Coolant0.11 0.12 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13
Electronic part0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
Subtotal : Pack components sans module 0.70 0.67 0.79 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64
Total pack5.42 4.65 5.74 4.45 4.15 4.03 3.98
Bill of materials (BOM) in LIB cell to pack assembly (kg per kWh)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
LFP battery bill of materials (kg per kWh)
Plastic: Polyethylene
Terephthalate
Plastic: Polyethylene
Insulation
Steel
Plastic: Polypropylene
Carbon black
Binder (PVDF)
Electrolyte: LiPF6
Electronic part
Coolant
Electrolyte: Dimethyl
Carbonate
Electrolyte: Ethylene
Carbonate
Copper
Aluminum
Graphite
Active cathode material
Bill of materials (BOM) in LIB cell to pack assembly (kg per kWh) 7 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
90.0%
100.0%
LFP NMC 811 NMC 622Total cost of profits and
warranty
10.9% 9.7% 10.1%
Total cost of BMS3.3% 2.6% 2.8%Total cost of manufacturing 20.2% 14.6% 16.5%Total cost of purchased
items
14.3% 10.7% 12.0%
Total cost of materials 51.4% 62.4% 58.6%
Cost breakdown as % share of LIB pack cost
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
LFP NMC 811 NMC 622
Additives0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Electrolyte4.2% 2.2% 2.6%
Separators6.1% 2.5% 3.1%
Negative current collector 5.1% 2.1% 2.6%
Positive current collector 0.8% 0.3% 0.4%
Solvents1.7% 0.9% 1.1%
Binders0.8% 0.5% 0.6%
Carbon additive0.3% 0.2% 0.2%
Negative active material 9.8% 7.1% 7.9%
Positive active material 22.6% 46.7% 40.1%
Material cost break down as % share of LIB pack cost
Bill of materials and manufacturing cost
breakdown for LIBs 8 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
11% 10% 12% 10% 10% 9% 11% 13% 13% 15% 13% 14% 11% 11% 12% 12%
4% 5%
5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 9% 9% 10% 10% 16% 20% 21% 21%
7% 9%
9% 8% 8% 9% 9% 8%
8% 9% 10% 10%
10%
9% 10% 10%
10% 10% 8% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10%
9% 9% 9% 9%
9%
9%
11% 11%
0.3%
0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2% 0.2%
21.7
23.6 24.5
23.3 23.3 23.6
25.8
27.6
30.1
32.9
34.2
36.3
41.0
47.8
55.3 55.3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
01-01-2021 01-02-2021 01-03-2021 01-04-2021 01-05-2021 01-06-2021 01-07-2021 01-08-2021 01-09-2021 01-10-2021 01-11-2021 01-12-2021 01-01-2022 01-02-2022 01-03-2022 01-04-2022
US$/kg
Cost % as share of battery pack cost
Cost breakdown of cathode active material as a % share of NMC-622 LIB pack cost
CAM Processing Li2CO3 CoSO4 NiSO4 MnSO4
Li-NMC 622 (US$/kg)
3% 4% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 7%
10% 11%
14% 12% 11% 12% 12%4%
5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7%
9%
9%
10%
9% 15%
20%
21% 21%
4%
4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
3%
3%
3% 3%
5.0
5.9 6.2 6.5 6.8 6.8 6.8
7.5
9.3
11.2
12.4
14.3
17.1
20.5
22.4 22.4
0
5
10
15
20
25
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
01-01-2021 01-02-2021 01-03-2021 01-04-2021 01-05-2021 01-06-2021 01-07-2021 01-08-2021 01-09-2021 01-10-2021 01-11-2021 01-12-2021 01-01-2022 01-02-2022 01-03-2022 01-04-2022
US$/kg
Cost % as share of battery pack cost
Cost breakdown of cathode active material as a % share of LFP LIB pack cost
CAM Processing Li2CO3 FePO4
LFP (US$/kg)
Value addition from cathode active
materials in the production of LIBs 9 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Strategic intervention Action Plan
Domestic exploration,
mining and refining of
critical mineral resources
National stockpiling of refined mineral precursors used in LIB electrodes
Incentives for critical battery mineral exploration, mining and extraction through appropriate royalty and tax regimes
PLI for setting up critical mineral processing / refining units, especially for Li2CO3 / LiOH, NiSO4, CoSO4 and Spherical
graphite
Production linked incentives for extraction of critical minerals through recycling LIBs
Overseas exploration and
mining of critical mineral
resources
Strengthen Indian missions in critical mineral bearing foreign countries to facilitate due diligence of greenfield / brownfield
mining assets, acquisition and investment by Indian companies
Strengthen KABIL to plan and undertake joint exploration, mining activities in critical mineral bearing foreign countries
Establish supply chain
linkages with friendly foreign
countries
“G20 Critical Minerals Security Partnership” should focus on building resilient supply chain of critical battery minerals,
including stockpiles in different member countries as per comparative advantages in extraction and processing
Critical Battery Minerals Supply Chain should be prioritized as a key pillar of Indo-Pacific economic framework and a key
factor in diplomatic outreach with mineral bearing foreign countries
R&D to develop recycling,
extraction technologies and
find earth abundant
alternatives to critical
battery minerals
Formulate national R&D grand challenge for:
developing high performance LIB electrodes made from earth abundant alternatives
direct lithium extraction technologies from seawater that canselectively separate lithium from sea water using physical or
chemical processes
2030 Action plan for building resilience in
critical battery mineral supply chains CONTENTS
Section 1
Lithium-ion battery:
bill of materials and
demand outlook for
critical minerals
Section 2
Status quo analysis of
critical mineral supply
chain relevant for
battery manufacturing in
India
Section 3
International
perspective: Lithium
minerology, refining, bill
of materials, reserves
and assets
Section 4
International
perspective: Spherical
graphite processing, bill
of materials, reserves
and assets
Section 5
International
perspective : nickel ore
to battery market —
pathways, reserves and
assets
Section 6
International
perspective: cobalt ore
to battery market —
pathways, reserves and
assets
Section 7
Strategies and action
plan for supporting
domestic value
addition
Section 8
References and
Annexure
10
Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 11 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Acronyms
ACU Acid Purification Unit
ADB Asian Development Bank
Al Aluminum
AMD Atomic Minerals Directorate
AP Andhra Pradesh
ARCI
International Advanced Research Centre
for Powder Metallurgy and New
Materials
BatPaC Battery Performance and Cost
BMS Battery Management System
Ca Calcium
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate
CAM Cathode active material
CaO Calcium oxide
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CCD Counter Current Decanation
CERCI
Central Electrochemical Research
Institute
Cl2 Chlorine
CMSP Critical Battery Minerals Supply Chain
Co Cobalt
Co(OH)2 Cobaltous Hydroxide
CO2eq. Carbon dioxide equivalent
Co3O4 Cobalt(II, III) oxide
CoCO3 Cobalt carbonate
CoOOH Cobaltic Oxyhydroxide
Co-PGE Cobalt—Platinum—Group Element
CoSO4 Cobalt sulfate
CoSO4.7H2OCobalt sulfate heptahydrate
CSIR Council of Scientific & Industrial Research
Cu Copper
DAE Department of Atomic Energy
DEA Department of Economic Affairs
DIPP
Department of Industrial Policy and
Promotion
DMG Department of Mines and Geology
DMIC Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor
DMT Dimethyl Terephthalate
DPIIT
Department for Promotion of Industry
and Internal Trade
DRC Democratic Republic of Congo
DST Department Of Science & Technology
EMD Electrolytic Manganese Dioxide
EMEW Electro metal Electro winning
EPCM
Engineering, Procurement and
Construction Management
ETP Effluent Treatment Plant
EVs Electric Vehicles
EW Electrowinning
EY Ernst & Young
FC Fixed Carbon
FCI Fixed Capital investment
Fe Iron
Fe Iron
FePO4 Ferric phosphate
FSP Field Season Program
g grams
G2G Government to Government
GHG Greenhouse Gases
GSI Geological Survey of India
GWh Gigawatt hours
GWP Global Warming Potential
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
HCL Hindustan Copper Limited
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HPAL High Pressure Acid Leaching
HPCL Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd.
HRRL HPCL Rajasthan Refinery Limited
HS Code Harmonized System Code
ICC Indian Copper Complex
IEM Industrial Entrepreneur Memorandum
IFA Investor Facilitation Agency
IMMT
Institute of Minerals and Materials
Technology
INR Indian Rupee
IOCL Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.
ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation
ITC Indian Trade Clarification
J&K Jammu & Kashmir
JNPT Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust
JV Joint Venture
KABIL Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.
kg Kilograms
Kt Kilo tons 12 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Acronyms
ktPA Kilo tons Per Annum
kWh Kilowatt hours
LCE Lithium carbonate equivalent
LCO Lithium Cobalt Oxide
LFP Lithium iron phosphate
Li Lithium
Li2CO3 Lithium carbonate
Li2O Lithium oxide
LIB Lithium-ion battery
Li-NMC Lithium – Nickel Manganese Cobalt
LiOH Lithium hydroxide
LiOH.H20 Lithium hydroxide monohydrate
LiPF6 Lithium hexafluorophosphate
LME London Metal Exchange
LMO Lithium Manganese Oxide
LOM Life of Mine
m
3
Cubic meter
MECL
Mineral Exploration and Consultancy
Limited
MEMC Mineral Evidence and Mineral Content
Mg Magnesium
mg/L Milligrams per liter
MgO Magnesium oxide
MJ Mega Joules
MM(D&R)
Mines and Minerals (Development and
Regulation)
MMBtu Metric Million British Thermal Unit
MMTPA Million Metric Tons Per Annum
Mn Manganese
MnSO4 Manganese sulfate
MOIL Manganese Ore (India) Limited
MSME Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
MTPA Metric Tons Per Annum
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate / Soda ash
Na2S2O5 Sodium metabisulfite
Na2SO4 Sodium Sulfate
NACL Nagarjuna Oil Corporation Ltd.
NALCO National Aluminium Company Limited
NaOH Sodium hydroxide / Caustic soda
NCA Nickel Cobalt Aluminum oxide
NH4 Ammonium
NH4HCO3 Ammonium bicarbonate
Ni Nickel
NiSO4 Nickel sulfate
NITI Aayog
National Institution for Transforming
India
NMC Nickel Manganese Cobalt
NMDC
National Mineral Development
Corporation
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OPAL ONGC Petro Additions Limited
OPEX Operational Expenditure
P Phosphorus
P-204 Di (2-ethylhexyl) phosphate
Pb Lead
PCPIR
Petroleum, Chemicals and Petrochemicals
Investment Region
PLI Production Linked Incentives
PM Particulate Matter
PM 10 Particulate Matter 10
PM 2.5 Particulate Matter 2.5
ppm Parts per million
PVDF Polyvinylidene Fluoride
R&D Research and Development
RIICO
Rajasthan State Industrial Development
and Investment Corporation Limited
ROI Return on Investment
S Sulfur
SEI Solid Electrolyte Interphase
SO2 Sulfur Dioxide
t ton
tpa tons per annum
TPA Terephthalic Acid
tpd tons per day
tpy tons per year
UNFC United Nations Framework Classification
US United States
US$ United State Dollar
UT Union Territory
VCIC Vizag-Chennai Industrial Corridor
Zn Zinc 13 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Lithium-ion battery:
bill of materials and
demand outlook for
critical minerals
01 14 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
2022 2026 2030
Passenger EVs137
Commercial EVs025
E 2-wheeler/3-wheeler 0611
E-buses1412
Freight027
Stationary storage (grid
scale)
0843
Behind the meter
(Residential + Commercial)
023
Consumer electronics 4711
Rail + Defense234
Market size136
1
3
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Market size ($ billion)
Annual demand (GWh/year)
India battery demand outlook (conservative scenario)
Source: RMI and NITI Aayog 2022
2022 2026 2030Rail + Defense4810Consumer Electronics 101830Behind-the meter (Res +
Comm)
058
Stationary Storage (Grid-
scale)
020120
Freight1520E-buses21035E 2-wheeler/3-wheeler 11530Commercial Evs1515Passenger Evs2820
Market Size2615
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Market Size ($ Billion)
Annual Demand (GWh/Year)
India battery demand outlook (accelerated scenario)
There is a need for the battery manufacturing industry to secure its supply chain and boost domestic value addition
Indian battery demand outlook 15 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Recycling
Coating
Aluminum foil
Spheroidization
and purifying
Cell
End of line testing Formation / ageing
Electrolyte filling / sealing
Packaging
Tab welding
Cell stacking / winding
Cutting / sitting
Coated separator
Anode film
Cathode
film
Calendering
DryingCopper foil
Mixing
SolventsAdditivesBinders
Anode active
material
Graphitization
Baking and
impregnation
Extrusion
Mixing
GrindingNeedle cokeCoal tar pitch
Cathode
active material
Sintering kiln
Mix with lithium
carbonate
Milling
Li ore
Filtered / wash /
dry
Continuous stir
tank reactor
Co sulfateNi sulfateMn sulfate
Chemical processing
Co oreNi oreMn ore
Mining and physical
separation
Tabs
Soft pack film or coated
metal shells
Electrolyte
solution
Electrolyte
Mixing
Electrolyte
solvents
Electrolyte salts
Drying /
Sizing
Floatation Crushing /
Grinding
Mining
Li2CO3 / LiOH
Mining
Extraction of raw materials, such
as Li, Co, Ni, Mn and graphite
Chemical processing
Conversion of raw materials
into intermediate compounds
Active material production
Manufacturing of electrode
materials, such as NMC, LFP, etc.
Cell production
Integration of electrodes, electrolytes,
and separators into a sealed unit
Recycling
Reclamation of valuable
materials from used batteries
The manufacturing value chain of lithium-ion battery 16 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Supply chain bottlenecksSizeable domestic supply chain exists
Lithium
Nickel
Cobalt
Mn, Fe, P, etc.
Needle coke
Coal tar pitch
Graphite
Copper
Aluminum
Ethylene
carbonate
Polypropylene
Cathode Anode
Current
collector foil
Electrolyte
Separator
Applications
Grid storage, electronics, etc.
LIB cell manufacturing
Electric vehicle applications
Lithium
hexafluorophosphate
Source:how-can-india-scale-lithium-ion-battery-manufacturing-sector-and-supply-chain.pdf (ceew.in)
Cathode active
material
(NMC/LFP/NCA, etc.)
Separator
(polyethylene)
Electrolyte
(LiPF
6)
Anode active
material
(graphite)
Negative
current
collector
(copper)
Positive
current
collector
(aluminum)
Lithium
ions
Electrons
►Commercially available LIB cell cathode and anode production will need
active materials, such as NMC, LFP, NCA, LCO, LMO, spherical graphite,
for different types of electrode chemistry. Active material synthesis will
require battery grade processed chemical precursors of critical mineral
commodities (e.g., lithium carbonate, nickel and cobalt sulfates).
►Moreover, Li-ion cells use polyolefin as ion exchange separators. This
material has excellent mechanical properties, decent chemical stability
and low-cost. Polyolefins are a class of polymer derived from olefins
(alkenes) through the polymerization of ethylene, which is sourced from
petrochemicals. Polyolefins can be manufactured using polyethylene,
polypropylene, or a combination of both materials in the form of
laminates. The separator must be permeable with pore size ranging
from 30nm to 100nm. The recommended porosity is 30% to 50%.
Key components and materials for manufacturing lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)
Components of a lithium–ion cell
Cell
Components
Raw Materials 17 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: Update of Bill-of-Materials and Cathode Chemistry addition for Lithium-ion
Batteries in GREET 2020, Argonne National Laboratory
ItemLMO NMC111 LFP NMC532 NMC622 NMC811 NCA
Active cathode material2.36 1.78 2.06 1.72 1.50 1.27 1.38
Carbon black0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.03
Graphite0.80 0.90 1.05 0.88 0.89 0.92 0.90
Binder (PVDF)0.07 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.05
Copper0.44 0.33 0.47 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.26
Aluminum0.24 0.19 0.26 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.15
Electrolyte: LiPF60.08 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05
Electrolyte: Ethylene Carbonate 0.21 0.18 0.29 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15
Electrolyte: Dimethyl Carbonate 0.21 0.18 0.29 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15
Plastic: Polypropylene0.04 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02
Plastic: Polyethylene0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Plastic: Polyethylene Terephthalate 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Subtotal cell4.50 3.78 4.70 3.61 3.33 3.21 3.17
Module components sans cell (kg)
Copper0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Aluminum0.20 0.18 0.23 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15
Plastic: Polyethylene0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Insulation0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Electronic part0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Subtotal : Module components sans cell 0.22 0.20 0.25 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.18
Pack components sans module (kg)
Copper0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Aluminum0.47 0.44 0.52 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.41
Steel0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02
Insulation0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Coolant0.11 0.12 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13
Electronic part0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
Subtotal : Pack components sans module 0.70 0.67 0.79 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64
Total pack5.42 4.65 5.74 4.45 4.15 4.03 3.98
Bill of materials (BOM) in LIB cell to pack assembly (kg per kWh)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
LFP battery bill of materials (kg per kWh)
Plastic: Polyethylene
Terephthalate
Plastic: Polyethylene
Insulation
Steel
Plastic: Polypropylene
Carbon black
Binder (PVDF)
Electrolyte: LiPF6
Electronic part
Coolant
Electrolyte: Dimethyl Carbonate
Electrolyte: Ethylene Carbonate
Copper
Aluminum
Graphite
Active cathode material
Bill of materials reveals that cells account for ~80% of the total weight of the battery pack, with NCA exhibiting the highest gravimetric energy density.
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) manufacturing Bill of Materials 18 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Sources: EY analysis based on BatPaCV5.0 by UChicago Argonne, LLC
Note: Cost breakdown is estimated by over riding default value for positive active material cost in BatPaCV5.0 @ current market prices, (i.e. LFP cathode powder – US$ 11.37/kg; NMC811 cathode powder – US$ 44.46/kg; NMC622
cathode powder – US$ 30.61/kg, April 2023 prices).Ternary Precursor and Material prices | New Energy | SMM - China Metal Market
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
90.0%
100.0%
LFP NMC 811 NMC 622Total cost of profits and
warranty
10.9% 9.7% 10.1%
Total cost of BMS 3.3% 2.6% 2.8%Total cost of
manufacturing
20.2% 14.6% 16.5%
Total cost of purchased
items
14.3% 10.7% 12.0%
Total cost of materials 51.4% 62.4% 58.6%
Cost breakdown as % share of LIB pack cost
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
LFP NMC 811 NMC 622
Additives0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Electrolyte4.2% 2.2% 2.6%
Separators6.1% 2.5% 3.1%
Negative current collector 5.1% 2.1% 2.6%
Positive current collector 0.8% 0.3% 0.4%
Solvents1.7% 0.9% 1.1%
Binders0.8% 0.5% 0.6%
Carbon additive0.3% 0.2% 0.2%
Negative active material 9.8% 7.1% 7.9%
Positive active material 22.6% 46.7% 40.1%
Material cost break down as % share of LIB pack cost
Cost breakdown of manufacturing LIBs indicates active materials synthesized from critical mineral
commodities and their chemical precursors can contribute up to ~55% of overall cost 19 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis based on market (spot) prices for active materials and their critical mineral constituents (battery grade chemical precursors) from the period of Jan 2021 – April 2022.
Note: The prices considered for Li-NMC 622 powder is taken from “https://source.benchmarkminerals.com/article/cathode-prices-fall-for-first-time-since-may-on-weaker-demand”, prices for Li2CO3, Cobalt and Nickel is
taken from internal EY data and for MnSO4 a constant price of US$ 1.5/kg is considered forthe period of Jan 2021 – April 2022.
11% 10% 12% 10% 10% 9% 11% 13% 13% 15% 13% 14%
11% 11% 12% 12%
4% 5%
5%
6% 6% 6% 6%
7%
9% 9% 10% 10% 16%
20% 21% 21%
7% 9%
9%
8% 8% 9%
9%
8%
8%
9% 10% 10%
10%
9%
10% 10%
10%
10%
8%
9% 10% 10%
10%
10%
9%
9% 9%
9%
9%
9%
11% 11%
0.3%
0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2% 0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2% 0.2%
21.7
23.6
24.5
23.3 23.3 23.6
25.8
27.6
30.1
32.9
34.2
36.3
41.0
47.8
55.3 55.3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
US$/kg
Cost % as share of battery pack cost
Cost breakdown of cathode active material as a % share of NMC-622 LIB pack cost
CAM Processing Li2CO3 CoSO4 NiSO4 MnSO4
Li-NMC 622 (US$/kg)
Synthesizing Li-NMC active material and the critical mineral precursors can have up to ~40%
value addition in LIB pack manufacturing 20 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis based on market (spot) prices for active materials and their critical mineral constituents (battery grade chemical precursors) from the period of Jan 2021 – April 2022.
Note: The prices considered for LFP powder is taken from “https://source.benchmarkminerals.com/article/cathode-prices-fall-for-first-time-since-may-on-weaker-demand”, prices for Li2CO3 is taken from internal EY data
and for FePO4 a constant price of US$ 2/kg is considered forthe period of Jan 2021 – April 2022.
3% 4% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 7%
10% 11%
14%
12% 11% 12% 12%
4%
5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6%
7%
9%
9%
10%
9% 15%
20%
21% 21%
4%
4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
3%
3%
3% 3%
5.0
5.9
6.2
6.5
6.8 6.8 6.8
7.5
9.3
11.2
12.4
14.3
17.1
20.5
22.4 22.4
0
5
10
15
20
25
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
US$/kg
Cost % as share of battery pack cost
Cost breakdown of cathode active material as a % share of LFP LIB pack cost
CAM ProcessingLi2CO3FePO4
LFP (US$/kg)
Synthesizing LFP active material and the critical mineral precursors can have up to ~23% value
addition in LIB pack manufacturing 21 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Critical materials
Demand to manufacture
100 GWh / annum LIBs
(Thousand tons/annum)
Cathode active material193
Graphite98
Aluminum91
Copper41
Electrolyte: LiPF
6 8
Chemical precursors
Demand to manufacture
~193 thousand ton/annum
active cathode material
(Thousand tons/annum)
Li
2CO
356
NiSO
453
CoSO
448
Demand outlook for critical materials required to manufacture 100 GWh/annum LIBs by 2030
►India’s LIB cell manufacturing industry will need ~193 thousand tons/annum of
cathode active material, ~98 thousand tons /annum of anode active material, 91
thousand tons /annum of aluminum and 41 thousand tons of copper and 8
thousand tons/annum of LiPF6 electrolyte material to produce ~100 GWh /
annum of batteries by 2030.
►The demand for chemical precursors of metals such Li, Ni and Co will depend on
the cathode chemistry demand for various applications. LFP could be the
dominant cathode chemistry for manufacturing LIBs serving electric bus
deployment, stationary grid storage and behind the meter storage applications.
The share of LFP in the demand for active cathode material could be ~60%.
►Similarly, NMC is another dominant cathode chemistry for manufacturing LIBs
catering to passenger EVs, commercial EVs and two-wheeler EV markets. The
share of NMC in the demand for active cathode material could be ~25%. LCO is
another cathode chemistry used in consumer electronics. The share of LCO in the
overall demand for active cathode material could be ~15%.
Source: 1. Nickel sulfate vs metal: Is the market shifting towards new pricing mechanisms? | S&P Global Commodity
Insights (spglobal.com)
2. Green Metals Battery Metals Watch The end of the beginning (goldmansachs.com)
1695
275261
LCENiSO4CoSO4
Market size (@April 2023 spot prices) of battery grade specialty
metals for domestic manufacturing by 2030 (US$/annum)
Market size ( Million
USD/annum) 22 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Status quo analysis of
critical mineral supply
chain relevant for
battery manufacturing
in India
02 23 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- I: General Reviews); 59
th
Edition, MINERAL-BASED INDUSTRIES, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES,
September 2022
Mineral-based product Unit
Annual installed
capacity
Production
2018-19 2019-20
Nou-ferrous Metals
Aluminummillion tons4.1 3.7 3.6
Copper (Cathode) thousand tons 1,001.5 454.0 408.0
Lead (primary) thousand tons201.0 198.0 132.0
Zinc Ingotsthousand tons881.0 696.0 516.0
Silvertons600.0 751.0 442.0
Chemicals
Aluminum fluoride thousand tons25.6 5.7 5.1
Caustic sodathousand tons 3,700.0 2,925.0 3,137.0
Calcium carbide thousand tons112.0 83.2 81.3
Soda ashthousand tons 3,614.0 3,048.0 3,069.0
Titanium dioxide pigmentthousand tons82.5 57.1 49.5
Red phosphorus thousand tons1.7 1.0 1.0
Capacity and production of non-ferrous metals and inorganic chemicals in India
The production of
lithium, nickel, cobalt
and manganese
precursors, all of
which are critical raw
materials used in the
synthesis of active
cathode materials for
lithium-ion batteries,
is limited.
Soda ash, caustic
soda and calcium
carbonate are useful
reagents in the
refining/ conversion
of lithium ore to
carbonate/ hydroxide
precursor. 24 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE - 2021, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals, Statistics and Monitoring Division
Major Groups / Products
Installed CapacityProduction
CAGR (%)
Capacity
Utilization
in 2020-212018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21
Alkali Chemicals
Soda Ash3,489.0 3,614.0 3,614.0 2,392.2 2,462.0 2,583.0 2,613.4 2,989.6 3,048.2 3,069.4 2,638.11.4 73.0
Caustic Soda3,397.3 3,700.3 3,898.2 2,391.7 2,442.9 2,504.0 2,594.5 2,742.3 2,925.4 3,136.9 2,964.13.1 76.0
Liquid Chlorine 2,535.3 2,774.7 2,961.2 1,697.3 1,720.1 1,714.8 1,800.7 1,899.4 2,069.1 2,250.4 2,174.33.6 73.4
Total9,421.6 10,089.1 10,473.4 6,481.2 6,625.0 6,801.8 7,008.6 7,631.3 8,042.7 8,456.8 7,776.52.6 74.3
Inorganic Chemicals
Aluminum Fluoride25.6 25.6 25.6 5.4 6.7 9.5 8.1 7.5 5.7 5.1 3.7 -5.3 14.5
Calcium Carbide112.0 112.0 112.0 78.8 87.2 83.5 85.0 87.3 83.2 81.3 86.8 1.4 77.5
Carbon Black696.0 696.0 696.0 406.4 444.4 469.6 535.3 530.4 546.4 500.2 384.8 -0.8 55.3
Potassium Chlorate4.6 28.6 28.6 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.7 16.2 17.1 58.6 59.7
Sodium Chlorate- - 22.3 - - - - - - - 17.980.3
Titanium Dioxide82.5 82.5 82.5 52.8 47.9 58.5 58.5 57.8 57.1 49.5 51.2 -0.4 62.1
Red Phosphorus1.7 1.7 1.7 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 5.1 63.5
Hydrogen Peroxide 145.9 218.6 218.6 128.4 119.8 153.1 148.9 157.0 156.5 122.8 139.9 1.2 64.0
Potassium Iodate- 1.2 1.2 - - - - - - 0.6 0.545.2
Calcium Carbonate 231.6 371.6 371.6 233.1 236.9 226.1 216.3 217.3 213.3 286.8 274.8 2.4 74.0
Total1,299.8 1,537.8 1,560.1 906.3 944.2 1,001.5 1,052.9 1,058.5 1,063.8 1,063.5977.8 1.1 62.7
Numbers are in thousand metric tons
Capacity and production of major inorganic chemicals in India 25 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE - 2021, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals, Statistics and Monitoring Division
Product
2013-142014-152015-162016-172017-182018-192019-202020-21
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
Alkali Chemicals
Soda Ash 569,420 79,817 725,517 112,616 633,263 101,707 695,307 102,490 772,622 111,757 840,591 144,900 847,704 152,515 719,731 114,804
Caustic Soda 304,653 73,038 407,981 93,584 484,133 116,303 425,795 112,391 421,298 153,382 208,267 79,927 309,345 87,982 248,057 55,495
Liquid Chlorine 86 112 648 274 482 189 35 170 58 208 266 696 81 255 39 200
Total874,159 152,967 1,134,146 206,474 1,117,878 218,199 1,121,137 215,051 1,193,978 265,347 1,049,124 225,523 1,157,130 240,752 967,827 170,499
Inorganic
Chemicals
Aluminum
Fluoride
24,542 17,383 30,120 20,259 27,258 18,102 46,564 26,437 49,758 29,075 62,374 56,075 40,362 37,910 61,224 48,059
Calcium Carbide 64,239 26,743 78,332 31,525 61,935 25,429 55,692 23,652 55,651 23,941 45,321 21,554 31,218 14,507 32,666 17,749
Carbon Black 145,939 112,823 139,468 108,915 124,059 83,401 128,740 82,424 186,224 143,618 278,531 249,368 197,491 153,367 190,469 127,583
Potassium
Chlorate
7,040 4,357 6,147 3,856 3,160 2,026 100 61 29 22 128 272 55 119 909 884
Sodium Chlorate 28,083 11,570 21,818 9,085 17,298 6,400 7,447 2,907 8,822 3,041 14,240 5,884 24,082 11,254 11,589 5,118
Titanium Dioxide 16,875 29,196 17,574 28,243 16,421 25,709 13,901 22,943 13,701 24,771 14,546 28,686 16,416 30,825 13,389 25,107
Red Phosphorus 266 750 36 98 - - - 1 - 3 14 51 18 57 4 18
Hydrogen
Peroxide
62,527 16,443 56,276 14,311 44,084 11,211 57,068 15,910 68,474 19,305 84,261 36,931 52,727 15,858 22,355 8,150
Calcium
Carbonate
524,395 46,575 562,198 51,581 715,606 65,090 700,559 60,902 846,195 64,587 1,080,252 86,942 1,169,457 90,705 855,385 69,433
Total873,906 265,840 911,969 267,873 1,009,821 237,368 1,010,071 235,237 1,228,854 308,363 1,579,667 485,763 1,531,826 354,602 1,187,990 302,101
Quantity in metric tons and Value in Lakhs INR
Imports of major inorganic chemicals in India 26 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Outlook for lithium exploration, production and trade in India
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) is carrying out
exploration for lithium in potential geological domains in parts of Mandya and Yadgir
districts of Karnataka. Preliminary surveys on surface and limited subsurface exploration
by AMD have shown presence of lithium resources of 1,600 tons (inferred category) in
Marlagalla area, Mandya district, Karnataka. Further, the Geological Survey of India
(GSI), Ministry of Mines, takes up different stages of mineral exploration as per the
approved annual Field Season Program (FSP) every year viz. reconnaissance surveys
(G4), preliminary exploration (G3) and general exploration (G2) following the guidelines
of the United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC) and the Mineral Evidence and
Mineral Content Rules (MEMC-2015). The GSI undertook the FSP to augment mineral
resource for various mineral commodities, including lithium. During FSP 2016—17 to FSP
2020—21, GSI carried out 14 projects on lithium and associated elements in Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Karnataka and Rajasthan. During the current FSP 2021—22, GSI has taken up
five projects on lithium and associated minerals in Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jammu and Kashmir and Rajasthan. In Feb’23, GSI established lithium
inferred resources (G3) of 5.9 million tons in the Salal-Haimana area of the Reasi District
of Jammu & Kashmir (UT).
Source:https://tradestat.commerce.gov.in/
Country-wise import of lithium
2018-192019-202020-21
Country
Quantity
%Share
Country
Quantity
%Share
Country
Quantity
%Share
Country
Hong Kong 47,248 55 38,547 53 26,641 37
China 16,868 20 14,988 21 22,881 32
Indonesia 11,276 13 9,063 13 6,689 9
Singapore 4,929 6 5,077 7 5,849 8
Korea RP 3,257 4 2,780 4 5,090 7
Japan 1,134 1 1,512 2 3,180 4
Israel 186 0 144 0 337 0
US84 0 85 0 243 0
Malaysia 70 0 72 0 155 0
Taiwan 42 0 61 0 126 0
Others (26
Countries)
130 0 48 0 202 0
Total 85,224 100 72,376 100 71,392 100
Total Import of lithium commodities
Year2019-20 2020-21 2021-22
Rs. crore Rs. crore Rs. crore
Lithium (HS Code: 85065000)147 173 165
Lithium-ion (HS Code: 85076000)8,819 8,811 13,673
Mineral substances not elsewhere specified or
included (HS code: 2530)
340 283 498 27 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II: Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) is utilizing advanced technology to extract nickel,
copper, and sulfuric acid from the spent electrolyte (waste stream) of the ICC
refinery located in Ghatsila, Jharkhand.
Nickel resources in India are estimated at 189 million tons and are primarily found as
oxides, sulfides, and silicates. The State of Odisha possesses the largest share of
nickel ore resources in the country, estimated at 175 million tons (93%), followed by
Jharkhand and Nagaland. These resources are concentrated in three districts,
namely, Jajpur (140 million tons), Mayurbhanj (27 million tons) and Keonjhar (8
million tons).
At its Ghatsila Copper Smelter in Jharkhand, HCL produces nickel sulfate as a by-
product. The sulfide copper ore from the Ghatsila area contains nickel in small
quantity along with other important metals like gold and cobalt. Using imported
EMEW technology from Canada, HCL has developed the capability to recover LME-
Nickel grade cathode from a lower copper concentration in spent electrolyte, which
is not possible using conventional means. This technology also enables HCL to
recover nickel from the spent electrolyte at the ICC refinery. In addition, HCL utilizes
an eco-friendly Acid Purification Unit (APU) technology imported from Canada to
reduce liquid effluent and facilitate downstream recovery of nickel. HCL has a
capacity of 390 million tons to recover nickel sulfate, but no production of nickel
sulfate has been reported since 2004-05. Nicomet Industries Ltd., located in Goa,
presently produces nickel metal and their derivatives with an annual production
capacity of about 5,400 MTPA.
Recently, Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) has launched India's first nickel
production facility at its Indian Copper Complex (ICC) in Ghatsila, Jharkhand to
reduce India's dependence on imported nickel.
The Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) and it is at its Indian Copper Complex (ICC) has
launched the "Nickel, Copper and Acid Recovery Plant," which is the first facility in
India to produce London Metal Exchange (LME) grade nickel metal from primary
resources. NMDC has applied to the DMG, Government of Odisha, for the reservation
of an 8-square kilometer area in Jajpur district, Odisha, under Section 17A (2A) of
MM(D&R) Amendment Act, 2015, for nickel prospecting and mining operations.
An Indian delegation, led by Dr. V.K. Saraswat, Member, NITI Aayog, explored
opportunities for sourcing lithium for the manufacture of advanced chemistry
batteries in India during their visit to Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. The delegation
engaged in talks with the Western Australia Premier and discussed forming strategic
collaborations to source raw materials, including lithium, cobalt, and nickel to aid in
the manufacturing of batteries.
The mobility mission had consultations with the industry to develop battery recycling
as a sustainable method to ensure the 95% of recovery of critical minerals such as
lithium, nickel, and cobalt. The CSIR-IMMT has developed suitable process flow sheets
for processing resources such as alloy scrap and a spent catalyst to produce
precursor materials for battery applications, primarily in preparing electrodes of Li-
ion batteries. India will have to depend on imports until a commercial-scale
technology for recovering nickel from the overburden of chromite ore in Odisha is
established.
The HCL's process for producing primary nickel from copper refining waste will be a
breakthrough in nickel production in the country. Recycling nickel-bearing scrap in
the Organized Sector will be another source for meeting demand.
Imports of nickel ores and concentrates (Heading no. 2604) and nickel waste and
scrap (Heading no. 75030010) are allowed free as per the Foreign Trade Policy,
2015-2020. However, some forms of metal waste and scrap (ITC-HS Code No. 7503
0090) are restricted.
Nickel is not produced from primary sources in India and the demand is largely met through imports 28 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II: Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
Currently, India does not produce cobalt from primary resources and relies on
imports to meet demand. The reserves/resources of cobalt in terms of ore have been
estimated at 44.91 million tons, of which about 69%, i.e., 30.91 million
tons are estimated in Odisha. The remaining 31% resources are in Jharkhand (9
million tons) and Nagaland (5 million tons). Cobalt refining capacity is estimated at
~2,060 tons per year, with Nicomet Industries Ltd, Cuncolim, Goa and Rubamin Ltd.,
Vadodara, Gujarat being the leading producers of cobalt cathodes and compounds.
Nicomet has 1,000 tons per year (tpa) installed capacity for cobalt metal and
different cobalt salts.
Nicomet Industries Ltd produces LME-approved cobalt cathodes under the NICO
brand, along with nickel cathodes and sodium sulfate in Mumbai, Maharashtra.
Vedanta Group is also exploring ways to produce cobalt for batteries as it seeks to
capitalize on the anticipated electric vehicle boom. Sandvik Asia Ltd reportedly
recovers cobalt metal powder from cemented carbide scrap at its pilot plant in Pune,
Maharashtra. Several small cobalt chemical processors reprocess spent cobalt
catalyst from plants to produce DMT, TPA and oxo alcohols. However, information on
reprocessing of cobalt from scrap is not available. It is expected that recycled cobalt
would continue to be used for domestic supply.
With India's rising trend in cobalt consumption, it is important to recover cobalt from
various secondary sources. Hindustan Zinc Ltd has explored a lab-scale process for
recovering cobalt from purification cake, generating a 60% purity cobalt sulfate
crystal with 50% recovery. Although India lacks primary cobalt resources, there are
two potential secondary sources that have been the subject of R&D studies for
commercial applications over the years: nickel-bearing laterite deposits in Odisha and
copper slag produced by HCL.
In India, cobalt refiners have mainly served the market for chemical applications
where cobalt metal or salt is dissolved and converted to cobalt oxide for cutting tool
applications.
However, the global demand for cobalt is expected to increase significantly,
especially for use in cemented carbides used in cutting tools, catalysts in the
petrochemical industry, drying agents in the paint industry, and superalloys used
mainly in jet engine parts. The demand for cobalt is also projected to increase rapidly
in rechargeable batteries for hybrid electric vehicles, cellular telephones, aerospace,
superalloys in civil aviation, catalysts for gas-to-liquid production of synthetic liquid
fuels and energy generation industries. The surge in demand for mobile phones,
portable PCs, and other electronic devices has led to a rapid growth in the global
demand for lithium-ion batteries. The projected demand for refined electronic devices
is also massive. According to CRU, the demand for cobalt is expected to grow by an
astonishing rate of 68% between 2015 and 2025.
In India, cobalt will have significant applications in metallurgy due to increased
demand for special alloys/superalloys, cutting tools, and as an alloy in permanent
magnets. The demand for cobalt powder will continue to increase as it is widely used
in the production of bonded tools for the diamond industry.
While the Indian cobalt industry is small, it is steadily growing in various sectors,
especially in aerospace. The Aerospace Industry mainly relies on cobalt imports.
Although other industries are growing consistently, they cannot be compared to
China. The total consumption of cobalt content in India could range from 70 to 80
tons minimum and up to 100 tons maximum per month. Chemical industries mostly
use cobalt sulfate. Battery manufacturing is a significant sector with immense
potential in India, which could trigger the development of new technology and
product upgrades.
Cobalt production is limited in India and the demand is largely met through imports 29 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II: Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
Graphite is a hexagonal crystal that occurs in layered and lamellar form with a greasy
texture and gray-black metallic luster. There are two commercial varieties of natural
graphite: crystalline (flaky) and amorphous. Both flaky and amorphous graphite are
produced in India and their quality is determined by their carbon content and
physical properties. Additionally, synthetic or artificial graphite is manufactured
using anthracite or petroleum coke as raw feed.
Graphite deposits of economic importance are located in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Odisha, and Tamil Nadu. In the year 2019-20, the production of graphite decreased
by 18% as compared to the previous year, with five principal producers accounting
for 96% of the total production. The number of mines remained the same as 11 in
2019-20 and 2018-19. During the 2019-20 period, two mines that produce over
5,000 tons annually accounted for 61% of the total graphite production, while four
mines that produced between 1,000 and 5,000 tons annually contributed to 39% of
the total. The state of Jharkhand was the top producer, contributing 61% to the total
output, followed by Odisha.
The top producing states were Jharkhand and Odisha, and the active mining centers
of graphite are Palamu district in Jharkhand, Nawapara and Balangir districts in
Odisha, and Madurai and Sivagangai districts in Tamil Nadu. In Jharkhand,
disseminated deposits of flaky graphite containing 5 to 20% fixed carbon (F.C.) are
found in the Palamu district, while in Odisha, several graphite grades are produced in
areas in and around Balangir.
The graphite deposits are relatively soft and the presence of hard rocks on both sides
makes mining a relatively easy and safe process. The top layer of lateritic soil,
typically one to two meters thick, is removed using a dozer or excavator and loaded
onto a dumper for transportation to a separate dump yard in the lease area that is
not mineralized. The extracted graphite ore is then transported to a stockyard for
blending, with high-grade and low-grade ores stacked separately. After blending, the
ore is dispatched for consumption, depending on plant requirements.
Maximizing the recovery of flaky graphite from low-grade graphite ore during
beneficiation is a significant challenge as breaking the flakes would reduce the
graphite's unique properties, such as excellent lubricity and high thermal
conductivity, which are in high demand in the industry. Graphite requires
beneficiation to obtain the desired grade for various end-uses, usually occurring
mixed with country rocks. Processes for graphite beneficiation include washing,
sorting, tabling, acid leaching, and froth flotation. Froth flotation is commonly used
to produce a high-grade graphite concentrate. The beneficiated concentrate is
sometimes further enriched by chemical treatment (acid leaching, chlorination, etc.)
to obtain a high-grade concentrate containing 98% to 99% Fixed Carbon (F.C.).
Natural graphite mining and beneficiation industry in india 30 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II: Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
State/District
No. of
Mines
2019-20
Grade: Fixed Carbon contentTotal
80% or
more
40% or more
but less than
80%
Less than
40%
Quantity Value
India11 615 651 30,725 31,991 57,506
Public Sector 2-- - - -
Private Sector 9 615 651 30,725 31,991 57,506
Chhattisgarh1*-- - - -
Surguja 1*-- - - -
Jharkhand3-- 19,426 19,426 20,380
Latehar 1-- 4,676 4,676 4,730
Palamau 2-- 14,750 14,750 15,650
Karnataka2*-- - - -
Mysore 2*-- - - -
Kerala--- - - -
Ernakulum --- - - -
Odisha5 615 651 11,299 12,565 37,126
Nawapara 2-- 11,299 11,299 12,099
Raygada 3 615 651- 1,266 25,027
Tamil Nadu--- - - -
Madurai --- - - -
Sivagangai --- - - -
‘8hmn
Quantity in tons, Value in Thousand INR
End Product
Percentage of
graphite used
Quality of the graphite used
Fixed Carbon Size (micron)
Mag-Carb refractories12 87-90% 150-710
Alumina-Carb (graphitized)
alumina refractories
8-1085%min. 150-500
Clay-bonded crucibles60-65 +80% -20 to +100 mesh
Silicon carbide crucibles35 80-89%+150
Expanded (or flexible)
graphite foils and products
(e.g. sealing gaskets in
refineries)
100
90% min.
(preferably
+99%)
250-1800
Pencils50-6094 50 max.
Brake-linings1-15 98% min. 75 max.
Foundry- 40-70%53-75
Batteries - Dry cells- 88% min. 75 max.
Batteries - Alkaline- 98% min.5-75
Brushes- Usually 99%
Usually less than
53
Lubricants- 98-99%53-106
Sintered products (e.g. clog
wheels)
- 98-99%5
PaintUp to 75
50-55%
75% min.
Amorphous
powder
Flake
Braid used for sealing (e.g.
in ship)
40-50 95% min.-
Graphitized grease (used in
seamless steel tube
manufacturing)
- +99% 38 max.
Colloidal graphite100 99.9% Colloidal
Spherical graphite,also known as battery-grade graphite, is the specific commodity used in the
production of anode in lithium-ion batteries. Flake graphite concentrate is processed into ultra-
high-purity (>99.95% C), microscopic (15 to 5 microns) spheres, which are used as a battery
anode material. This decreases the surface area, to allow more graphite into a smaller volume,
thus creating a compact, lighter, more electrically conductive anode product for the battery.
From the above statistics, one can infer that theSpherical graphite
processing industry produced from flake concentrates as feedstock is still at
nascent stages.
Grade wise natural graphite production and end-use consumption 31 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- I: General Reviews); 59
th
Edition, MINERAL-BASED INDUSTRIES, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, September 2022
Slate2017-182018-192019-20
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
Andhra Pradesh172,174 706,314 293,679 1,039,486 331,030 1,317,483
Gujarat18,362 11,496----
Jharkhand4,783 44,527 4,785 39,839 4,785 35,577
Karnataka294,261 1,541,069 332,162 2,276,289 333,425 2,284,994
Madhya Pradesh837,041 6,760,106 942,738 7,147,719 958,164 6,160,735
Maharashtra731,457 7,243,631 761,985 7,999,939 721,520 6,127,232
Odisha516,862 3,497,593 476,821 3,048,997 537,742 3,409,984
Rajasthan7,502 22,506 9,410 28,230 9,937 29,811
Telangana17,373 80,232 10,735 59,666 7,770 50,570
India2,599,815 19,907,474 2,832,315 21,640,165 2,904,373 19,416,386
Quantity in tons, Value in Thousand INR
Industry2017-182018-192109-20
Ferroalloys2,538,1002,695,9002,387,600
Iron and steel128,100167,700204,200
Others: (Chemical,
Electrode, Pelletization,
Sponge Iron, etc.)
35,50022,40024,200
All Industries27,017,0002,886,0002,616,000
* The apparent consumption of manganese ore in 2019-20 is estimated at 6.9 million tons
Quantity in tons
Production and consumption of manganese ore in India
The consumption of manganese
ore in all industries was about
2.62 million tons in 2019—20.
Ferroalloys industries accounted
for about 91% consumption
followed by Iron and Steel (8%).
Battery, Electrode, Chemical,
Zinc Smelter and Alloy Steel
industries shared the remaining
1%.
MOIL had set up a High Intensity
Magnetic Separation Plant and
1,000 tons per year (tpy)
Electrolytic Manganese Dioxide
(EMD) Plant at Dongri Buzurg
mine. In 2019-20, about 925
tons of EMD were produced. 32 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
International
perspective: lithium
minerology, refining,
bill of materials,
reserves and assets
03 33 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Li bearing
mineral
Chemical
Formula
Li %
(max.)
Occurrence
Spodumene
Li2O, Al2O3.
4SiO2
~4 %
Most abundant Li bearing mineral found
in economic deposits, occurs as crystals
in granites and pegmatites often
intermixed with quartz
Lepidolite
K2 (Li,Al)5-6
{Si6-7Al2-
1O20} (OH,F)4
~3.6%
Uncommon form of mica found in
pegmatites
Petalite
Li2O, Al2O3.
8SiO2
~2.3%
Occurs with lepidolite in pegmatites and
could alter to Spodumene
Hectorite
Na0.3 (Mg,Li)3
Si4O10 (OH)2
~0.5%
Trioctahedral smectite clay mineral
formed by alternation of volcanistic
rocks by hydrothermal activity
Jadarite
LiNaSiB3O7
(OH)
~7%
Occurs as borosilicate mineral
discovered in Serbia
Minerology of lithium
Lithium is commonly extracted from two major categories of economic
mineral deposits: pegmatites and brines. Extraction from volcanic clays
containing Li rich hectorite is yet to be demonstrated on a commercial
scale. Lithium concentrations are typically measured in parts per million
(ppm), milligrams per liter (mg/L) and weight percentage. Lithium
concentrations in the earth’s upper crust are 20 ppm (average). In igneous
rocks, the abundance is typically from 28 to 30 ppm, but in sedimentary
rocks, it can be as high as 53 to 60 ppm.
Brine refers to any fluid containing a high level of dissolved solids. Lithium
occurs in many brines but usually at low concentrations. Commercial
extraction from brines primarily occurs from continental brine deposits.
Spodumene has a theoretical Li2O content of 8.03%. A typical run of mine
spodumene ore can contain ~1% Li2O (eq. 0.46% Li or ~5000 ppm), while a
typical spodumene concentrate suitable for lithium carbonate production
contains 5% to 6% of Li2O (75% - 87% spodumene). Higher grade
concentrates > 7% Li2O and low-iron content are used in ceramics and more
demanding industries. The addition of lithium imparts high mechanical
strength and thermal shock resistance in ceramics and glass.
Lithium bearing brine
resources
TypeLi concentration
Seawater0.1 – 0.2 ppm
Clayton Valley, Nevada
(Silver Peak)
Continental brine 400 ppm
Salar de Atacama, Chile Continental brine 1000 – 4000 ppm
Salar de Hombre,
Argentina
Continental brine 190 – 900 ppm
Salar de Olaroz,
Argentina
Continental brine 500 ppm (mean)
Salar de Rincon,
Argentina
Continental brine 330 ppm
Salton Sea, CaliforniaGeothermal brine 100 – 200 ppm
Smackover oilfield,
Arkansas
Oilfield brine 500 ppm
Source: EY analysis based onBritish Geological Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, June 2016
Note: Li to Li2O conversion factor is 2.153; Li to Li2CO3 conversion factor is 5.323; 1% weight is equivalent to 10,000 ppm
Source:British Geological Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, June 2016 34 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Beneficiation /
concentration
(Spodumene)
Crushing and grinding of large sized pieces of ore into smaller pieces and separating on the
basis of their physical, chemical and magnetic properties
Removal of clay, silicate minerals and other gangue materials using froth floatation or dense
media separation or a combination of both to obtain ~6% Li2O concentration
Roasting
Heating in a kiln at 1050?C for 15 min. to convert naturally occurring α-spodumene (monoclinic
structure) to β-spodumene (tetragonal structure) which is chemically active to leaching
Leaching
Heating in presence of air at 250?C with addition of H
2SO
4to obtain lithium sulfate
In addition to lithium sulfate, impurities such as Fe, Al and Ca are also leached out as sulfates
Filtration and
purification
Addition of water to precipitate the impurities of Fe and Al
Lithium sulfate solution is filtered with trace levels of impurities of Mg and Ca
Carbonation
Solution is treated with Na
2CO
3to precipitate insoluble insoluble Li
2CO
3
The precipitate is washed and dried to obtain 99.3% lithium carbonate
Source:Lithium Production Processes – ScienceDirect,Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium
hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries – ScienceDirect
Brine
Ore
Lithium extraction
from earth
Concentrated Li
Brine
Concentrated
Spodumene
Lithium LiOH.H
2O
Production
Lithium Li
2CO
3
Production
NMC622
NMC811
Cathode powder
production
NMC622: 84 kWh
NMC811: 84kWh
Battery production
TTTTT
1. Primary extraction
2. Resource concentration
3. Lithium chemicals production
4. Cathode powder production
5. Battery production
T Potential transportation stage
Spodumene
Concentrate
Roast at 1050 ˚C
β– Spodumene
Potential transportation stages in lithium lifecycleSpodumene processing flow chart
Processing spodumene mineral to battery grade lithium carbonate / hydroxide
Acid leach process
(common)
Carbonate leach
process
Acid roasting
Leaching
Impurity removal
via precipitation
Solid Liquid
Separation
Ion exchange
Lithium sulfate
solution
Crystallization of
Li
2CO
3
Washing/Drying
Lithium carbonate
product
Pressure leaching
Lithium
bicarbonate
Solid liquid
separation
Crystallization of
Li
2CO
3by heating
Lithium carbonate
product
Na
2CO
3
CO
2
Na
2CO
3 35 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Beneficiation /
Concentration (Brine)
Lithium is Brine (1% lithium con.) is pumped out and poured into solar evaporation pond
Sodium chloride is precipitated first, brine is then transferred to another set of ponds in which mixture of NaCl (salt) and KCl (sylvinite) is precipitated
Remaining brine is piped to another set of ponds where it remains until concentration reaches to 6000 ppm Li and then transferred to recovery plant
Boron and magnesium
removal
Concentrated brines is rich in boron and magnesium
Boron is removed by solvent extraction using kerosene and processed to produce borated and boric acid
Magnesium is removed by adding Na
2CO
3to precipitate Magnesium carbonate, lime is then added to precipitate magnesium hydroxide
Precipitation and
filtration of Li
2CO3
Lithium rich brine is treated with sodium carbonate to precipitate Li
2CO
3slurry
This is filtered and washed with water to remove residual NaCl and dried to obtain >99% lithium carbonate
Conversion to LiOH.H
2OLithium carbonate is further treated with CaO and water to produce LiOH.H
2O
Source:Lithium Production Processes – ScienceDirect
Processing continental brine to battery grade lithium carbonate / hydroxide
Continental Brine to Lithium carbonate/hydroxide conversion
Halite pondsSylvite ponds
Carbonate
precipitation
ponds
Potash plant
Brines from
Salar
Lithium
concentration
ponds
Borate plantLithium plant
K
2SO
4
Potassium
sulfate
KCl
(potash)
brineconc. brineconc. brine
solid
if required
Borates
Boric
acid
Magnesium
carbonate
Magnesium
hydroxide
Lithium
hydroxide
Lithium
chloride
Lithium
carbonate
brine reinjected
to salar
NaCl
(salt) 36 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
OreCon. Spodumene
Con. SpodumeneLiOH.H
2O/Li
2CO
3
BrineCon. Brine
Con. BrineLi
2CO
3
Li
2CO
3LiOH.H
2O
Mineral ore to concentrated spodumene
Concentration of ore in western
Australia
Material movement from mine to facility
in diesel trucks (22 tons payload)
Plant running on diesel fuel
Produced concentrated spodumene ore
is 63% pure spodumene (5% Li
2O)
Concentrated spodumene to
LiOH.H
2O/Li
2CO
3
Spodumene shipped from Australia to
China and transported by truck to
facility
12 tons of steam per ton of LiOH.H
2O,
16.5 tons of steam per tons of Li
2CO
3
Brine to concentrated brine
Diesel used for vehicles (23%) and
generating power for operations (77%)
Stored lithium is treated as stock
rather than a coproduct, which will
eventually be recovered for value
Concentrated lithium brine has three
times the value of potash
Concentrated brine to Li
2CO
3
Trucks with 24.5 tons payload used to
transport concentrated brine to facility
Water used is a fully recycled stream
Source:Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis
of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate frombrine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion batterycathodes and lithium ion batteries – ScienceDirect
Material and energy flow by allocation methods for per ton of concentrated
brine (6% lithium) produced in the Salar de Atacama
Per ton
concentrated
brine
Unit
Facility
Level
(mass)
Facility
Level
(value)
Product
Level
Product
Process
Materials input
Lithium brineton24.1 24.1 24.1 24.1
Fresh water m
3
2.40 5.94 3.72 2.35
Energy input
Electricity MJ307 760 624 472
Diesel MJ265 657 346 327
Coproduct
Potash ton8.52 8.52 8.52 8.52
By-product (as stock in the system)
Lithium ton as LCE 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Material and energy flow per ton of Li2CO3
Per ton Li2CO3Input Unit
Materials input
Lithium brine (6% Li) 4.00ton
Soda ash2.00ton
Other
a
0.08ton
Energy input
Electricity1,500 MJ
Diesel400MJ
Natural gas2,800 MJ
Non-combustion emissions
PM 10700g
PM 2.5400g
a
Includes H2SO4, HCl, lime, solvent, and alcohol.
Material and energy flow per ton of LiOH.H2O
Per ton LiOHH2OInput Unit
Materials input
Li2CO31.05ton
CaO1.15ton
Water consumed0.50m
3
Energy input
Electricity5,000 MJ
Diesel3,000 MJ
Natural gas21,000 MJ
Non-combustion emissions
PM 10100g
PM 2.550g
Material, energy, and water inputs per ton of concentrated spodumene produced
Per ton concentrated spodumeneQuantity Units
Materials input
Spodumene ore (0.8–0.9% conc.)4.50ton
Other
a
0.015 ton
Fresh water3m3
Energy input
Diesel4,500 MJ
a
Includes sodium carbonate and a dispersant.
Material and energy flow per ton of LiOHH2O and Li2CO3produced in China from
Australian spodumene concentrate
Input Per ton
LiOHH2O
Input Per ton
Li2CO3
Unit
Materials input
Spodumene concentrate (6%
Li2O)
6.42 7.30 ton
H2SO4 (98% conc.)1.52 1.71 ton
Na2CO3(98.8% conc.) 0.025 2.05 ton
NaOH (96% conc.)1.18 0.05 ton
CaCO3(≥ 98% conc.) 0.60.7ton
Fresh water11.24 40m
3
Energy input
Electricity (China grid) 12,600 6,480 MJ
Coal (for LiOHH2O)
a
71,343 –MJ
Coal (for Li2CO3)
b
–135,890 MJ
By-product output
Na2SO41.72 1.92 ton
a
54% for steam and 46% for kiln.
b
39% for steam and 61% for kiln.
Lifecycle energy and material intensity of lithium extraction and chemical processing 37 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis
409
360
367
968587
115
1
19
3
38
32
39
34
34
2200
618
864
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0
200
400
600
800
Li2CO3LiOH 16% Li2CO3 - 84%
LiOH
Thousand tons of water
Thousand tons
Precursors for producing 56,000 tons/annum Li2CO3/LiOH from
spodumene (100 GWh/annum LIBs)
Spodumene concentrate H2SO4Na2CO3
NaOHCaCO3
Fresh water (right axis)
224235233
112
118117
64544
550
44
37
0
10
20
30
40
50
0
100
200
300
400
500
Li2CO3LiOH 16% Li2CO3 - 84% LiOH
Thousand tons water
Thousand tons
Precursors for producing 56,000 tons/annum Li2CO3/LiOH from
brine (100 GWh/annum LIBs)
Brine concentrateNa2CO3 CaO Other
Fesh water (right axis)
7.61
4.004.56
0.36
0.71
0.65
-
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
Li2CO3LiOH 16% Li2CO3 - 84% LiOH
Energy (Terra Joules)
Energy for producing 56,000 tons/annum Li2CO3/LiOH from spodumene
(100 GWh/annum LIBs)
CoalElectricity
0.16
1.34
1.16
0.08
0.37
0.32
0.02
0.19
0.17
-
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
Li2CO3LiOH 16% Li2CO3 - 84% LiOH
Energy (Terra Joules)
Energy for producing 56,000 tons/annum Li2CO3/LiOH from
brine (100 GWh/annum LIBs)
Natural GasElectricityDiesel
Material and energy intensity of lithium carbonate/ hydroxide production by 2030 38 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Emissions for concentrated brine production
Source:Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries – ScienceDirect
0.07
0.16
0.12
0.09
0.42
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
Conc. Li Brine
(Facility, Mass)
Conc. Li Brine
(Facility,
Value)
Conc. Li Brine
(Product)
Conc. Li Brine
(Process)
Conc.
Spodumene
GHG Emissions (ton CO2 eq./ton)
GHG Transit GHG
330
817 668
507
141
350
267
209303
751
414
382
5541
241
597
489
370
3
3
3
3
27
27
27
27
225
225
225
225
1024
1
1
1
1
1271
2771
2094
1724
6565
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Conc. Li Brine
(Facility, Mass)
Conc. Li Brine
(Facility,
Value)
Conc. Li Brine
(Product)
Conc. Li Brine
(Process)
Conc.
Spodumene
Lifecycle Energy (MJ/ton)
CoalNatural Gas Petroleum
OtherTransit (Coal) Transit (Natural Gas)
Transit (Petroleum)Transit (Other)
Total
Energy consumption and GHG emissions during brine/spodumene concentration 39 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries – ScienceDirect
29,962
35,966 33,254 31,773
2,18,165
-
50,000
1,00,000
1,50,000
2,00,000
2,50,000
Li2CO3
(Facility,
Mass)
Li2CO3
(Facility,
Value)
Li2CO3
(Product)
Li2CO3
(Process)
Li2CO3
BrineOre
Lifecycle Energy (MJ/ton)
CoalNatural GasPetroleum
OtherTransit (Coal) Transit (Natural Gas)
Transit (Petroleum) Transit (Other)
Total
76,570
82,873
80,025 78,471
1,87,182
-
50,000
1,00,000
1,50,000
2,00,000
LiOH.H2O
(Facility,
Mass)
LiOH.H2O
(Facility,
Value)
LiOH.H2O
(Product)
LiOH.H2O
(Process)
LiOH.H2O
BrineOre
Lifecycle Energy (MJ/ton)
CoalNatural GasPetroleum
OtherTransit (Coal) Transit (Natural Gas)
Transit (Petroleum) Transit (Other)
Total
Energy consumption during concentrated brine/spodumene to Li2CO3 /LiOH.H2O
Energy for concentrated brine/spodumene to Li2CO3Energy for concentrated brine/spodumene to LiOH.H2O 40 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
MineCompanyList of ownersLOM
Production - 2020
(tons)
Mount Marion
Mineral Resources
Limited
Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 50%; Mineral Resources Limited (Venturer) 50% 20394000
Greenbushes
Tianqi Lithium
Corporation
Albemarle Corporation (Venturer) 49%; Tianqi Lithium Corporation (Venturer) 26.01%; IGO
Limited (Venturer) 24.99%
3588000
Salar de Atacama
Sociedad Química y
Minera de Chile S.A.
Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A. (Owner) 100%70000
Salar de AtacamaAlbemarle CorporationAlbemarle Corporation (Owner) 100%2442000
Pilgangoora
Pilbara Minerals
Limited
Pilbara Minerals Limited (Owner) 100%1513468
Silver Peak Albemarle CorporationAlbemarle Corporation (Owner) 100%332200
Altura
Pilbara Minerals
Limited
Pilbara Minerals Limited (Owner) 100%13
Arcadia
Prospect Resources
Limited
Prospect Resources Limited (Venturer) 87%; Private Interest (Venturer) 13% 18.3
Bald Hill Alita Resources LimitedAlita Resources Limited (Owner) 100%3.6
Bougouni Kodal Minerals Plc Kodal Minerals Plc (Owner) 100%; Private Interest (Fractional)8.5
Ewoyaa
Atlantic Lithium
Limited
Atlantic Lithium Limited (Optionee) 100%; Merlink Resources Limited (Optionor); Obotan
Minerals Ltd. (Optionor)
11.4
Finniss Core Lithium Ltd Core Lithium Ltd (Owner) 100%8
Goulamina Firefinch Limited Firefinch Limited (Owner) 100%21.5
Grota do Cirilo
Sigma Lithium
Corporation
Sigma Lithium Corporation (Owner) 100%12.7
Karibib Lepidico Limited Lepidico Limited (Venturer) 80%; Private Interest (Venturer) 20%14
Kathleen Valley
Liontown Resources
Limited
Liontown Resources Limited (Owner) 100%; Ramelius Resources Limited (Fractional) 23
Manono AVZ Minerals Limited
AVZ Minerals Limited (Optionor) 51%; Congo (the Democratic Republic of the) (Venturer)
25%; Suzhou CATH Energy Technologies Co., Ltd. (Optionee) 24%
21
Mt Cattlin Allkem Limited Allkem Limited (Owner) 100%3.8
Mt Holland -
Lithium
Covalent Lithium Pty
Ltd
Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A. (Venturer) 50%; Wesfarmers Limited (Venturer)
50%
48
Vulcan
Vulcan Energy
Resources Limited
Vulcan Energy Resources Limited (Owner) 100%; Private Interest (Fractional) 30
Zulu
Premier African
Minerals Limited
Premier African Minerals Limited (Optionee) 100%; Private Interest (Optionor) 15
AustraliaAfrica
Source:EY Analysis
S.No. MineReserves (kilo tons)
1 Uyuni Salt Flat39,000.00
2 Salar de Atacama19,604.24
3 Cauchari-Olaroz9,938.00
4 Bonnie Claire8,358.70
5 Lithium Nevada7,321.00
6 Manono6,640.00
7 Vulcan6,415.05
8 Clayton Valley5,961.79
9 Chaerhan Lake5,600.00
10 McDermitt4,080.40
11
Cuenca Centenario-
Ratones
4,015.00
12 Greenbushes3,716.33
13 Sonora3,562.00
14 Pilgangoora3,509.00
15 Salar del Rincon3,371.10
16 Mariana3,282.00
17 Cinovec2,990.00
18 TLC2,880.00
19 Mt Holland – Lithium2,842.70
20 Alberta2,830.61
21 Salar de Olaroz2,605.00
22 Jadar2,590.00
23 Sal de Vida2,530.70
24 Salar de Cauchari2,500.00
25 Pastos Grandes2,361.00
26 Wodgina2,200.00
27 Kathleen Valley2,090.00
28 Salar del Hombre Muerto1,800.00
29 Kachi1,778.00
30 South-West Arkansas1,753.00
31 Goulamina1,570.00
32 Tres Quebradas1,447.64
33 Pozuelos1,436.43
34 Whabouchi1,257.40
35 Candelas1,193.90
36 All Others16,990.75
Total192021.73
South AmericaNorth America
Global reserves of lithium: 59% of the reserves are in the top 10 and 75% in the top 20 mines 41 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Mine CompanyList of ownersLOM
Alberta E3 Metals Corp.E3 Metals Corp. (Owner) 100%20
Authier Sayona Mining Limited Sayona Mining Limited (Venturer) 75%; Piedmont Lithium Inc. (Venturer) 25%; Karora Resources Inc. (Fractional)13.8
Candelas Galan Lithium Limited Galan Lithium Limited (Owner) 100%40
Cauchari-Olaroz
Jujuy Energia y Mineria Sociedad del
Estado
Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 46.66%; Lithium Americas Corp. (Venturer) 44.84%; Jujuy Energia y Mineria Sociedad
del Estado (Venturer) 8.5%; Grupo Minero Los Boros S.A. (Fractional)
40
Cinovec CEZ GroupCEZ Group (Venturer) 51%; European Metals Holdings Limited (Venturer) 49%25
Clayton ValleyCypress Development Corp. Cypress Development Corp. (Owner) 100%; Unnamed Owner (Fractional)40
Clayton ValleyNoram Lithium Corp.Noram Lithium Corp. (Venturer) 75%; CDN Maverick Capital Corp. (Venturer) 25%40
Clayton ValleySchlumberger LimitedSchlumberger Limited (Optionee) 100%; Pure Energy Minerals Limited (Optionor)20
Georgia Lake Rock Tech Lithium Inc. Rock Tech Lithium Inc. (Owner) 100%11
Hombre Muerto
North
Lithium South Development
Corporation
Lithium South Development Corporation (Optionor) 70%; Sino Lithium Materials Pty Ltd (Optionee) 30% 30
James Bay Allkem LimitedAllkem Limited (Owner) 100%18.8
Kachi Lake Resources NLLake Resources NL (Optionor) 75%; Lilac Solutions, Inc. (Optionee) 25%25
Keliber Sibanye Stillwater Limited Private Interest (Venturer) 57.3%; Sibanye Stillwater Limited (Venturer) 30%; Nordic Mining ASA (Venturer) 12.7%20
Lithium NevadaLithium Americas Corp. Lithium Americas Corp. (Owner) 100%46
Mariana Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. (Owner) 100%25
Maricunga Minera Salar Blanco SpA
Lithium Power International Limited (Venturer) 51.55%; Minera Salar Blanco SpA (Venturer) 31.31%; Bearing Lithium
Corp. (Venturer) 17.14%; Unnamed Owner (Fractional)
20
Mina do Barroso Savannah Resources Plc Savannah Resources Plc (Owner) 100%11
Pakeagama Lake Frontier Lithium Inc.Frontier Lithium Inc. (Owner) 100%26
Paradox Anson Resources Limited Anson Resources Limited (Owner) 100%; Unnamed Owner (Fractional)20
Pastos GrandesLithium Americas Corp. Lithium Americas Corp. (Owner) 100%41
Piedmont Piedmont Lithium Inc. Piedmont Lithium Inc. (Owner) 100%30
Global reserves of lithium: North America, South America and Europe
South AmericaNorth AmericaEurope 42 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
Mine CompanyList of ownersLOM
Pozuelos
Pluspetrol Resources Corporation
B.V.
Pluspetrol Resources Corporation B.V. (Owner) 100%20
Rhyolite Ridgeioneer Ltdioneer Ltd (Owner) 100%25.2
Rincon Argosy Minerals Limited Argosy Minerals Limited (Optionee) 90%; Private Interest (Optionor) 10%16.5
Rose
Critical Elements Lithium
Corporation
Critical Elements Lithium Corporation (Owner) 100%17
Sal de Vida Allkem LimitedAllkem Limited (Owner) 100%; POSCO Holdings Inc. (Fractional)44
Salar de Cauchari Allkem LimitedAllkem Limited (Venturer) 100%30
Salar de OlarozAllkem Limited
Allkem Limited (Venturer) 66.5%; Toyota Tsusho Corporation (Venturer) 25%; Jujuy Energia y Mineria Sociedad del Estado
(Venturer) 8.5%
20
Salar del Rincon Rio Tinto GroupRio Tinto Group (Owner) 100%24.5
San Jose Infinity Lithium Corporation Limited
Infinity Lithium Corporation Limited (Optionee) 100%; Beta Asociados, S.L. (Optionor); Disa Corporación Petrolífera, S.A.
(Optionor); Grupo Empresarial Fuertes S.L. (Optionor)
26
Separation
Rapids
Avalon Advanced Materials Inc. Avalon Advanced Materials Inc. (Owner) 100%19
Sonora Bacanora Lithium PlcBacanora Lithium Plc (Venturer) 50%; Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 50%; Cadence Minerals Plc (Fractional)19
South-West
Arkansas
Standard Lithium Ltd. Standard Lithium Ltd. (Optionee) 100%; TETRA Technologies, Inc. (Optionor)20
Tres QuebradasZijin Mining Group Company Limited Zijin Mining Group Company Limited (Owner) 100%50
WhabouchiInvestissement Québec (Venturer); Orion Mine Finance (Dup) (Venturer); The Pallinghurst Group (Venturer) 33
Wolfsberg European Lithium Limited European Lithium Limited (Owner) 100%12
Zinnwald Zinnwald Lithium PlcZinnwald Lithium Plc (Owner) 100%30
Global reserves of lithium: North America, South America and Europe
South AmericaNorth AmericaEurope 43 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
Product – lithium carbonate
Company – Product Development StageExpected capacity (ktPA)
Lithium Americas Corporation249
Commissioning (2022)60
Construction (2022)80
Feasibility study (2022)24
PEA study (2022)85
Sociedad Quimica y Minera de Chile (SQM)210
Expansion (2023)210
Grand Total459
Product – lithium hydroxide
Company – Product Development StageExpected capacity (ktPA)
Albemarle Corporation200
Production (2022)200
IGO Limited48
Train 1 – Production (2022)24
Train 2 – Construction (2024)24
Liontown Resources Limited86
Production (2029)86
Mineral Resources Limited50
Production (2022)50
Sociedad Quimica y Minera de Chile (SQM)50
Expansion (2024)50
Grand Total434
Product – Spodumene concentrate
Company – Product Development StageExpected capacity (ktPA)
AVZ Minerals Limited700
Production (2023)700
Core Lithium175
Production (2023)175
Liontown Resources Limited700
Production (2024)700
Mineral Resources Limited750
Production (2023)750
Pilbara Minerals1,190
Commissioning (2022)190
Expansion1,000
Grand Total3,515
459434
3515
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Lithium carbonateLithium hydroxide Spodumene
concentrate
Capacity (kt per annum)
Capital projects of lithium extraction and processing under pipeline 44 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
*Costs are during the year 2020
Source:Technical Report NI 43-101, Preliminary Economic Assessment, Canadian LiOH Project (minedocs.com)
COST
CATEGORY
COST CODE
CAPITAL COST
ESTIMATE (US$)
DirectEquipment47,933,932
DirectPlatework and Freight 7,190,089
DirectMechanical Installation 16,776,876
DirectCivils 23,966,966
DirectStructural Steel 9,586,786
DirectPiping 16,776,876
DirectElectrical 7,190,089
DirectControl and Instrumentation 11,983,483
DirectNon-Process - Facilities 7,190,089
DirectIndirect Field Costs 44,578,557
IndirectEPCM37,148,797
IndirectOwners Cost11,887,615
ContingencyContingency60,552,540
Pre-production
Mining Work
Pre-production Mining Work 50,257,185
Total CAPEX 353,019,880
OPEX ITEMUS$/ton LiOH
Raw Materials2,319
Logistics114
Energy614
Water39
Reagents834
Consumables75
Labour1,121
Maintenance363
General and Admin359
Waste Disposal118
Sub Total5,956
By-products-
Total*5,956
Production Capacity (tpa)15,000
CAPEX (US$)353,019,880
Life of operation (#years)20
Total productionduring operation (ton)300,000
CAPEX (US$/ton)1,177
OPEX (US$/ton)5,956
CAPEX+OPEX (USD/ton)7,133
All-in sustaining costs include adjusted operating costs and sustaining
capital expenditure, corporate general and administrative expenses,
exploration expense, reflecting the full cost of production from current
operations. The total all-in sustaining costs ranges from US$6,000 –
US$12,000 per ton LCE in countries Argentina, Australia, Chile and China.
Economics of converting spodumene concentrate to lithium hydroxide (~15,000 tons/annum) 45 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
Conditions for siting lithium carbonate / hydroxide conversion facilities
Ease of importing raw materials
India does not have any large deposits of lithium; the refinery would need to import raw materials from other countries. The location of
the refinery should be close to ports or other transportation infrastructure to facilitate the import of raw materials. Road access for
heavy haul vehicle from highway to the site industrial zone.
Access to resources
The location should have access to other resources, such as water and power, which are necessary for the refining process. The location
should have simple access to the site for the future workforce.
Proximity to battery and electric vehicle industries
The Government of India has been actively promoting the development of the battery and electric vehicle industry, so the location of the
refinery should be close to area where these industries are so that logistics cost of final product can be minimized.
Availability of subsidies
The cost of production will be a crucial factor as India does not have a large lithium deposit and the refining process will be heavily
dependent on import of raw materials. So, the location should have favorable subsidies for setting up the refinery.
Environmental impact
The location should have minimal environmental impact and should be able to comply with all the environmental regulations and policies
for refining of chemicals and disposal of industrial waste. The location should be far from residential areas. 46 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
The Petroleum, Chemicals and Petrochemicals Investment Region (PCPIR) policy by the
Ministry of Chemicals and Petrochemicals, Govt. of India has been in existence since 2007.
PCPIR is a designated investment region with an area of around 250 sq. km planned for the
establishment of manufacturing facilities for domestic and export led production in
petroleum, chemicals and petrochemicals, along with the associated services and
infrastructure. The State Government plays the lead role in setting up of the PCPIR. It
identifies a suitable site, prepares the proposal and seeks approval from a High-Powered
Committee. State government is responsible for availability of reliable quality power, bulk
requirements of water, road connectivity, Sewerage and effluent treatment linkages, from
the edge of PCPIR to the final disposal sites. Key highlights of PCPIR policy:
Strategic location at ports for domestic and global markets
Availability of adequate land with Government agencies/developers
Excellent connectivity, institutional mechanism for management and implementation
Ready availability of technical and skilled personnel
Investment opportunities in utilities and services
Dahej -
Gujarat
Paradeep -
Odisha
Vishakhapatnam –
Andhra Pradesh
Cuddalore
Nagapattinam -
Tamil Nadu
GujaratAndhra Pradesh OdishaTamil Nadu
Location/
Region
Dahej, Bharuch Vishakhapatnam Paradeep
Cuddalore-
Nagapattinam
Total Area
(Sq. kms.)
453640284257
Anchor
Tenant
ONGC Petro Additions
Limited (OPaL)
Hindustan Petroleum
Corporation Ltd. (HPCL)
Indian Oil Corporation
Ltd. (IOCL)
Nagarjuna Oil
Corporation Ltd. (NOCL)
Anchor
Project
Status
Commissioned in
March 2017
Anchor Tenant for
Greenfield project yet to
come on board
Commissioned in
February 2016
Construction work,
stalled since 2011, yet
to restart
PCPIRs offer potential sites for investing and setting up lithium chemical refineries 47 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Industrial-Policy2020.pdf (gujarat.gov.in),https://ficci.in/spdocument/23084/White Paper on PCPIR Policy Review.pdf,Reserve Bank of India - Publications (rbi.org.in),Rajasthan Investment Promotion Scheme 2022
The PCPIR in Dahej, Gujarat, has attracted more investments than the other three PCPIRs
in India. The main reason behind more investments is clear long-term policy for investors,
which facilitates ease of doing business. The state has undertaken various measures to
enhance the “Ease of Doing Business” experience like implementation of Gujarat Single
Window Clearance Act, 2017 which aims to facilitate a process for the speedy issuance of
various licenses, clearances and certificates required for setting up a business unit.
Gujarat MSME Act was also implemented in 2019 according to which an MSME in Gujarat
can now start operation upon receipt of an acknowledgement certificate from the state
nodal agency by submitting the 'Declaration of Intent’ and without taking various
approvals for the first three years. It has also formed an Investor Facilitation Agency (IFA)
which operates at the state and district level for supporting prospective investors in the
state. The state also provides Fixed Capital investment (FCI) to large industries for setting
up manufacturing operations in the state in the form of capital subsidy without any upper
ceiling. 10% and 12% of eligible FCI (excluding land) is provided for general and thrust
sectors respectively without any upper ceiling in equal annual instalments of INR40 crore
every year. The state had ~51% share (1st Rank in India) of IEMs filed in India in terms of
value with a proposed investment of US$49 billion in 2019 as per the data released by
DPIIT, Government of India.
Gujarat is ranked fifth in ease of doing business index by the Department of Industrial
Policy and Promotion (DIPP). Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Tamil Nadu ranks 1, 14 and 15
in the same index. Even after being ranked 1 in the ease of doing business index, Andhra
Pradesh is not able to attract investments due to lack of poor power and water
availabilities. Other challenges which are faced by these PCPIRs are:
Elusive ROI: high financial risks with new projects and no attractive financial schemes
Absence of utilities: lack of utilities like electricity, water, alternate energy, sewerage
systems and ETPs
Land acquisition and regulatory issues: slow pace of acquisition and limited
government support, absence of a Single Window for approvals
Lack of facilitative policy regime: no incentive to downstream industries because of
high interest rates and lack of export incentives
Feedstock for downstream: anchor tenant not sparing feedstock for downstream units
Rajasthan State Industrial Development and Investment Corporation Limited (RIICO) plans
to develop a PCPIR in the vicinity of 9 MMTPA refinery cum petrochemical complex under
construction by HPCL Rajasthan Refinery Limited (HRRL) at Pachpadra in the Barmer
district. RIICO plans to complete the setup of a refinery complex by October 2023. The
upcoming refinery is coupled with other regional advantages, such as:
Within the influence region of the Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) and eight
other corridors pass through the state
Access to major ports – Kandla, Mundra, JNPT and numerous other ports along west
coast
Six-lane expressway running adjoining to the HRRL complex offering unhindered
connectivity to Bhatinda and Jamnagar refineries for feedstock requirements and
northern and western regions and ports for product evacuation
Exemption for seven years from 100% of Electricity Duty, 100% Land Tax, 100% Market
Fee
Capital subsidy of 13—28% of eligible fixed capital investment available for
manufacturing industries depending on the size of investment. Amount is to be
disbursed in annual instalments in 10-year capital with cap of INR50 Cr in year 1 to 3,
INR 65 Cr in year 4 to 7 and INR 80 Cr in year 8 to 10.
The Vishakhapatnam PCPIR faced public outcry over possible pollution to be caused by the
petrochemical unit. So, to avoid the name PCPIR, it is being implemented as part of Vizag-
Chennai Industrial Corridor (VCIC) funded by the Asian Development Bank. The region is
announced to be developed as a mega petrochemical hub. VCIC is envisaged as a node
centric development platform with four nodes, Visakhapatnam Node, Machilipatnam Node,
Donakonda Node and Yerpedu - Srikalahasti Node. Amara Raja batteries have its
manufacturing facility in Chittoor, which is around Yerpedu–Srikalahasti node. The
corridor brings along the complementary components that include:
A trade and transport corridor and long coastline and strategically located ports are
expected to help India connect with dynamic Southeast and East Asia
Urban centers along the corridor and production clusters producing goods for both
consumption in the surrounding region and for global trade
Dahej in Gujarat, Barmer in Rajasthan and Yerpedu–Srikalahasti node in AP are well positioned to attract
investors for setting up lithium refineries 48 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
04
International
perspective: spherical
graphite processing,
bill of materials,
reserves and assets 49 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Overview: graphite refining process, reserves and mine production
Anodes for LIB cells are made ofspherical graphitethat involves
processing/refining natural or synthetic graphite to have the right shape,
particle size, and crystalline properties suitable for lithium intercalation
chemistry.
Global output of mined graphite is highly concentrated with China
accounting for almost three-fifths (59.1%) and the next four largest
countries together exceeded one-quarter (26.9%) of the worldwide total in
2020. Reported global mine output of natural graphite steadily declined
during 2015—20, with a notable dip in 2017. Some of the major suppliers
of refined battery grade graphite are Hitachi Chemical, BTR New Energy,
and Superior Graphite in the United States. The natural graphite must be
properly heat-treated to obtain a high degree of graphite crystalline
domains with exposed edge planes and surface treated (forming gas, nitric
acid, and so on) to obtain the appropriate surface chemistry for solid
electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation. Both oxygen-free surfaces and
oxygen-rich surfaces can be beneficial for performance, depending on the
electrolyte composition, cathode cell chemistry, and cycling conditions.
A lack of integration among raw and intermediate material producers
characterizes the global value chain for artificial graphite, along with the
lack of corporate participation by either battery manufacturers or EV
manufacturers. Most of global production is petroleum-based rather than
coal tar-based. Major producers of calcined petroleum coke are most in
the United States, followed by China and India.
Source:Global Value Chains: Graphite in Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehiclesgvc_paper.pdf (usitc.gov),https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/graphite-statistics-and-information
Mining flake
graphite ores
(HS 2504.10)
Calcining
petroleum coke
(HS 2713.12)
Recovering coal
tar pitch
(HS 2708.10)
Milling, heating, and
graphetization of needle
coke or needle coke pitch
intoartificial graphite
(HS 30801.10)
Milling, processing, and
purifying refinednatural
graphite
(HS 2504.10)
Milling,
processing, and
coating spherical
graphite
(HS 8545.10)
Anode
manufacturing
by applying
graphite paste
to copper foil
Lithium-ion battery
componenets assembly
ChinaChina
United States,
China, India
China
China, Japan,
United States
Japan,China, Korea,
Western Europe, United States
Japan,China, Korea,
Western Europe, United
States
0
500
1000
1500
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Thousand metric tons
Mined Natural Graphite
ChinaMozambique BrazilMadagascar IndiaAll Others
Graphite: Simplified process flow chart from extraction, through processing, to
battery components assembly 50 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Graphite ores (small flakes) extracted from either open-pit or underground operations
are crushed and ground to get fine particles
Flotation process is used to separate out the graphite from various impurities to attain
a concentrate with a 90% to 97% graphite content
Source:Global Value Chains: Graphite in Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehiclesgvc_paper.pdf (usitc.gov),Performance and cost of materials for lithium-based rechargeable automotive batteries | Nature Energy
Natural graphite: Deposit types and characteristics
Description
Leading mine
sources
Carbon
content (%)
Advantages Disadvantages
Flake — more common form,
with visible flaky particles
Brazil, China,
Mozambique
80−90
Low cost, and
low impurities
Inconsistent
quality
Amorphous— more common
form, with small crystalline
particles
China 70−90 Lowest cost
High impurities
including ash
Crystalline-vein — least
common form, with particle
sizes ranging from fine
flakes, medium needles, to
grainy lumps
Sri Lanka 70-99+
Very high
grades
Small deposits,
underground,
high cost, and
small particles
Natural graphite to battery grade anode material processing
Graphite concentration
Purification, spheroidization and coating
The remaining impurities (siliceous ash, sulfur, iron, and other metals) are removed
either by wet-chemical leaching with strong acids or high-temperature electrical,
thermal treatment with halogen gasses
The concentrated graphite is dried and grinded to get uniform particles
?Spheroidization? is done to get porous ?micro-balls? (10?30 microns diameter) by
heating in a kiln. The individual flakes curl into spheres to achieve increased packing
density and reduced particle size for more efficient electrical conductivity
This spheroidal graphite is subsequently coated with pitch or asphalt, followed by
baking in a furnace to produce coated spheroidal graphite that prevents expansion
and exfoliation of graphite
Graphite
core
Carbon
shell
1.Mining from graphite ore
2.Mechanical separation
3.Flotation
4.Drying and screening
Step 1: Mining and flotationStep 2: Material Processing Step 3: Particle refinement
1.Micronization
2.Spheroidization
3.Purification (wet chemical/thermal)
1.Conditioning
2.Grinding
3.Classifying
4.Coating 51 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Global Value Chains: Graphite in Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehiclesgvc_paper.pdf (usitc.gov),Performance and cost of materials for lithium-based rechargeable automotive batteries | Nature Energy,
http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=EDATA&f=cmID%3APK
Graphite
core
Carbon
shell
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Million metric tons
Petroleum Coke Producing Countries
United StatesChinaIndiaBrazilSaudi ArabiaAll others
Synthetic graphite to battery grade anode material processing
1.Carbon precursor (coke/pitch)
2.Calcination: soft carbon
3.Crushing, grinding
4.Classifying
Step 1: Pre-treatmentStep 2: Material Processing Step 3: Particle refinement
1.Graphitization (>2,500˚C)
1.Conditioning
2.Grinding
3.Classifying
4.Coating
Petroleum coke to calcined petroleum coke/needle coke
Residual oil from petroleum refinery operations are roasted in a coking furnace to drive off
the volatile components.
The residual solid material is heated in a rotary kiln to burn-off the volatile residual water
and organic compounds to yield calcined petroleum coke with a carbon content of 97.0% to
99.5%
Only 5% of all petroleum coke produced meets the high-purity and structural requirements.
These are known as needle coke.
Coal tar to pitch coke
Coal tar, a thick dark liquid obtained from coal coking operations, is transferred to another
coking furnace to drive off the volatile components and yield solid coke.
Distillation of this solid coke is done to remove water in the dehydration column, followed by
removal of organic volatiles to yield coal tar pitch
The coal tar pitch is heated in an electric furnace to bake the carbonaceous materials at 800?
1,300 °C into fine-grained pitch coke
Graphitization
The needle coke or pitch coke is heated in an electric furnace at higher temperatures in the
range of 2,600 °C to 3,300 °C to crystallize the aligned carbonaceous materials into graphite 52 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Life cycle assessment of natural graphite production for lithium-ion battery anodes based on
industrial primary data – ScienceDirect,Material and energy flows in the production of cathode andanode materials for lithium ion batteries121442.pdf (anl.gov)
Aggregated life cycle inventory for natural graphite production according to primary data collection at a Chinese manufacturer
Reference Product Mining Flotation Spheronization Purification Coating Unit
Per 1t graphite
ore
Per 1t graphite
concentrate
Per 1t
spherical
graphite
Per 1t spherical
purified graphite
Per 1t coated
spherical graphite
Input
Energy sources
Electricity
8.7506 2,1003054,550 kWh/t
Diesel2.241 0.996 0.4150.2490.249 kg/t
Hard coal50kg/t
Natural gas1,050MJ/t
Material inputs
Graphite ore (11% C)9,590kg/t
Graphite concentrate2,220kg/t
Spherical graphite1,130kg/t
Spherical purified
graphite
1,010 kg/t
Ammonium nitrate0.248kg/t
Pine oil1.163kg/t
Diesel0.012 1.551kg/t
Ceramic grinding
media
9kg/t
Hydrofluoric acid180kg/t
Hydrochloric acid200kg/t
Nitric acid100kg/t
Water22.02725m3/t
Lime400kg/t
HSP oil pitch50.0 kg/t
Nitrogen1.5 kg/t
Outp
ut
By product
Graphite fines1,215kg/t
Emissions to air
NOx0.138kg/t
Graphite dust5kg/t
Steam (H2O)0.113 320.145320.145kg/t
Off gas (CO2)0.040 183.33357.75062.407 kg/t
Nitrogen1.5 kg/t
Emissions to water
Pine oil1.047kg/t
Diesel1.396kg/t
Wastewater21.70724.773m3/t
Solid waste
Tailings8,596kg/t
Industrial waste0.0250.2591745.5 kg/t
Material and Energy Inputs for the Production of 1 ton of Synthetic Graphite
Carbonization
Carbon anode
baking
Graphitization
Material inputs (ton/ton)
Pet coke0.95 0.99---
Coal tar pitch0.24 0.22---
Energy inputs (MMBtu/ton)
Residual oil--- 1.8---
Diesel--- 0.33---
Natural gas5.1 2.4---
Electricity--- 0.5714
Total5.1 5.214
Non-combustion Emissions
(g/ton)
NOx9,300 760---
PM4,100 320---
SOx64,000 4,100---
CO2440,000 150,000 ---
Energy
production and
transportation
Auxillary
materials
production and
transportation
Emmisions
into air,
water and
soil
Ore
Flake graphite Ore (11%C)
Flake graphite concentrate
(95%C)
Spherical graphite(95%C)
Spherical purified graphite
(99,95%C)
Coated spherical graphite (99,95%C)
System boundary
Foreground System
Background System
Usage
Mining
Flotation
Spheroidization
Purification
Coating (including
carbonization and
finishing)
Life cycle inventory of materials for natural graphite processing to battery grade anode 53 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
The largest electrical energy consumption takes place in the spheroidization step (~
2,400 kWh) as well as in the coating step (~ 4,500 kWh)
The least energy is required in the purification and mining process
Hard coal plays a significant role as an energy carrier within the flotation step.
The coating process is the key driver of GHG emissions with about 4000 kg CO2 eq. mainly
associated with the electrical energy required for the process
The second largest contributing process (2,000 kg CO2eq.) is the flotation process, due to
the electrical energy required as well as the grinding media (ceramic) and direct CO2
emissions released in the process
The main emission drivers in the purification process (~1,300 kg CO2eq.) are the acids
used and the lime used for neutralization
Overall, the mining process has a rather minor impact with ~380 kg CO2 eq.
Source:Life cycle assessment of natural graphite production for lithium-ion battery anodes based on industrial primary data - ScienceDirect
9616 kg
CO2eq
/1000 …
Coating
41%
Flotation
21%
Spheroidization
20%
Purification
14%
Mining
4%
Electricity
38%
Transport
2%
Remains
1%
Electricity
11%
Ceramic
5%
Direct emissions
5%
Remains
1%
Electricity
20%
Lime
5%
Acids
4%
Electricity
3%
Remains
2%
Transport
2%
Eelctricity
2%
GHG emissions summary in battery grade graphite processing
860
2342 2402
617
4553
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Energy consumption (kWh/ton)
Energy consumption for each process step for 1 ton of produced
anode graphite according to data from a Chinese graphite
manufacturer
Electricity Coal Diesel Natural gas
Energy consumption and emissions while processing natural graphite into anode graphite 54 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis, Global Value Chains: Graphite in Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehiclesgvc_paper.pdf (usitc.gov)
Firm name (foreign headquarters location) Mine location
State, province, region, county,
etc.
Country
Extrativa Metaquimica S.A.MaiquiniqueBahia StateBrazil
JMN Mineracao S.A.Mateus LemeMinas Gerais StateBrazil
Nacional de Grafite LtdaItapecerica, Pedra Azul, Salto da Divisa Minas Gerais StateBrazil
Imerys Graphite and Carbon (Switzerland)Saint Aime du Lac des IlesQuébec ProvinceCanada
Eagle Graphite Corp.Black CrystalBritish Columbia Province Canada
Ontario Graphite Ltd.KearneyOntario ProvinceCanada
Timcal Ltd.Lac des IlesQuébec ProvinceCanada
Jixi Aoyu Graphite Co. Ltd.Jixi, LuobeiHeilongjiang Province China
Nei Mongol Xinghe Jingxin Graphite Co. Ltd. Xinghe CountyNei Mongol Autonomous Region China
Shenzhen BTR New Energy Materials Inc. ChangyuanHeilongjiang Province China
China Minmetals Corp.Yushuan, Luobei CountyHeilongjiang Province China
Graphit Kropfmühl GmbHKropfmühlBavaria StateGermany
Agrawal Graphite Industries Ltd. Belpara DistrictOdisha StateIndia
Tamil Nadu Minerals Ltd.Sivaganga DistrictTamil Nadu StateIndia
Yeongchon GraphiteYeongchonHwangnam ProvinceNorth Korea
Etablissements Gallois S.A.
Artsirakambo Mine, Brickaville; Marovinsty Mine,
Vatomandry; Ambalafotaka Mine, Toamasina
Atsinanana ProvinceMadagascar
Graphmada Equity Pte. Ltd. (Stratmin Global
Resources plc., United Kingdom)
AntsirabeVakinankaratra Province Madagascar
LoharanoArivonimamo Province Madagascar
Grafitos Mexicanos, S.A. de C.V. Lourdes, Topiyeca, San JuanSonoraState Mexico
GK Ancuabe Graphite Mine S.A. (Germany)AncuabeCabo Delgado Province Mozambique
Syrah Resources Ltd. (Australia) BalamaCabo Delgado Province Mozambique
Imreys Graphite and Carbon (Switzerland)OtjiwarongoOtjozondjupa RegionNamibia
Skaland Graphite AS (LNS Group) Traelen Mine, SkalandTroms CountyNorway
Kahatagaha Graphite Lanka Ltd. Kahatagaha MineNorthwestern Province Sri Lanka
Bogala Graphite Lanka Plc. (Germany) Bogala MineSabaragamuwa Province Sri Lanka
Sakura Pvt. Ltd.Ragedara MineCentral ProvinceSri Lanka
Leading Edge Materials Corp. (Canada) WoxnaGävleborg CountySweden
Zavalyevskiy graphite complex ZavalyevskiyAutonomous Republic of Crimea Ukraine
Zimbabwe German Graphite Mies Ltd. Lynx Graphite Mine, KaroiMashonaland West Province Zimbabwe
S. No. Country Reserves (million ton) Percentage of total
1 Turkey9027.7%
2 China7322.5%
3 Brazil7021.6%
4 Madagascar268.0%
5 Mozambique257.7%
6 Tanzania185.5%
7 India82.5%
8 Uzbekistan7.62.3%
9 Mexico3.11.0%
10 Korea, North2.00.6%
11 Sri Lanka1.50.5%
12 Norway0.60.2%
Total325100%
90
7370
2625
18
87.6
3.12.01.50.6
-
20
40
60
80
100
Reserves (million tons)
Natural graphite reserves
Global reserves and assets of natural graphite 55 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
05
International perspective:
nickel ore to battery
market —pathways,
reserves and assets 56 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Nickel extraction processing, equipment and technologies
►Nickel is a naturally occurring metallic element with a silvery-white, shiny
appearance. It is the fifth most common element on earth and occurs extensively
in the earth’s crust and core. The world’s nickel resources are currently estimated
at almost 300 million tons. Known nickel resources have significantly increased
over the past 30 years, with a corresponding rise in nickel mine production.
Australia, Indonesia, South Africa, Russia and Canada account for more than 50%
of the global nickel resources. Economic concentrations of nickel occur in sulfide
and in laterite-type ore deposits.
►While mine production in Canada and Russia is mainly linked to the mining of
sulfide-type ore deposits, Indonesia and the Philippines predominantly mine
laterites. In Australia, both laterite and sulfide mine production takes place. Due
to their geological formation, laterite-type ore deposits and mines are principally
found in equatorial regions and production from this type of deposits has steadily
increased in recent decades.
►Nickel Class I describes a group of nickel products comprising electrolytic nickel,
powders and briquettes, as well as carbonyl nickel.
►Nickel Class II comprises nickel pig iron and ferronickel. These nickel products
commonly have a lower nickel content and are used especially in stainless steel
production, where stainless steel producers take advantage of the iron content.
►Nickel is one of the most valuable common non-ferrous metals, along with
aluminum, copper, lead and zinc (Al, Cu, Pb, Zn). Given its value as a commodity,
the commercial motivation to use nickel effectively in the first place is very
strong. There is a similarly compelling incentive for recovering and recycling
nickel effectively at all stages of the production and use cycle.
Source:Life of Nickel by Nickel Institute
Nickel SulfidesNickel Laterites
Primary
mineral
Pentlandite Fe5Ni4S8
Garnierite
Ni2Mg4Si4O10(OH)8
Pre-
concentration
5 to 10 XMinimal
Associated
pay metals
Copper, Cobalt, Gold, Silver, PGMs Cobalt
Major
impurities
Iron, Sulfur, Gangue (Rock) Iron, Gangue
Processing
options
Roaster - Electric Furnace Smelting
Flash Furnace Smelting
Rotary Kiln - Electric
Furnace Smelting
Smelting
temperature
1300°C1600°C
Energy source Concentrate, Electricity Fossil fuel, electricity
Primary
product
Nickel Matte
Ferronickel (Class 2)
20 to 40% Ni
Final product
post refining
High purity nickel cathode (Class 1)
> 99.8% Ni, Plus by-products
N/A
Atmospheric
emission
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 57 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Glencore Nickel presentation dated May 2021
Fluidized bed
roaster
Converting
furnace
Electric furnace
Concentrate
20% Ni+Cu
2% Ni
20% Ni+Cu
Slag
Slag
50% Ni+Cu
78% Ni+Cu
Matte
To refinery
Acid
plant
Converting
furnace
Flash furnace
Concentrate
20% Ni+Cu
Slag
Slag
50% Ni+Cu
78% Ni+Cu
Matte
To Refinery
Acid
Plant
Oxygen
Fossil fuel
Roaster Electric FurnaceFlash Furnace
Primary energy consumption25,000 kWh per ton Ni+Cu500 kWh per ton Ni+Cu
Ni, Co recovery98%, 75%96%, 50%
Nickel sulfide processing 58 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Glencore Nickel presentation dated May 2021
Rotary
dryer
Rotary
kiln
Electric furnace
Ore
2% Ni
Fossil fuel
2% Ni
Fossil fuel
2.2% Ni
Slag
Ferronickel
20-40% Ni
To Market
Rotary Kiln – Electric Furnace (RKEF)
Primary energy consumption20,000 kWh per ton Ni
Coal consumption8 tons per ton Ni
Ni, Co recovery92%, n/a
Nickel laterite processing 59 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Glencore Nickel presentation dated May 2021
Laterite
70%
Sulfide
30%
Smelting
90%
Leach 10%
Smelting
90%
Leach 10%
NPI
47%
FeNi
14%
Class 1
39%
Stainless
Steel
70%
Batteries
5%
Alloys
Plating
Other
25%
OreProcessingProductEnd Market
Nickel ore to market pathways 60 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
Mine CompanyList of ownersLOM
Production -
2020 (ton)
Kola Division
Public Joint Stock
Company Mining and
Metallurgical Company
Norilsk Nickel
Public Joint Stock Company Mining and Metallurgical Company Norilsk Nickel (Owner) 100%
172,357
Sudbury
Operations
Glencore plc Glencore plc (Owner) 100%
91,500
Nickel West BHP Group Limited BHP Group Limited (Owner) 100%
80,100
Sorowako PT Vale Indonesia TbkPT Vale Indonesia Tbk (Owner) 100%
72,237
Ontario DivisionVale S.A.Vale S.A. (Owner) 100%
43,200
Murrin Murrin Glencore plc Glencore plc (Owner) 100%
40,800
Cerro Matoso South32 Limited South32 Limited (Venturer) 99.94%; Mineworkers (Venturer) 0.06%
40,600
Voisey's Bay Vale S.A.Vale S.A. (Owner) 100%
35,700
Barro Alto Anglo American plc Anglo American plc (Owner) 100%
34,900
Koniambo Glencore plc Societe Miniere du Sud Pacifique SA (Venturer) 51% ; Glencore plc (Venturer) 49%
34,500
Ramu
Metallurgical
Corporation of China
Ltd.
Metallurgical Corporation of China Ltd. (Venturer) 56.97%; Jilin Jien Nickel Industry Co., Ltd.
(Venturer) 11.05%; Jiuquan Iron and Steel (Group) Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 11.05%; Jinchuan Group
International Resources Co. Ltd (Venturer) 5.93%; Mineral Resources Development Corp (Venturer)
3.94%; Private Interest (Venturer) 2.5%; Nickel 28 Capital Corp. (Carried) 8.56%
33,659
Moa Bay Moa Nickel S.A. General Nickel Co SA (Venturer) 50%; Sherritt International Corporation (Venturer) 50%
31,506
Goro
Prony Resources New
Caledonia consortium
Prony Resources New Caledonia consortium (Venturer) 95% ; Societe de Participation Miniere du
Sud Caledonia SAS (Venturer) 5%
31,000
Nova-BollingerIGO Limited IGO Limited (Owner) 100%10.3
30,436
Terrafame Terrafame Oy Terrafame Oy (Owner) 100%22
28,740
Weda Bay PT Weda Bay Nickel
Tsingshan Holding Group Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 51.3%; ERAMET S.A. (Venturer) 38.7%; PT Aneka
Tambang Tbk (Venturer) 10%
23,500
Forrestania Western Areas LimitedWestern Areas Limited (Owner) 100%; Wesfarmers Limited (Fractional)
20,926
Eagle
Lundin Mining
Corporation
Lundin Mining Corporation (Owner) 100%3
16,718
Onca Puma Vale S.A.Vale S.A. (Owner) 100%34
16,000
Ravensthorpe
First Quantum Minerals
Ltd.
First Quantum Minerals Ltd. (Venturer) 70%; POSCO Holdings Inc. (Venturer) 30%
12,695
Kevitsa Boliden AB (publ) Boliden AB (publ) (Owner) 100%
11,074
Nkomati
African Rainbow
Minerals Limited
African Rainbow Minerals Limited (Venturer) 50%; Public Joint Stock Company Mining and
Metallurgical Company Norilsk Nickel (Venturer) 50%
10,638
Codemin Anglo American plc Anglo American plc (Owner) 100%
8,600
Trojan
Bindura Nickel
Corporation Limited
Bindura Nickel Corporation Limited (Owner) 100%5.4
5,730
S.No. Mine
Reserves (kilo
ton)
1 Polar Division15,299
2 NORI11,512
3 TOML9,954
4 Weda Bay9,334
5 Dumont5,721
6 Jinchuan5,502
7 Turnagain4,844
8 Hanking Group4,802
9 Punta Gorda4,093
10 Zebediela4,010
11 Jacare3,913
12 Terrafame3,880
13 Biankouma-Sipilou3,810
14 Koniambo3,428
15 Kalgoorlie3,189
16 Nickel West3,136
17 Decar3,111
18 Kola Division3,066
19 Tapunopaka2,940
20 Mindoro2,926
21 Cerro Matoso2,878
22 Crawford2,874
23 Pomalaa East2,690
24 Goro2,633
25 La Sampala2,624
26 All Others96,973
Total219,142
Nickel reserves, mines and assets 61 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
CompanyProjectProduct type Project development stage
Expected capacity
(TPA)
Capex (US$m)
Projected
completion
Canada Nickel Company Timmins Nickel District
GlencoreRaglan phase 2 and Onaping depth projectsCommissioning2,025
Nickel Mines Ltd. Angel Ni projectProduction2,022
Nickel Mines Ltd. Hengjaya mine
Talon Metals Corp Tamarack Nickel ProjectDrilling2,022
ValeBahodopi e Pomalaa110,0002,026
ValeOnça Puma 2nd FurnaceProduction15,0002,023
ValeThompson121
ValeVoisey's Bay
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.Dumont Nickel-Cobalt RoyaltyNi and Co Construction
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.Ramu Nickel Cobalt OperationNi and Co Production
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.Turnagain Nickel and Cobalt Royalty Ni and Co Exploration
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.
Flemington Nickel, Cobalt and Scandium
Royalty
Ni, Co and ScExploration
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.Nyngan Nickel, Cobalt and Scandium RoyaltyNi, Co and ScConstruction
Nickel Mines Ltd. Oracle Ni projectNickel metal25,200
Canada Nickel Company Crawford projectNickel sulfideFeasibility study1,2002,022
Capital projects of nickel extraction and processing under pipeline 62 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
International
perspective: cobalt ore
to battery market —
pathways, reserves
and assets
06 63 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Cobalt is generally recovered as a by-product of copper or nickel mining. The major
cobalt-producing regions are the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Zambia, with
some large deposits also known in Australia, Russia, Cuba, New Caledonia and Canada.
Cobalt can be found in economic concentrations in three principal deposit types:
Cobalt is also concentrated in a variety of other geological settings and deposit types.
Some concentrations of cobalt may also occur on the sea floor in iron-manganese-rich
nodules and cobalt-rich crusts, although to date no cobalt has been commercially
extracted from these. The major cobalt-producing regions are the Democratic Republic
of Congo (DRC) and Zambia, with some large deposits also known in Australia, Russia,
Cuba, New Caledonia and Canada.
Cobalt is produced and traded in many forms, including concentrates, intermediate
compounds, high-purity metal and salts. Pure cobalt metal is produced by two principal
processing routes, hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy. Hydrometallurgy relies on
differences in the solubility and electrochemical properties of different materials.
Following leaching, copper is recovered, and impurities removed before the recovery of
cobalt and, finally, of nickel, if any, is present. Pyrometallurgy uses differences in the
melting points and densities of materials to separate them. The ore is heated together
with a reducing agent to facilitate chemical reactions that separate the metals from
other compounds. Some impurities are driven off in gaseous form and others are
separated into a slag. After smelting, cobalt normally remains combined with nickel, and
the two are subsequently separated using electrolytic processes (solvent extraction and
electrowinning).
Source:BGS COMMODITY REVIEW – Cobalt,Mineral Commodity Summaries 2022 - Cobalt (usgs.gov)
63%
20%
14%
3%
Cobalt Mine Production by deposit type - 2017
Stratiform sediment -
hosted Cu-Co 63%
Ni-Co laterites 20%
Magmatic Ni-Cu (-Co-
PGE) 14%
Other 3%
Country
Mine Production
- 2021
% Production
Reserves
(tons)
% Global
Reserve
Congo (Kinshasa) 120,000 72.6% 3,500,000 45.8%
Russia7,600 4.6%250,000 3.3%
Other countries 6,600 4.0%610,000 8.0%
Australia5,600 3.4% 1,400,000 18.3%
Philippines4,500 2.7%260,000 3.4%
Canada4,300 2.6%220,000 2.9%
Cuba3,900 2.4%500,000 6.5%
Papua New
Guinea
3,000 1.8% 47,000 0.6%
Madagascar2,500 1.5%100,000 1.3%
Morocco2,300 1.4% 13,000 0.2%
China2,200 1.3% 80,000 1.0%
Indonesia2,100 1.3%600,000 7.8%
United States700 0.4% 69,000 0.9%
World total 165,300 100.0% 7,649,000 100.0%
Cobalt minerology, refining, reserves and mine production
Stratiform sediment-
hosted copper-cobalt
deposits
Nickel-cobalt laterite
deposits
Magmatic nickel-copper (-
cobalt-platinum-group
element) sulfide deposits 64 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Geometallurgy of cobalt ores: A review - ScienceDirect
Sediment hosted Cu-Co deposit
DRC, Zambia
Crushing,
milling
Acid leach
Neutralizati
on and CCD
Solvent
extraction
Impurity
removal
Precipita-
tion
Re-
leaching
Refining
Crushing,
milling
Froth
flotation
Sulfating
roasting
Acid leach
Neutralizati
on and CCD
Solvent
extraction
Impurity
removal
EW
Cu
route
Cu
route
Cobalt metalCobalt chemicals
Cu-Co oxide
ore
Cu-Co sulfide
ore
Hydroxide
Ni Laterites
Australia, New Caledonia, Cuba, Philippines
Drying,
crushing
Reduction
roasting
Ammonia
leach
CCD and
thickening
Solvent
extraction
Precipita-
tion
Neutralizati
on and CCD
Screening,
upgrading
HPAL
Preciptation
sulfide
Preciptation
hydroxide
Re-leachingRe-leaching
Solvent
extraction
Solvent
extraction
Hydrogen
reduction
EW
Ni
route
Ni
route
Cobalt metalCobalt powderCobalt sulfide
Nickel Limonite/
Saprolite ore
Nickel Limonite
ore
HydroxideSulfide
Magmatic Ni sulfides
Canada, Australia, Russia
Crushing,
milling
Froth
flotation
Drying or
roasting
Flash
furnace
Leaching
(Cl
2/NH
4/H
2SO
4)
Electric
furnace
Solvent
extraction
Hydrogen
reduction
EW
Ni
route
Cobalt metalCobalt powder
Nickel Sulfide
ore
Ni (Co) Concentrate`
Sulfide matte
Cobalt arsenide
Morocco
Crushing,
milling
Froth
flotation
Roasting
Acid leach
Solvent
extraction
EW
Screening,
upgrading
Cobalt metal
Cobalt Arsenide
ore
CCD: Counter Current Decanation, EW: Electrowinning, HPAL: High Pressure Acid Leaching
Refining cobalt ore to pure metal and battery grade chemical precursors 65 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:https://greet.es.anl.gov/files/update_cobalt
Refined CoSO
4reacts with ammonium bicarbonate (NH
4HCO
3) to produce a CoCO
3slurry
The produced CoCO
3slurry goes through centrifugation, filtration, and washing to produce a
concentrated CoCO
3solution.
The solution subsequently undergoes evaporation, drying, and an iron-removal step, to
produce a refined CoCO
3solid
The solid is then calcined to produce battery-grade Co
3O
4powder
NaOH
Open-pit
mining
Underground
mining
Ore milling
and flotation
Sulfatizing
roast
Leaching
Acid
production
Solvent
extraction
PrecipitationLeachingElectrowinningElectrowinning
Solvent
extraction
CoOOH
Synthesis
Calcination
Evaporation
and
crystallization
Drying
Cu-Co
ore
Sulfide
concentrate
Oxide
concen-
trate
Soluble Cu-Co
Oxides
Sulfur
Cu/Co
solution
Co solution
Crude
Co(OH)
2
H
2SO
4, Na
2S
2O
5
Cobalt metal
Cu
solution
Copper cathode
Kerosene
Crude
CoSO
4
solution
CoSO
4
solution
CoSO
4
crystal
Battery
grade Co
3O
4
Battery grade CoSO
4
H
2SO
4
Co
solution
MgO
SO
2
CoSO
4
solution
CoOOH
Refining process of Cu-Co oxide and sulfide ore to battery grade cobalt
Hydrometallurgical Processing
Milling is done which reduces the ore size to one that is suitable for subsequent mineral
extraction and leaching processes. The ore is converted into an enriched concentrate by
flotation.
Concentrate containing sulfides undergo sulfating roasting or pressure oxidation, which
converts sulfides into more soluble oxides. Then the concentrate can be fed to the leaching
tank. Concentrate containing oxides can be directly fed to the leaching tank.
The leached slurry then undergoes several solvent extraction and stripping steps to
increase the concentrations of copper and cobalt and separate them out as a copper-rich
solution and a cobalt-rich solution.
The cobalt-rich solution goes through a few precipitation steps to remove iron, aluminum,
and manganese impurities, and to recover contained copper.
In the end, magnesium oxide (MgO) is used to precipitate Co(OH)
2with ~35% cobalt content.
Battery Grade CoSO
4production
Co(OH)
2is treated with H
2SO
4, which leaches cobalt out as CoSO
4. Sodium metabisulfite
(Na
2S
2O
5) is also added to the leaching step to convert the remaining Co
3+
into Co
2+
.
The leached solution undergoes several precipitation steps to remove iron and aluminum.
Solvent extraction by P-204 to remove other impurities, another solvent extraction by P-
207 to separate cobalt from nickel, stripping by sulfuric acid to produce refined CoSO
4.
Finally, the solution is evaporated, followed by filtration and drying to produce battery-
grade CoSO
4crystals
Battery Grade Co
3O
4production 66 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:https://greet.es.anl.gov/files/update_cobalt
Mass allocationEconomic value allocation
CoSO4
production
Co3O4
production
Co
electrowinning
Mining Ore processing Mining Ore processing
Material consumption
Sulfur (ton/ton)--- 0.721--- 3.153 --- --- ---
Limestone (ton/ton)--- 0.938--- 4.102 0.056--- ---
Lime (ton/ton)--- 0.342--- 1.494 0.022--- ---
NaOH (ton/ton)--- 0.041--- 0.180 2.735 0.640---
MgO (ton/ton)--- 1.175--- 1.175 --- --- ---
H2SO4(ton/ton)------------ 2.570--- ---
HCI (ton/ton)------------ 1.409--- ---
Kerosene (ton/ton)------------ 0.047--- ---
Na2S2O5(ton/ton)------------ 0.080--- ---
NH4HCO3(ton/ton)------------ 0.574 1.850---
Na2CO3(ton/ton)------------ 0.088--- ---
Non-fuel-combustion process emissions
PM10 (g/ton)55,849--- 183,592--- --- --- ---
PM2.5(g/ton)5,764--- 18,949--- --- --- ---
SO2(g/ton)--- 6,575--- 28,760 --- --- ---
CO2(g/ton)--- 680,400---
Energy consumption
Diesel (MJ/ton)22,757--- 74,809--- --- --- ---
Electricity (MJ/ton)--- 7,075--- 30,946 10,909 112 11,104
Natural gas (MJ/ton)--------- 28,314 19,511---
Water consumption
Fresh water (m
3
/ton)6.66 34.06 21.90 148.98 49.56 12.44---
Life cycle inventory of materials and energy consumption for cobalt processing 67 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Life Cycle Assessment - Cobalt Institute
Electricity usage and direct emissions (e.g., diesel usage) are known impacts particularly for Global Warming Potential (GWP). Auxiliaries (i.e., chemicals)
contribute significantly for the emissions. It is notable that transportation, though a very visible impact in global value chains, accounts for between 7.5% of
the total product GWP.
0.5 0.7 0.3 2.6 2.3
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Mining Benification and
Operation
Tailings Primary
extraction
Refining
GHG emissions – Crude Cobalt Hydroxide [kg CO2 eq. / kg]
AuxillariesWaste water treatment Production of fuels
Direct emissions Raw materials productionElectricity
Total
0.3 0.3 0.1 1.0 2.0 0.004 0.3
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
MiningBenification
and
Operation
TailingsPrimary
extraction
RefiningWater and
waste water
treatment
Transport
GHG emissions - CoSO4.7H2O [kg CO2 eq. / kg]
AuxillariesWaste water treatment Production of fuels
TransportElectricity-onsite Water
Raw materials productionElectricity
Total
Global warming potential of different stages of Co(OH)2 and CoSO4 production 68 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
03/19 09/19 03/20 09/20 03/21 09/21 03/22 09/22
US$/ton
Cobalt
S.No. Mine Reserves (kt) Percentage (%)
1 Opuwo257 24.00%
2 Boss244 22.80%
3 Nkana Slag 152 14.20%
4 Thackaringa 81 7.60%
5 Nico74 6.90%
6 SCONI72 6.70%
7 Luiswishi 38 3.60%
8 Mt Thirsty 32 3.00%
9 Idaho Cobalt Operations 28 2.60%
10 Norseman27 2.50%
11 Bou-Azzer 16 1.50%
12 Iron Creek 11.3 1.10%
13 Kipushi Tailings 10.4 1.00%
14 Kambove9.4 0.90%
15 Kasese Tailings 9.4 0.90%
16 Coronation Dam 4.3 0.40%
17 Flemington 2.7 0.30%
18 Wollogorang 1.2 0.10%
19 McAra0.6 0.10%
20 Werner Lake 0.3 0.00%
MineCompanyList of ownersLOM Production - 2020 (t)
Bou-AzzerCompagnie de Tifnout Tighanimine Managem S.A. (Owner) 99.79%; Unnamed Owner (Owner) 0.21%2,416
Idaho Cobalt OperationsJervois Global LimitedJervois Global Limited (Owner) 100%7
Mt ThirstyConico Ltd.Conico Ltd (Venturer) 50%; Greenstone Resources Limited (Venturer) 50% 12
ThackaringaCobalt Blue Holdings Limited Cobalt Blue Holdings Limited (Owner) 100%17
FlemingtonAustralian Mines LimitedAustralian Mines Limited (Owner) 100%18
NicoFortune Minerals LimitedFortune Minerals Limited (Owner) 100%20
SCONIAustralian Mines LimitedAustralian Mines Limited (Owner) 100%30
-
50
100
150
200
250
300
Cobalt Reserves (kilo ton)
Reserves and assets of cobalt, price history of cobalt 69 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis
Company Project
Product
type
Project
development
stage
Expected
capacity
(TPA)
Capex
(US$m)
Projected
completion
Project details
Glencore
Production step-up from 2022 in line with the ramp-up of Mutanda (to c.10kt p.a. over the outlook period)
and higher volumes from the Katanga cobalt circuit
Polymet Mining
Corp.
NorthMet project
Cobalt
concentrate
and
hydroxide
1,204
Phase I: produce and market copper and nickel concentrates
Phase II: production of nickel- cobalt hydroxide, and precious metals precipitate products
Vale Voisey's Bay
Cobalt
deposit
Open pit mine nearing the end. Underground mining to develop two new ore bodies, extending to 2034.
Signed deal in 2018 worth $690 million for sale of by product cobalt with Wheaton Precious Metals Corp and
Cobalt 27 Capital Corp
Electra Battery
Minerals
Battery Materials
Park - Cobalt
Refinery
Battery
grade
cobalt
Construction6,500 2,025
Phase 1 - Funded US$67m capital for commissioning in Dec'22. Operate refinery in North America with 50
tons per day (tpd) Co(OH)2feed from Glencore and IXM; Ramping up to 6,500t battery grade cobalt per year
Phase 2 - Recycling demonstration plant with the investment of US$3m. Work commenced to commission
lithium -ion battery recycling line in 2023 in Ontario, Canada.
Phase 3, Nickel sulfate plant, initially producing in excess of 60,000 tons of nickel.
phase 4, replicate in Finland, South Korea and China, catering to a rapidly expanding battery cell industry in
the U.S. and Canada.
China
Molybdenum
KFM copper and
cobalt mine in
DRC
Cobalt
deposit
Drilling
Exploration work during 2021. A total of 14 drilling holes were completed with a total drilling footage of
4,937.5 meters.
China
Molybdenum
TFM copper and
cobalt mine in
DRC
Cobalt
deposit
Drilling
Exploration activities in 2021 around the copper and cobalt and limestone deposit. Geological exploration
activities carried out in DDPN, Pumpi west, Kamalondo south, Fungurume Hill, Kansalawile south, Mambilima
and Mofya
Electra Battery
Minerals
Iron Creek project
Cobalt
deposit
Drilling
Completed 2,500-metre drill program in 2021, targeting extensions to the resource along strike to the
cobalt-rich east and copper-rich west. Increase the resource size at Iron Creek and advance the asset
towards a development decision in next 2 years
Sherritt
International
Moa - slurry prep
plant
Mixed
sulfides
Production 1,700 27 2,024
Slurry Prep Plant - increased mixed sulfides feed for refinery; reduced ore haulage distances; reduced carbon
intensity; underpins expansion with the capacity of 1,700 tons of increased mixed sulfides production. Total
budget within US$20k to US$25k per ton of increased nickel capacity.
Sherritt
International
Fort
Saskatchewan
refinery
Refined
metal
Debottlenecking
Current annual capacity of ~35,000 (100% basis) tons of nickel and ~3,800 (100% basis) tons of cobalt.
Debottlenecking at Fort site - upgrade/expand equipment to increase total refined metal output capacity to
~41,000 tpa.
Capital projects under pipeline 70 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Strategies and
action plan for
supporting
domestic value
addition 07 71 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Strategic interventionLithiumNickelCobaltGraphite
Domestic exploration,
mining and refining of
critical battery minerals
Preliminary exploration (G3) in the
Salal-Haimana area of Reasi District of
Jammu and Kashmir (UT) has
indicated ~5.9 million tons of mineral
bearing resources in the inferred
category
Lack of mining and refining capacity
necessitates reliance on imports
~189 million tons of mineral
bearing resources estimated in
Odisha, Jharkhand and
Nagaland
Lack of mining and limited
refining capacity for battery
grade nickel precursor
necessitates reliance on imports
~45 million tons of
estimated mineral bearing
resources in Odisha,
Jharkhand and Nagaland
Limited refining capacity
necessitates reliance on
imports
Graphite deposits of economic importance and
active mining centers are in Jharkhand,
Odisha and Tamil Nadu
Spherical graphite refining capacity is
negligible and therefore necessitates reliance
on imports
Private sector announcements to manufacture
spherical graphite may reduce import reliance
in future
Overseas exploration and
mining of critical battery
minerals
G2G dialogues are advancing with friendly countries (e.g., Australia, Chile, Argentina, Bolivia etc.) for joint exploration and mining; Government of India has set
up KABIL to ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals through G2G negotiations and acquiring mining assets abroad
Establish supply chain
linkages with friendly
foreign countries
G2G dialogues are advancing for setting up ‘Critical Minerals Security Partnership (CMSP)’ among G20 member countries and also within the Indo-Pacific
economic framework
R&D to develop recycling,
extraction technologies and
find earth abundant
alternatives to critical
battery minerals
A private sector start up based in Noida has established recycling technology with commercialized products and services
DST has supported 42 projects to disseminate the knowledge of advancement in future energy materials - aluminum ion batteries, sodium ion batteries,
polymer batteries and graphene-based batteries
ARCI has been engaged in the development of indigenous technologies to produce electrode materials (cathode and anode)
ISRO is working on indigenization of Graphite based materials for Space applications. R&D efforts on advanced materials based on cylindrical cells aim to
further improve energy density, cycle life and safety
Department of Atomic Energy has fabricated Sodium ion coin cell with an energy density of ~200Wh per kilogram using indigenously synthesized electrode
material. A cost-effective lab scale synthesis procedure for electrode materials has been established and the technology has been transferred to several
companies. Several efficient cathode materials for the next generation Li-S battery have also been developed. A polymer-based proton battery has also been
designed and fabricated
CECRI has been engaged in cheaper iron based redox flow batteries for stationary energy storage applications. They have also focused on scaling up the
synthesis of high-power Li-ion battery materials and utilizing electrospun nanofibers as functional materials for Lithium-Sulfur batteries. They are also
developing new magnesium-sulfur (Mg-S) battery chemistry and electrodes through synthesis, characterization, and simulations.
Strategies for critical battery mineral supply chain resilience – status quo review 72 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Strategic intervention Action plan
Domestic exploration, mining
and refining of critical mineral
resources
National stockpiling of refined mineral precursors used in LIB electrodes
Incentives for critical battery mineral exploration, mining and extraction through appropriate royalty and tax regimes
PLI for setting up critical mineral processing / refining units, especially for Li2CO3 / LiOH, NiSO4, CoSO4 and Spherical
graphite
Production linked incentives for extraction of critical minerals through recycling LIBs
Overseas exploration and
mining of critical mineral
resources
Strengthen Indian missions in critical mineral bearing foreign countries to facilitate due diligence of greenfield / brownfield
mining assets, acquisition and investment by Indian companies
Strengthen KABIL to plan and undertake joint exploration, mining activities in critical mineral bearing foreign countries
Establish supply chain linkages
with friendly foreign countries
“G20 Critical Minerals Security Partnership” (G20-CMSP) should focus on building resilient supply chain of critical battery
minerals, including stockpiles in different member countries as per comparative advantages in extraction and processing
Key stakeholders should prioritize Critical Battery Minerals Supply Chain as a key pillar of Indo-Pacific economic framework
and a key factor in diplomatic outreach with mineral bearing foreign countries
R&D to develop recycling,
extraction technologies and
find earth abundant
alternatives to critical battery
minerals
Formulate national R&D grand challenge for:
developing high performance LIB electrodes made from earth abundant alternatives
direct lithium extraction technologies from seawater that canselectively separate lithium from sea water using physical or
chemical processes
Strategies for critical battery mineral supply chain resilience – action plan until 2030 73 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Domestic exploration, mining and refining of critical battery minerals (Li, Ni, Co and Graphite)
Key stakeholders and action plan until 2030
1324
National stockpiling of refined mineral precursors used in LIB electrodes
Strategic reserves of battery mineral precursors can act as buffer against
global supply chain disruptions and extreme volatility in commodity prices
Key stakeholders:Ministry of Mines and KABIL
PLI scheme for setting up critical battery mineral processing / refining
units from ore concentrates
Key stakeholders:Department of Chemicals & Petrochemicals for battery
grade Li precursors from ore concentrates; Ministry of Mines for battery
grade Ni, Co and Spherical Graphite commodities
Incentives for critical battery mineral exploration and mining through
appropriate royalty and tax regimes
Key stakeholders:Ministry of Mines, state governments of J&K, Odisha,
Jharkhand, Nagaland, Tamil Nadu and others with identified mineral bearing
resources
PLI scheme for extraction of critical battery minerals from recycling
used LIBs
Key stakeholders:NITI Aayog and Ministry of Environment & Forests for
regulated mechanism involving collection and transportation of used Li-
ion batteries from end users to OEMs / recycling companies 74 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Overseas exploration and mining of critical battery mineral resources (Li, Ni and Co)
Key stakeholders and action plan until 2030
12
Strengthen Indian missions in critical mineral bearing foreign
countries to facilitate due diligence of greenfield / brownfield
mining assets, acquisition and investment by Indian companies
Technical assistance from domain experts in critical battery mineral
resources exploration, extraction, asset due diligence and
acquisitions in India’s foreign missions of critical mineral bearing
countries can add significant value
Key stakeholders:
Indian missions in Australia, Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, DRC,
Indonesia, etc.
Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India
NITI Aayog
KABIL
Strengthen KABIL to accelerate plan and undertake exploration,
mining activities in critical mineral bearing foreign countries
Institutional capacity building and resources for undertaking
technology enabled reconnaissance and prospecting activities, due
diligence for economic viability of mining operations, environmental
and social impact assessment, compliance with local laws, etc.
Key stakeholders:Ministry of Mines, NITI Aayog, NALCO, HCL, MECL 75 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Establish supply chain linkages with friendly foreign countries
Key stakeholders and action plan until 2030
12
“G20 Critical Minerals Security Partnership” (G20-CMSP)
CMSP should focus on building resilient supply chain of critical
battery minerals, including stockpiles in different member
countries, as per comparative advantages in extraction and
processing. Joint technology development collaborations for
chemical processing from ore concentrates, recycling etc. should
also be focused.
Key stakeholders:
Ministry of External Affairs
Ministry of Mines
G20 secretariat
NITI Aayog
Critical Battery Minerals Supply Chain should be prioritized as a
key pillar of Indo-Pacific economic framework and a key factor in
diplomatic outreach with mineral bearing foreign countries
Key stakeholders:
Ministry of External Affairs
Ministry of Mines
NITI Aayog 76 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Key stakeholders and action plan until 2030
R&D to develop LIB recycling, extraction technologies, and earth abundant alternatives to critical battery
minerals1
Formulate national R&D grand challenge for developing high
performance LIB electrodes made from earth abundant
alternatives.
Focus should be cost optimization of active cathode and anode
materials (< 20 USD/kWh) for mass adoption of LIBs.
Key stakeholders:
NITI Aayog
Ministry of Science & Technology
DST
ARCI
ISRO
DEA
CERCI
Academia
2
Formulate national R&D grand challenge for direct lithium
extraction technologies from seawater that can selectively separate
lithium from sea water using physical or chemical processes.
Focus should be extracting lithium with lower GHG emissions, energy
consumption, higher yield, lower cost, less production time and many
other advantages. Testing of discharge from Seawater desalination
plants to evaluate lithium concentration and economics of DLE.
Key stakeholders:
NITI Aayog
Ministry of Science & Technology
DST
ARCI
ISRO
DEA
CERCI 77 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
References and
Annexure 08 78 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Input Materials
Inventory required
for 1 ton Li2CO3
Inventory required
for 1 ton LiOH.H2O
Unit
Demand to
manufacture 56
thousand tons/annum
Li2CO3
Demand to
manufacture 64
thousand tons/annum
Li2OH.H2O
Demand to manufacture
100GWh/annum LIBs
(12% Li2CO3and 88%
LiOH.H2O)**
Unit
Spodumene
concentrate
7.36.4 ton 409408408 thousand ton
H2SO41.711.52 ton 969796 thousand ton
Na2CO32.050.03 ton 115215 thousand ton
NaOH0.050.67 ton 34338 thousand ton
CaCO30.700.60 ton 393838 thousand ton
Fresh water 40.0011.24 m
3
2200715892 thousand ton
*Li
2CO3 to LiOH.H
2O conversion factor of 1.14 is applied by conserving the mass of Lithium.
** By 2030, global demand for LiOH is estimated as ~1.4 million metric tons LCE (~1.59 million metric tons LiOH.H
2O), while Li
2CO
3demand as 218,000 metric tons LCE as
per the BNEF article. This gives the demand ratio of Li
2CO
3to LiOH.H
2O as 12:88. (Will the Real Lithium Demand Please Stand Up? Challenging the 1Mt-by-2025 Orthodoxy
| BloombergNEF (bnef.com))
Raw material requirements for producing 100 GWh/annum of LIBs
Critical materials
Demand to manufacture 100 GWh /
annum LIBs (Thousand
tons/annum)
Cathode active material 193
Graphite98
Aluminum91
Copper41
Electrolyte: LiPF
6 8
Chemical precursors
Demand to manufacture ~193 thousand ton/annum
active cathode material (Thousand tons/annum)
Li
2CO
356
NiSO
453
CoSO
448
Demand to manufacture 100 GWh/annum LIBs (Thousand tons/annum)
Li
2CO
356
LiOH.H
2O*64 79 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Recycling MethodProsConsRecovered Materials
Hydrometallurgy
(most common)
Applicable to any battery
chemistry and configuration
Only economical for batteries
containing Co and Ni
Copper, Aluminum, cobalt,
Li2CO3. Anode is destroyed
Pyrometallurgy
(smelting)
Applicable to any battery
chemistry and configuration
Only economical for batteries
containing Co and Ni; Gas clean-up
required to avoid release of toxic
substances
Cobalt, nickel, copper,
some iron. Anode is
destroyed
Direct Recycling
(supercritical CO2)
Almost all battery materials can
be recovered
Recovered material may not
perform as well as virgin material,
mixing cathode materials could
reduce value of recycled product
Almost all components
(except separators)
Source:Economics and Challenges of Li-Ion Battery Recycling from End-of-Life Vehicles (nrel.gov),
Technologies of lithium recycling from waste lithium ion batteries: a review - Materials Advances (RSC Publishing)
Binder
Waste lithium-ion batteries
Discharging
(submerge in salt solution)
Dismantling and
Separation
(b) Solvent treatment (c) Calcination
(b) Mechanical treatment
Shearing crushing
(cutting)
Impact crushing
(Comminution)
Dry sieving
(Size separation)
Ultrasonic
inNMP
Thermal treatment
(600C/15min)
Washing and drying
Separation and Sorting
Ptlastic,
separator
Electrode plate
(Cathode, Anode)
Binder
Cu, Al foil
Al, Cu
Plastic
Separator
Active Materials
(Cathode, Anode)
Crushed waste LIBs
Pre-treatment methods
Cathode:
LiNi
xMn
yCo
2O
2...
Anode: Li
xC
6
Active Materials Leaching
Leaching in
acid, alkali
Co
3+
, Ni
3+
,
Mn
3+
, Li
+
ion
solution
Adding
Precipitant
(NaOH, NH
4OH)
Precipitant
Separation
Precipitant
(Co, Mn...)
Precipitation
pH adjustment
Co, Mn, Ni precipitation
Li solution
Precipitation
Adding
Extractant
(Cyanex 272)
Solution separation
Non-aqueous dissolved Co
3+
, Ni
3+
, Mn
3+
Aqueous dissolved Li
+
Non-
aqueous
Aqueous
Others
(Co, Mn...)
Aqueous
solution
Solvent extraction
Adding Li ion
Sieve (MnO
2)
Others
(Co, Mn...)
Sieve
Acid
Li adsorption
Manganese type Sieve
Selective adsorbs Li
+
Sieve acid
leaching
Selective adsorption
Adding
precipitant
(Na
2CO
3)
Li precipitation
Na
2CO
3-> 2Na
+
+ CO
3
2-
2Li
+
+ CO
3
2-
-> Li
2CO
3(s)
Li chemical
(Li
2CO
3)
Hydrometallurgy
Process flow of li-ion battery recycling 80 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:MIT Study on the Future of Energy Storage, June 2022
The chemical cost of stored energy for
battery electro chemistries is shown
against the year in which the system
first appeared in the public domain.
Technologies pre-1900 are shown
against the left axis.
Chemical cost is calculated as the cost
of the negative electrode material,
positive electrode material, and
electrolyte, divided by the stored
energy.
Abbreviations: LMO = lithium
manganese oxide, LCO = lithium cobalt
oxide, LFP = lithium iron phosphate,
LNMO = lithium nickel manganese
oxide, LTO = lithium titanium oxide,
NMC = lithium nickel manganese cobalt
oxide, NCA = lithium nickel cobalt
aluminum oxide, P2-MN = P2-type
sodium manganese nickel oxide, NTP =
sodium titanium phosphate, NMO =
nickel manganese oxide, NiCd = nickel–
cadmium, NiMH = nickel metal hydride,
AQDS = 9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-
disulfonic acid
Chemical cost of stored energy for existing and emerging battery electro chemistries 81 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
1.Need–for–ACC–Energy–Storage–in–India.pdf
(niti.gov.in)
2.ACC Scheme Notification 9June21.pdf
(heavyindustries.gov.in)
3.Update of Bill-of-Materials and Cathode
Chemistry addition for Lithium-ion Batteries in
GREET 2020, Argonne National Laboratory
4.BatPaCV5.0 by UChicago Argonne, LLC
5.Nickel sulfate vs metal: Is the market shifting
towards new pricing mechanisms? | S&PGlobal Commodity Insights (spglobal.com)6.Green Metals Battery Metals Watch The endof the beginning (goldmansachs.com)7.MIT Study on the Future of Energy Storage,
June 2022
8.Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- I:
General Reviews); 59
th
Edition, MINERAL-
BASED INDUSTRIES, INDIAN BUREAU OF
MINES, September 2022
9.Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II:
Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel,
INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
10.CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL
STATISTICS AT A GLANCE - 2021, Ministry of
Chemicals and Fertilizers, Department of
Chemicals and Petrochemicals, Statistics and
Monitoring Division
11.https://tradestat.commerce.gov.in/;
12.http://www.eximguru.com/indian-customs-duty/
13.https://www.batterybrunch.org/battery–
report
14.https://www.iea.org/reports/india–energy–
outlook–2021
15.https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=
&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiVtd3m_L78AhXuXGwGHRbQAKAQz40FegQIRRAn&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DAo1tvps_-ZQ&usg=AOvVaw0JjpTkSahOAvgLYCqNPKiR&cshid=167342158168154716.https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiVtd3m_L78AhXuXGwGHRbQAKAQz40FegQISxAY&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DzhP8KV0Bo7I&usg=AOvVaw3kgnuqrMrJ6SzQ0VzCatph&cshid=167342159421948217.(10) Modern Mining - How Eagle Mine
produces nickel and copper – YouTube
18.Lithium Production Processes – ScienceDirect,
Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycleanalysis of lithium carbonate and lithiumhydroxide monohydrate from brine and oreresources and their use in lithium ion batterycathodes and lithium ion batteries –ScienceDirect19.lithium-processing-technology-brochure.pdf(flsmidth.com)20.Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycleanalysis of lithium carbonate and lithiumhydroxide monohydrate from brine and oreresources and their use in lithium ion batterycathodes and lithium ion batteries –ScienceDirect21.Lithium costs up in 2021, continuing to surgein 2022 | S&P Global Market Intelligence(spglobal.com);22.Geopolitical fears, soaring prices spur lithium
M&A frenzy in China | S&P Global Market
Intelligence (spglobal.com)23.Commodities 2023: Lithium prices likely tosee support from tight supply, bullish EVdemand | S&P Global Commodity Insights(spglobal.com)24.Technical Report NI 43-101, PreliminaryEconomic Assessment, Canadian LiOH Project(minedocs.com)25.Industrial-Policy2020.pdf (gujarat.gov.in),26.https://ficci.in/spdocument/23084/WhitePaper on PCPIR Policy Review.pdf,27.Reserve Bank of India - Publications(rbi.org.in),
28.Rajasthan Investment Promotion Scheme
2022
29.Global Value Chains: Graphite in Lithium-ion
Batteries for Electric Vehicles gvc_paper.pdf
(usitc.gov),
30.https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/graphite
-statistics-and-information31.Performance and cost of materials for lithium-based rechargeable automotive batteries |Nature Energy32.http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=EDATA&f=cmID%3APK
33.Life cycle assessment of natural graphite
production for lithium-ion battery anodesbased on industrial primary data –ScienceDirect,34.Material and energy flows in the production of
cathode and anode materials for lithium ion
batteries 121442.pdf (anl.gov)
35.Life of Nickel by Nickel Institute
36.Glencore Nickel presentation dated May 2021
37.BGS COMMODITY REVIEW – Cobalt,
38.Mineral Commodity Summaries 2022 - Cobalt(usgs.gov)
39.Geometallurgy of cobalt ores: A review –
ScienceDirect
40.https://greet.es.anl.gov/files/update_cobalt
41.Life Cycle Assessment - Cobalt Institute
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Jain. 2023. How Can India Indigenise Lithium-
ion Battery Manufacturing? Formulating
Strategies across the Value Chain. New Delhi:
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(2023). Assessing the Criticality of Minerals
for India: 2023 (CSEP Working Paper 49).
New Delhi: Centre for Social and Economic
Progress
44.Ternary Precursor and Material prices | New
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minerals supply chain for
domestic value addition
in lithium-ion battery
manufacturing
June 2023
Enter >>Enter >> 2
Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Authors
NITI Aayog:
Sudhendu J Sinha, Adviser, NITI Aayog
Joseph Teja, NITI Aayog
Gautam Sharma, NITI Aayog
Nidhi Jha, NITI Aayog
Ernst & Young LLP:
Somesh Kumar, Partner & Leader (Power & Utilities)
GPS, EY India
Shuboday Ganta, Director, EY India
Ankit Idwani, Senior Associate, EY India
Authors and Acknowledgements
Contacts
For more information, contact Joseph Teja <jay.teja@nic.in>
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the team at ADB led by
Mr. Jiwan Acharya (Principal Energy Specialist) and Mr. Keerthi
Kumar Challa (Project Officer Energy) for their contributions
and guidance in shaping this report.
Suggested Citation
NITI Aayog, From Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply
Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing,
June 2023.
This report was produced as a part of TA 6726-IND: Promoting Clean
Energy Usage Through Enhanced Adoption of Electric Vehicles and
Grid Integration of Battery Storage System, co-financed on a grant
basis by the Asian Clean Energy Fund, established by Government of
Japan, under the Clean Energy Financing Partnership Facility and
administered by ADB. Advanced chemistry cell (ACC) batteries are the bed rock of future low carbon transportation and energy systems. India’s domestic ACC battery
manufacturing industry is fast emerging with support from government initiatives on both demand and supply side. Critical minerals supply chain,
especially lithium, cobalt, nickel and spherical graphite, refining for active materials are vital to achieve domestic value addition in the manufacturing of
ACC battery electrodes. By localizing the mining and refining value chain of critical minerals, India can reduce its reliance on imports and help build
resilience in global supply chains.
NITI Aayog has been studying the mine to market landscape of critical minerals and active materials used in the production of lithium-ion batteries (LIB).
As global demand for lithium-ion batteries continues to rise, India has a unique opportunity to support resilient supply chains of critical minerals,
establish self-reliance and reduce imports. Some developed countries have combined demand side incentives for consumers and businesses to purchase
clean vehicles with programs to expand domestic manufacturing and sourcing of critical minerals and battery components. In these countries, the
battery’s critical minerals must meet certain requirements for sourcing or processing domestically for eligibility of EV demand side incentives.
India has become the newest partner in the US led Mineral Security Partnership (MSP) to bolster critical mineral supply chains. The partnership aims to
accelerate the development of diverse and sustainable critical mineral supply chains. Apart from this, G2G dialogues are advancing with friendly
countries for joint exploration and mining. Government of India has set up KABIL to ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals through
G2G negotiations and acquiring mining assets abroad.
This report provides useful information and insights to policymakers, industry, investors, partners and stakeholders in the ACC battery and critical
minerals ecosystem. The report may serve as a catalyst for transformative change and drive India's sustainable development agenda forward. We are
confident that it will lay a foundation for informed decision-making and enable stakeholders to capitalize on the immense opportunities presented by the
localization of the ACC battery value chain in India.
Mr. Sudhendu J Sinha
Adviser (Infrastructure Connectivity – Transport and Electric Mobility)
NITI Aayog
3 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Foreword 4
A thriving domestic lithium-ion battery (LIB) manufacturing industry will need resilient supply chains of critical minerals and raw materials, such as lithium (Li),
nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and spherical graphite to manufacture key LIB components and boost domestic value addition.
The first two chapters in the report provide in-depth analysis of the bill of materials for manufacturing LIBs, demand outlook for critical minerals and raw
materials essential for supporting domestic value addition. A status quo analysis of the current landscape of critical mineral reserves, production, refining
capacity, trade statistics and market participants is drawn from the Indian Minerals and trade statistics published by relevant authorities.
In subsequent chapters, the report provides an international perspective of critical minerals processing / refining technologies for production of battery grade
raw materials and chemical precursors (viz. Li2CO3, LiOH, NiSO4, CoSO4 and Spherical Graphite) that are critical for domestic value addition. The bill of
ancillary chemicals, energy and emissions footprint typically involved in the domestic production of these critical minerals is analyzed. The report also
provides techno-economics of critical minerals extraction, global reserves and capital projects in pipeline for critical mineral commodities.
In the final chapter, the report provides key strategies adopted globally for building resilient supply chains of critical minerals, review of government
interventions and high-level recommendations (action plan) for different stakeholders involved in the development of critical minerals supply chain,
technologies and capital projects.
Overall, the report draws information from various sources in the public domain to analyze the critical minerals supply chain landscape and recommend
interventions for supporting domestic value addition in the LIB manufacturing industry by 2030. Some of the key highlights from the report are below:
►India’s advance chemistry cell manufacturing industry will need ~193 thousand tons/annum of cathode active material to produce ~100 GWh / annum of
batteries by 2030.
►Critical minerals and their active materials used in the production of lithium-ion batteries (LIB) account for approx. 33%-48% of the overall LIB pack cost
depending on cathode chemistry and supply chain costs for mining and refining of critical minerals.
►The synthesis of Li-NMC and LFP active materials from critical mineral precursors alone can contribute ~12% domestic value addition in lithium-ion battery
(LIB) pack manufacturing.
►Policy should focus on scaling up LIB recycling infrastructure with production linked incentives to complement mining and extraction efforts of critical
minerals. This will aid in promoting environmentally sustainable waste management practices, reuse and disposal.
►Promote R&D for earth abundant alternatives to critical minerals used in ACC batteries, support lab to market commercialisation of products, provide start-
up incubators and technology industrialisation centres, and facilitate demonstration projects.
Executive Summary
Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 5 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
40896 38 38 15
Spodumene concentrate H2SO4 CaCO3 NaOH Na2CO3
565348
Li2CO3 NiSO4 CoSO4
Thousand tons/annum
Thousand tons/annum
*(US$ 1695 million)*(US$ 275 million)*(US$ 261 million)
Domestic manufacturing capacity of LIBs ~100 GWh/annum by 2030
1939891 418 91
Cathode Active MaterialGraphite Aluminium Copper Electrolyte: LiPF6Others
Thousand tons/annum60% LFP
25% NMC
15% LCO
88% LiOH
12% Li
2CO
3
* As per
Apr 2023
spot price
Demand for critical minerals and raw
materials in the LIB value chain by 2030 6 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Demand for critical minerals and raw
materials in the LIB value chain by 2030
Source: Update of Bill-of-Materials and Cathode Chemistry addition for Lithium-ion
Batteries in GREET 2020, Argonne National Laboratory
ItemLMO NMC111 LFP NMC532 NMC622 NMC811 NCA
Active cathode material2.36 1.78 2.06 1.72 1.50 1.27 1.38
Carbon black0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.03
Graphite0.80 0.90 1.05 0.88 0.89 0.92 0.90
Binder (PVDF)0.07 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.05
Copper0.44 0.33 0.47 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.26
Aluminum0.24 0.19 0.26 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.15
Electrolyte: LiPF60.08 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05
Electrolyte: Ethylene Carbonate 0.21 0.18 0.29 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15
Electrolyte: Dimethyl Carbonate 0.21 0.18 0.29 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15
Plastic: Polypropylene0.04 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02
Plastic: Polyethylene0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Plastic: Polyethylene Terephthalate 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Subtotal cell4.50 3.78 4.70 3.61 3.33 3.21 3.17
Module components sans cell (kg)
Copper0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Aluminum0.20 0.18 0.23 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15
Plastic: Polyethylene0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Insulation0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Electronic part0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Subtotal : Module components sans cell 0.22 0.20 0.25 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.18
Pack components sans module (kg)
Copper0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Aluminum0.47 0.44 0.52 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.41
Steel0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02
Insulation0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Coolant0.11 0.12 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13
Electronic part0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
Subtotal : Pack components sans module 0.70 0.67 0.79 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64
Total pack5.42 4.65 5.74 4.45 4.15 4.03 3.98
Bill of materials (BOM) in LIB cell to pack assembly (kg per kWh)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
LFP battery bill of materials (kg per kWh)
Plastic: Polyethylene
Terephthalate
Plastic: Polyethylene
Insulation
Steel
Plastic: Polypropylene
Carbon black
Binder (PVDF)
Electrolyte: LiPF6
Electronic part
Coolant
Electrolyte: Dimethyl
Carbonate
Electrolyte: Ethylene
Carbonate
Copper
Aluminum
Graphite
Active cathode material
Bill of materials (BOM) in LIB cell to pack assembly (kg per kWh) 7 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
90.0%
100.0%
LFP NMC 811 NMC 622Total cost of profits and
warranty
10.9% 9.7% 10.1%
Total cost of BMS3.3% 2.6% 2.8%Total cost of manufacturing 20.2% 14.6% 16.5%Total cost of purchased
items
14.3% 10.7% 12.0%
Total cost of materials 51.4% 62.4% 58.6%
Cost breakdown as % share of LIB pack cost
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
LFP NMC 811 NMC 622
Additives0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Electrolyte4.2% 2.2% 2.6%
Separators6.1% 2.5% 3.1%
Negative current collector 5.1% 2.1% 2.6%
Positive current collector 0.8% 0.3% 0.4%
Solvents1.7% 0.9% 1.1%
Binders0.8% 0.5% 0.6%
Carbon additive0.3% 0.2% 0.2%
Negative active material 9.8% 7.1% 7.9%
Positive active material 22.6% 46.7% 40.1%
Material cost break down as % share of LIB pack cost
Bill of materials and manufacturing cost
breakdown for LIBs 8 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
11% 10% 12% 10% 10% 9% 11% 13% 13% 15% 13% 14% 11% 11% 12% 12%
4% 5%
5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 9% 9% 10% 10% 16% 20% 21% 21%
7% 9%
9% 8% 8% 9% 9% 8%
8% 9% 10% 10%
10%
9% 10% 10%
10% 10% 8% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10%
9% 9% 9% 9%
9%
9%
11% 11%
0.3%
0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2% 0.2%
21.7
23.6 24.5
23.3 23.3 23.6
25.8
27.6
30.1
32.9
34.2
36.3
41.0
47.8
55.3 55.3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
01-01-2021 01-02-2021 01-03-2021 01-04-2021 01-05-2021 01-06-2021 01-07-2021 01-08-2021 01-09-2021 01-10-2021 01-11-2021 01-12-2021 01-01-2022 01-02-2022 01-03-2022 01-04-2022
US$/kg
Cost % as share of battery pack cost
Cost breakdown of cathode active material as a % share of NMC-622 LIB pack cost
CAM Processing Li2CO3 CoSO4 NiSO4 MnSO4
Li-NMC 622 (US$/kg)
3% 4% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 7%
10% 11%
14% 12% 11% 12% 12%4%
5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7%
9%
9%
10%
9% 15%
20%
21% 21%
4%
4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
3%
3%
3% 3%
5.0
5.9 6.2 6.5 6.8 6.8 6.8
7.5
9.3
11.2
12.4
14.3
17.1
20.5
22.4 22.4
0
5
10
15
20
25
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
01-01-2021 01-02-2021 01-03-2021 01-04-2021 01-05-2021 01-06-2021 01-07-2021 01-08-2021 01-09-2021 01-10-2021 01-11-2021 01-12-2021 01-01-2022 01-02-2022 01-03-2022 01-04-2022
US$/kg
Cost % as share of battery pack cost
Cost breakdown of cathode active material as a % share of LFP LIB pack cost
CAM Processing Li2CO3 FePO4
LFP (US$/kg)
Value addition from cathode active
materials in the production of LIBs 9 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Strategic intervention Action Plan
Domestic exploration,
mining and refining of
critical mineral resources
National stockpiling of refined mineral precursors used in LIB electrodes
Incentives for critical battery mineral exploration, mining and extraction through appropriate royalty and tax regimes
PLI for setting up critical mineral processing / refining units, especially for Li2CO3 / LiOH, NiSO4, CoSO4 and Spherical
graphite
Production linked incentives for extraction of critical minerals through recycling LIBs
Overseas exploration and
mining of critical mineral
resources
Strengthen Indian missions in critical mineral bearing foreign countries to facilitate due diligence of greenfield / brownfield
mining assets, acquisition and investment by Indian companies
Strengthen KABIL to plan and undertake joint exploration, mining activities in critical mineral bearing foreign countries
Establish supply chain
linkages with friendly foreign
countries
“G20 Critical Minerals Security Partnership” should focus on building resilient supply chain of critical battery minerals,
including stockpiles in different member countries as per comparative advantages in extraction and processing
Critical Battery Minerals Supply Chain should be prioritized as a key pillar of Indo-Pacific economic framework and a key
factor in diplomatic outreach with mineral bearing foreign countries
R&D to develop recycling,
extraction technologies and
find earth abundant
alternatives to critical
battery minerals
Formulate national R&D grand challenge for:
developing high performance LIB electrodes made from earth abundant alternatives
direct lithium extraction technologies from seawater that canselectively separate lithium from sea water using physical or
chemical processes
2030 Action plan for building resilience in
critical battery mineral supply chains CONTENTS
Section 1
Lithium-ion battery:
bill of materials and
demand outlook for
critical minerals
Section 2
Status quo analysis of
critical mineral supply
chain relevant for
battery manufacturing in
India
Section 3
International
perspective: Lithium
minerology, refining, bill
of materials, reserves
and assets
Section 4
International
perspective: Spherical
graphite processing, bill
of materials, reserves
and assets
Section 5
International
perspective : nickel ore
to battery market —
pathways, reserves and
assets
Section 6
International
perspective: cobalt ore
to battery market —
pathways, reserves and
assets
Section 7
Strategies and action
plan for supporting
domestic value
addition
Section 8
References and
Annexure
10
Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 11 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Acronyms
ACU Acid Purification Unit
ADB Asian Development Bank
Al Aluminum
AMD Atomic Minerals Directorate
AP Andhra Pradesh
ARCI
International Advanced Research Centre
for Powder Metallurgy and New
Materials
BatPaC Battery Performance and Cost
BMS Battery Management System
Ca Calcium
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate
CAM Cathode active material
CaO Calcium oxide
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CCD Counter Current Decanation
CERCI
Central Electrochemical Research
Institute
Cl2 Chlorine
CMSP Critical Battery Minerals Supply Chain
Co Cobalt
Co(OH)2 Cobaltous Hydroxide
CO2eq. Carbon dioxide equivalent
Co3O4 Cobalt(II, III) oxide
CoCO3 Cobalt carbonate
CoOOH Cobaltic Oxyhydroxide
Co-PGE Cobalt—Platinum—Group Element
CoSO4 Cobalt sulfate
CoSO4.7H2OCobalt sulfate heptahydrate
CSIR Council of Scientific & Industrial Research
Cu Copper
DAE Department of Atomic Energy
DEA Department of Economic Affairs
DIPP
Department of Industrial Policy and
Promotion
DMG Department of Mines and Geology
DMIC Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor
DMT Dimethyl Terephthalate
DPIIT
Department for Promotion of Industry
and Internal Trade
DRC Democratic Republic of Congo
DST Department Of Science & Technology
EMD Electrolytic Manganese Dioxide
EMEW Electro metal Electro winning
EPCM
Engineering, Procurement and
Construction Management
ETP Effluent Treatment Plant
EVs Electric Vehicles
EW Electrowinning
EY Ernst & Young
FC Fixed Carbon
FCI Fixed Capital investment
Fe Iron
Fe Iron
FePO4 Ferric phosphate
FSP Field Season Program
g grams
G2G Government to Government
GHG Greenhouse Gases
GSI Geological Survey of India
GWh Gigawatt hours
GWP Global Warming Potential
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
HCL Hindustan Copper Limited
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HPAL High Pressure Acid Leaching
HPCL Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd.
HRRL HPCL Rajasthan Refinery Limited
HS Code Harmonized System Code
ICC Indian Copper Complex
IEM Industrial Entrepreneur Memorandum
IFA Investor Facilitation Agency
IMMT
Institute of Minerals and Materials
Technology
INR Indian Rupee
IOCL Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.
ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation
ITC Indian Trade Clarification
J&K Jammu & Kashmir
JNPT Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust
JV Joint Venture
KABIL Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.
kg Kilograms
Kt Kilo tons 12 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Acronyms
ktPA Kilo tons Per Annum
kWh Kilowatt hours
LCE Lithium carbonate equivalent
LCO Lithium Cobalt Oxide
LFP Lithium iron phosphate
Li Lithium
Li2CO3 Lithium carbonate
Li2O Lithium oxide
LIB Lithium-ion battery
Li-NMC Lithium – Nickel Manganese Cobalt
LiOH Lithium hydroxide
LiOH.H20 Lithium hydroxide monohydrate
LiPF6 Lithium hexafluorophosphate
LME London Metal Exchange
LMO Lithium Manganese Oxide
LOM Life of Mine
m
3
Cubic meter
MECL
Mineral Exploration and Consultancy
Limited
MEMC Mineral Evidence and Mineral Content
Mg Magnesium
mg/L Milligrams per liter
MgO Magnesium oxide
MJ Mega Joules
MM(D&R)
Mines and Minerals (Development and
Regulation)
MMBtu Metric Million British Thermal Unit
MMTPA Million Metric Tons Per Annum
Mn Manganese
MnSO4 Manganese sulfate
MOIL Manganese Ore (India) Limited
MSME Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
MTPA Metric Tons Per Annum
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate / Soda ash
Na2S2O5 Sodium metabisulfite
Na2SO4 Sodium Sulfate
NACL Nagarjuna Oil Corporation Ltd.
NALCO National Aluminium Company Limited
NaOH Sodium hydroxide / Caustic soda
NCA Nickel Cobalt Aluminum oxide
NH4 Ammonium
NH4HCO3 Ammonium bicarbonate
Ni Nickel
NiSO4 Nickel sulfate
NITI Aayog
National Institution for Transforming
India
NMC Nickel Manganese Cobalt
NMDC
National Mineral Development
Corporation
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OPAL ONGC Petro Additions Limited
OPEX Operational Expenditure
P Phosphorus
P-204 Di (2-ethylhexyl) phosphate
Pb Lead
PCPIR
Petroleum, Chemicals and Petrochemicals
Investment Region
PLI Production Linked Incentives
PM Particulate Matter
PM 10 Particulate Matter 10
PM 2.5 Particulate Matter 2.5
ppm Parts per million
PVDF Polyvinylidene Fluoride
R&D Research and Development
RIICO
Rajasthan State Industrial Development
and Investment Corporation Limited
ROI Return on Investment
S Sulfur
SEI Solid Electrolyte Interphase
SO2 Sulfur Dioxide
t ton
tpa tons per annum
TPA Terephthalic Acid
tpd tons per day
tpy tons per year
UNFC United Nations Framework Classification
US United States
US$ United State Dollar
UT Union Territory
VCIC Vizag-Chennai Industrial Corridor
Zn Zinc 13 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Lithium-ion battery:
bill of materials and
demand outlook for
critical minerals
01 14 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
2022 2026 2030
Passenger EVs137
Commercial EVs025
E 2-wheeler/3-wheeler 0611
E-buses1412
Freight027
Stationary storage (grid
scale)
0843
Behind the meter
(Residential + Commercial)
023
Consumer electronics 4711
Rail + Defense234
Market size136
1
3
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Market size ($ billion)
Annual demand (GWh/year)
India battery demand outlook (conservative scenario)
Source: RMI and NITI Aayog 2022
2022 2026 2030Rail + Defense4810Consumer Electronics 101830Behind-the meter (Res +
Comm)
058
Stationary Storage (Grid-
scale)
020120
Freight1520E-buses21035E 2-wheeler/3-wheeler 11530Commercial Evs1515Passenger Evs2820
Market Size2615
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Market Size ($ Billion)
Annual Demand (GWh/Year)
India battery demand outlook (accelerated scenario)
There is a need for the battery manufacturing industry to secure its supply chain and boost domestic value addition
Indian battery demand outlook 15 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Recycling
Coating
Aluminum foil
Spheroidization
and purifying
Cell
End of line testing Formation / ageing
Electrolyte filling / sealing
Packaging
Tab welding
Cell stacking / winding
Cutting / sitting
Coated separator
Anode film
Cathode
film
Calendering
DryingCopper foil
Mixing
SolventsAdditivesBinders
Anode active
material
Graphitization
Baking and
impregnation
Extrusion
Mixing
GrindingNeedle cokeCoal tar pitch
Cathode
active material
Sintering kiln
Mix with lithium
carbonate
Milling
Li ore
Filtered / wash /
dry
Continuous stir
tank reactor
Co sulfateNi sulfateMn sulfate
Chemical processing
Co oreNi oreMn ore
Mining and physical
separation
Tabs
Soft pack film or coated
metal shells
Electrolyte
solution
Electrolyte
Mixing
Electrolyte
solvents
Electrolyte salts
Drying /
Sizing
Floatation Crushing /
Grinding
Mining
Li2CO3 / LiOH
Mining
Extraction of raw materials, such
as Li, Co, Ni, Mn and graphite
Chemical processing
Conversion of raw materials
into intermediate compounds
Active material production
Manufacturing of electrode
materials, such as NMC, LFP, etc.
Cell production
Integration of electrodes, electrolytes,
and separators into a sealed unit
Recycling
Reclamation of valuable
materials from used batteries
The manufacturing value chain of lithium-ion battery 16 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Supply chain bottlenecksSizeable domestic supply chain exists
Lithium
Nickel
Cobalt
Mn, Fe, P, etc.
Needle coke
Coal tar pitch
Graphite
Copper
Aluminum
Ethylene
carbonate
Polypropylene
Cathode Anode
Current
collector foil
Electrolyte
Separator
Applications
Grid storage, electronics, etc.
LIB cell manufacturing
Electric vehicle applications
Lithium
hexafluorophosphate
Source:how-can-india-scale-lithium-ion-battery-manufacturing-sector-and-supply-chain.pdf (ceew.in)
Cathode active
material
(NMC/LFP/NCA, etc.)
Separator
(polyethylene)
Electrolyte
(LiPF
6)
Anode active
material
(graphite)
Negative
current
collector
(copper)
Positive
current
collector
(aluminum)
Lithium
ions
Electrons
►Commercially available LIB cell cathode and anode production will need
active materials, such as NMC, LFP, NCA, LCO, LMO, spherical graphite,
for different types of electrode chemistry. Active material synthesis will
require battery grade processed chemical precursors of critical mineral
commodities (e.g., lithium carbonate, nickel and cobalt sulfates).
►Moreover, Li-ion cells use polyolefin as ion exchange separators. This
material has excellent mechanical properties, decent chemical stability
and low-cost. Polyolefins are a class of polymer derived from olefins
(alkenes) through the polymerization of ethylene, which is sourced from
petrochemicals. Polyolefins can be manufactured using polyethylene,
polypropylene, or a combination of both materials in the form of
laminates. The separator must be permeable with pore size ranging
from 30nm to 100nm. The recommended porosity is 30% to 50%.
Key components and materials for manufacturing lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)
Components of a lithium–ion cell
Cell
Components
Raw Materials 17 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: Update of Bill-of-Materials and Cathode Chemistry addition for Lithium-ion
Batteries in GREET 2020, Argonne National Laboratory
ItemLMO NMC111 LFP NMC532 NMC622 NMC811 NCA
Active cathode material2.36 1.78 2.06 1.72 1.50 1.27 1.38
Carbon black0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.03
Graphite0.80 0.90 1.05 0.88 0.89 0.92 0.90
Binder (PVDF)0.07 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.05
Copper0.44 0.33 0.47 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.26
Aluminum0.24 0.19 0.26 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.15
Electrolyte: LiPF60.08 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05
Electrolyte: Ethylene Carbonate 0.21 0.18 0.29 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15
Electrolyte: Dimethyl Carbonate 0.21 0.18 0.29 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15
Plastic: Polypropylene0.04 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02
Plastic: Polyethylene0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Plastic: Polyethylene Terephthalate 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Subtotal cell4.50 3.78 4.70 3.61 3.33 3.21 3.17
Module components sans cell (kg)
Copper0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Aluminum0.20 0.18 0.23 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15
Plastic: Polyethylene0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Insulation0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Electronic part0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Subtotal : Module components sans cell 0.22 0.20 0.25 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.18
Pack components sans module (kg)
Copper0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Aluminum0.47 0.44 0.52 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.41
Steel0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02
Insulation0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Coolant0.11 0.12 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13
Electronic part0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
Subtotal : Pack components sans module 0.70 0.67 0.79 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64
Total pack5.42 4.65 5.74 4.45 4.15 4.03 3.98
Bill of materials (BOM) in LIB cell to pack assembly (kg per kWh)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
LFP battery bill of materials (kg per kWh)
Plastic: Polyethylene
Terephthalate
Plastic: Polyethylene
Insulation
Steel
Plastic: Polypropylene
Carbon black
Binder (PVDF)
Electrolyte: LiPF6
Electronic part
Coolant
Electrolyte: Dimethyl Carbonate
Electrolyte: Ethylene Carbonate
Copper
Aluminum
Graphite
Active cathode material
Bill of materials reveals that cells account for ~80% of the total weight of the battery pack, with NCA exhibiting the highest gravimetric energy density.
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) manufacturing Bill of Materials 18 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Sources: EY analysis based on BatPaCV5.0 by UChicago Argonne, LLC
Note: Cost breakdown is estimated by over riding default value for positive active material cost in BatPaCV5.0 @ current market prices, (i.e. LFP cathode powder – US$ 11.37/kg; NMC811 cathode powder – US$ 44.46/kg; NMC622
cathode powder – US$ 30.61/kg, April 2023 prices).Ternary Precursor and Material prices | New Energy | SMM - China Metal Market
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
90.0%
100.0%
LFP NMC 811 NMC 622Total cost of profits and
warranty
10.9% 9.7% 10.1%
Total cost of BMS 3.3% 2.6% 2.8%Total cost of
manufacturing
20.2% 14.6% 16.5%
Total cost of purchased
items
14.3% 10.7% 12.0%
Total cost of materials 51.4% 62.4% 58.6%
Cost breakdown as % share of LIB pack cost
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
LFP NMC 811 NMC 622
Additives0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Electrolyte4.2% 2.2% 2.6%
Separators6.1% 2.5% 3.1%
Negative current collector 5.1% 2.1% 2.6%
Positive current collector 0.8% 0.3% 0.4%
Solvents1.7% 0.9% 1.1%
Binders0.8% 0.5% 0.6%
Carbon additive0.3% 0.2% 0.2%
Negative active material 9.8% 7.1% 7.9%
Positive active material 22.6% 46.7% 40.1%
Material cost break down as % share of LIB pack cost
Cost breakdown of manufacturing LIBs indicates active materials synthesized from critical mineral
commodities and their chemical precursors can contribute up to ~55% of overall cost 19 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis based on market (spot) prices for active materials and their critical mineral constituents (battery grade chemical precursors) from the period of Jan 2021 – April 2022.
Note: The prices considered for Li-NMC 622 powder is taken from “https://source.benchmarkminerals.com/article/cathode-prices-fall-for-first-time-since-may-on-weaker-demand”, prices for Li2CO3, Cobalt and Nickel is
taken from internal EY data and for MnSO4 a constant price of US$ 1.5/kg is considered forthe period of Jan 2021 – April 2022.
11% 10% 12% 10% 10% 9% 11% 13% 13% 15% 13% 14%
11% 11% 12% 12%
4% 5%
5%
6% 6% 6% 6%
7%
9% 9% 10% 10% 16%
20% 21% 21%
7% 9%
9%
8% 8% 9%
9%
8%
8%
9% 10% 10%
10%
9%
10% 10%
10%
10%
8%
9% 10% 10%
10%
10%
9%
9% 9%
9%
9%
9%
11% 11%
0.3%
0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2% 0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2% 0.2%
21.7
23.6
24.5
23.3 23.3 23.6
25.8
27.6
30.1
32.9
34.2
36.3
41.0
47.8
55.3 55.3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
US$/kg
Cost % as share of battery pack cost
Cost breakdown of cathode active material as a % share of NMC-622 LIB pack cost
CAM Processing Li2CO3 CoSO4 NiSO4 MnSO4
Li-NMC 622 (US$/kg)
Synthesizing Li-NMC active material and the critical mineral precursors can have up to ~40%
value addition in LIB pack manufacturing 20 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis based on market (spot) prices for active materials and their critical mineral constituents (battery grade chemical precursors) from the period of Jan 2021 – April 2022.
Note: The prices considered for LFP powder is taken from “https://source.benchmarkminerals.com/article/cathode-prices-fall-for-first-time-since-may-on-weaker-demand”, prices for Li2CO3 is taken from internal EY data
and for FePO4 a constant price of US$ 2/kg is considered forthe period of Jan 2021 – April 2022.
3% 4% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 7%
10% 11%
14%
12% 11% 12% 12%
4%
5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6%
7%
9%
9%
10%
9% 15%
20%
21% 21%
4%
4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
3%
3%
3% 3%
5.0
5.9
6.2
6.5
6.8 6.8 6.8
7.5
9.3
11.2
12.4
14.3
17.1
20.5
22.4 22.4
0
5
10
15
20
25
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
US$/kg
Cost % as share of battery pack cost
Cost breakdown of cathode active material as a % share of LFP LIB pack cost
CAM ProcessingLi2CO3FePO4
LFP (US$/kg)
Synthesizing LFP active material and the critical mineral precursors can have up to ~23% value
addition in LIB pack manufacturing 21 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Critical materials
Demand to manufacture
100 GWh / annum LIBs
(Thousand tons/annum)
Cathode active material193
Graphite98
Aluminum91
Copper41
Electrolyte: LiPF
6 8
Chemical precursors
Demand to manufacture
~193 thousand ton/annum
active cathode material
(Thousand tons/annum)
Li
2CO
356
NiSO
453
CoSO
448
Demand outlook for critical materials required to manufacture 100 GWh/annum LIBs by 2030
►India’s LIB cell manufacturing industry will need ~193 thousand tons/annum of
cathode active material, ~98 thousand tons /annum of anode active material, 91
thousand tons /annum of aluminum and 41 thousand tons of copper and 8
thousand tons/annum of LiPF6 electrolyte material to produce ~100 GWh /
annum of batteries by 2030.
►The demand for chemical precursors of metals such Li, Ni and Co will depend on
the cathode chemistry demand for various applications. LFP could be the
dominant cathode chemistry for manufacturing LIBs serving electric bus
deployment, stationary grid storage and behind the meter storage applications.
The share of LFP in the demand for active cathode material could be ~60%.
►Similarly, NMC is another dominant cathode chemistry for manufacturing LIBs
catering to passenger EVs, commercial EVs and two-wheeler EV markets. The
share of NMC in the demand for active cathode material could be ~25%. LCO is
another cathode chemistry used in consumer electronics. The share of LCO in the
overall demand for active cathode material could be ~15%.
Source: 1. Nickel sulfate vs metal: Is the market shifting towards new pricing mechanisms? | S&P Global Commodity
Insights (spglobal.com)
2. Green Metals Battery Metals Watch The end of the beginning (goldmansachs.com)
1695
275261
LCENiSO4CoSO4
Market size (@April 2023 spot prices) of battery grade specialty
metals for domestic manufacturing by 2030 (US$/annum)
Market size ( Million
USD/annum) 22 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Status quo analysis of
critical mineral supply
chain relevant for
battery manufacturing
in India
02 23 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- I: General Reviews); 59
th
Edition, MINERAL-BASED INDUSTRIES, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES,
September 2022
Mineral-based product Unit
Annual installed
capacity
Production
2018-19 2019-20
Nou-ferrous Metals
Aluminummillion tons4.1 3.7 3.6
Copper (Cathode) thousand tons 1,001.5 454.0 408.0
Lead (primary) thousand tons201.0 198.0 132.0
Zinc Ingotsthousand tons881.0 696.0 516.0
Silvertons600.0 751.0 442.0
Chemicals
Aluminum fluoride thousand tons25.6 5.7 5.1
Caustic sodathousand tons 3,700.0 2,925.0 3,137.0
Calcium carbide thousand tons112.0 83.2 81.3
Soda ashthousand tons 3,614.0 3,048.0 3,069.0
Titanium dioxide pigmentthousand tons82.5 57.1 49.5
Red phosphorus thousand tons1.7 1.0 1.0
Capacity and production of non-ferrous metals and inorganic chemicals in India
The production of
lithium, nickel, cobalt
and manganese
precursors, all of
which are critical raw
materials used in the
synthesis of active
cathode materials for
lithium-ion batteries,
is limited.
Soda ash, caustic
soda and calcium
carbonate are useful
reagents in the
refining/ conversion
of lithium ore to
carbonate/ hydroxide
precursor. 24 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE - 2021, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals, Statistics and Monitoring Division
Major Groups / Products
Installed CapacityProduction
CAGR (%)
Capacity
Utilization
in 2020-212018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21
Alkali Chemicals
Soda Ash3,489.0 3,614.0 3,614.0 2,392.2 2,462.0 2,583.0 2,613.4 2,989.6 3,048.2 3,069.4 2,638.11.4 73.0
Caustic Soda3,397.3 3,700.3 3,898.2 2,391.7 2,442.9 2,504.0 2,594.5 2,742.3 2,925.4 3,136.9 2,964.13.1 76.0
Liquid Chlorine 2,535.3 2,774.7 2,961.2 1,697.3 1,720.1 1,714.8 1,800.7 1,899.4 2,069.1 2,250.4 2,174.33.6 73.4
Total9,421.6 10,089.1 10,473.4 6,481.2 6,625.0 6,801.8 7,008.6 7,631.3 8,042.7 8,456.8 7,776.52.6 74.3
Inorganic Chemicals
Aluminum Fluoride25.6 25.6 25.6 5.4 6.7 9.5 8.1 7.5 5.7 5.1 3.7 -5.3 14.5
Calcium Carbide112.0 112.0 112.0 78.8 87.2 83.5 85.0 87.3 83.2 81.3 86.8 1.4 77.5
Carbon Black696.0 696.0 696.0 406.4 444.4 469.6 535.3 530.4 546.4 500.2 384.8 -0.8 55.3
Potassium Chlorate4.6 28.6 28.6 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.7 16.2 17.1 58.6 59.7
Sodium Chlorate- - 22.3 - - - - - - - 17.980.3
Titanium Dioxide82.5 82.5 82.5 52.8 47.9 58.5 58.5 57.8 57.1 49.5 51.2 -0.4 62.1
Red Phosphorus1.7 1.7 1.7 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 5.1 63.5
Hydrogen Peroxide 145.9 218.6 218.6 128.4 119.8 153.1 148.9 157.0 156.5 122.8 139.9 1.2 64.0
Potassium Iodate- 1.2 1.2 - - - - - - 0.6 0.545.2
Calcium Carbonate 231.6 371.6 371.6 233.1 236.9 226.1 216.3 217.3 213.3 286.8 274.8 2.4 74.0
Total1,299.8 1,537.8 1,560.1 906.3 944.2 1,001.5 1,052.9 1,058.5 1,063.8 1,063.5977.8 1.1 62.7
Numbers are in thousand metric tons
Capacity and production of major inorganic chemicals in India 25 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE - 2021, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals, Statistics and Monitoring Division
Product
2013-142014-152015-162016-172017-182018-192019-202020-21
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
Alkali Chemicals
Soda Ash 569,420 79,817 725,517 112,616 633,263 101,707 695,307 102,490 772,622 111,757 840,591 144,900 847,704 152,515 719,731 114,804
Caustic Soda 304,653 73,038 407,981 93,584 484,133 116,303 425,795 112,391 421,298 153,382 208,267 79,927 309,345 87,982 248,057 55,495
Liquid Chlorine 86 112 648 274 482 189 35 170 58 208 266 696 81 255 39 200
Total874,159 152,967 1,134,146 206,474 1,117,878 218,199 1,121,137 215,051 1,193,978 265,347 1,049,124 225,523 1,157,130 240,752 967,827 170,499
Inorganic
Chemicals
Aluminum
Fluoride
24,542 17,383 30,120 20,259 27,258 18,102 46,564 26,437 49,758 29,075 62,374 56,075 40,362 37,910 61,224 48,059
Calcium Carbide 64,239 26,743 78,332 31,525 61,935 25,429 55,692 23,652 55,651 23,941 45,321 21,554 31,218 14,507 32,666 17,749
Carbon Black 145,939 112,823 139,468 108,915 124,059 83,401 128,740 82,424 186,224 143,618 278,531 249,368 197,491 153,367 190,469 127,583
Potassium
Chlorate
7,040 4,357 6,147 3,856 3,160 2,026 100 61 29 22 128 272 55 119 909 884
Sodium Chlorate 28,083 11,570 21,818 9,085 17,298 6,400 7,447 2,907 8,822 3,041 14,240 5,884 24,082 11,254 11,589 5,118
Titanium Dioxide 16,875 29,196 17,574 28,243 16,421 25,709 13,901 22,943 13,701 24,771 14,546 28,686 16,416 30,825 13,389 25,107
Red Phosphorus 266 750 36 98 - - - 1 - 3 14 51 18 57 4 18
Hydrogen
Peroxide
62,527 16,443 56,276 14,311 44,084 11,211 57,068 15,910 68,474 19,305 84,261 36,931 52,727 15,858 22,355 8,150
Calcium
Carbonate
524,395 46,575 562,198 51,581 715,606 65,090 700,559 60,902 846,195 64,587 1,080,252 86,942 1,169,457 90,705 855,385 69,433
Total873,906 265,840 911,969 267,873 1,009,821 237,368 1,010,071 235,237 1,228,854 308,363 1,579,667 485,763 1,531,826 354,602 1,187,990 302,101
Quantity in metric tons and Value in Lakhs INR
Imports of major inorganic chemicals in India 26 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Outlook for lithium exploration, production and trade in India
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) is carrying out
exploration for lithium in potential geological domains in parts of Mandya and Yadgir
districts of Karnataka. Preliminary surveys on surface and limited subsurface exploration
by AMD have shown presence of lithium resources of 1,600 tons (inferred category) in
Marlagalla area, Mandya district, Karnataka. Further, the Geological Survey of India
(GSI), Ministry of Mines, takes up different stages of mineral exploration as per the
approved annual Field Season Program (FSP) every year viz. reconnaissance surveys
(G4), preliminary exploration (G3) and general exploration (G2) following the guidelines
of the United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC) and the Mineral Evidence and
Mineral Content Rules (MEMC-2015). The GSI undertook the FSP to augment mineral
resource for various mineral commodities, including lithium. During FSP 2016—17 to FSP
2020—21, GSI carried out 14 projects on lithium and associated elements in Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Karnataka and Rajasthan. During the current FSP 2021—22, GSI has taken up
five projects on lithium and associated minerals in Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jammu and Kashmir and Rajasthan. In Feb’23, GSI established lithium
inferred resources (G3) of 5.9 million tons in the Salal-Haimana area of the Reasi District
of Jammu & Kashmir (UT).
Source:https://tradestat.commerce.gov.in/
Country-wise import of lithium
2018-192019-202020-21
Country
Quantity
%Share
Country
Quantity
%Share
Country
Quantity
%Share
Country
Hong Kong 47,248 55 38,547 53 26,641 37
China 16,868 20 14,988 21 22,881 32
Indonesia 11,276 13 9,063 13 6,689 9
Singapore 4,929 6 5,077 7 5,849 8
Korea RP 3,257 4 2,780 4 5,090 7
Japan 1,134 1 1,512 2 3,180 4
Israel 186 0 144 0 337 0
US84 0 85 0 243 0
Malaysia 70 0 72 0 155 0
Taiwan 42 0 61 0 126 0
Others (26
Countries)
130 0 48 0 202 0
Total 85,224 100 72,376 100 71,392 100
Total Import of lithium commodities
Year2019-20 2020-21 2021-22
Rs. crore Rs. crore Rs. crore
Lithium (HS Code: 85065000)147 173 165
Lithium-ion (HS Code: 85076000)8,819 8,811 13,673
Mineral substances not elsewhere specified or
included (HS code: 2530)
340 283 498 27 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II: Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) is utilizing advanced technology to extract nickel,
copper, and sulfuric acid from the spent electrolyte (waste stream) of the ICC
refinery located in Ghatsila, Jharkhand.
Nickel resources in India are estimated at 189 million tons and are primarily found as
oxides, sulfides, and silicates. The State of Odisha possesses the largest share of
nickel ore resources in the country, estimated at 175 million tons (93%), followed by
Jharkhand and Nagaland. These resources are concentrated in three districts,
namely, Jajpur (140 million tons), Mayurbhanj (27 million tons) and Keonjhar (8
million tons).
At its Ghatsila Copper Smelter in Jharkhand, HCL produces nickel sulfate as a by-
product. The sulfide copper ore from the Ghatsila area contains nickel in small
quantity along with other important metals like gold and cobalt. Using imported
EMEW technology from Canada, HCL has developed the capability to recover LME-
Nickel grade cathode from a lower copper concentration in spent electrolyte, which
is not possible using conventional means. This technology also enables HCL to
recover nickel from the spent electrolyte at the ICC refinery. In addition, HCL utilizes
an eco-friendly Acid Purification Unit (APU) technology imported from Canada to
reduce liquid effluent and facilitate downstream recovery of nickel. HCL has a
capacity of 390 million tons to recover nickel sulfate, but no production of nickel
sulfate has been reported since 2004-05. Nicomet Industries Ltd., located in Goa,
presently produces nickel metal and their derivatives with an annual production
capacity of about 5,400 MTPA.
Recently, Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) has launched India's first nickel
production facility at its Indian Copper Complex (ICC) in Ghatsila, Jharkhand to
reduce India's dependence on imported nickel.
The Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) and it is at its Indian Copper Complex (ICC) has
launched the "Nickel, Copper and Acid Recovery Plant," which is the first facility in
India to produce London Metal Exchange (LME) grade nickel metal from primary
resources. NMDC has applied to the DMG, Government of Odisha, for the reservation
of an 8-square kilometer area in Jajpur district, Odisha, under Section 17A (2A) of
MM(D&R) Amendment Act, 2015, for nickel prospecting and mining operations.
An Indian delegation, led by Dr. V.K. Saraswat, Member, NITI Aayog, explored
opportunities for sourcing lithium for the manufacture of advanced chemistry
batteries in India during their visit to Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. The delegation
engaged in talks with the Western Australia Premier and discussed forming strategic
collaborations to source raw materials, including lithium, cobalt, and nickel to aid in
the manufacturing of batteries.
The mobility mission had consultations with the industry to develop battery recycling
as a sustainable method to ensure the 95% of recovery of critical minerals such as
lithium, nickel, and cobalt. The CSIR-IMMT has developed suitable process flow sheets
for processing resources such as alloy scrap and a spent catalyst to produce
precursor materials for battery applications, primarily in preparing electrodes of Li-
ion batteries. India will have to depend on imports until a commercial-scale
technology for recovering nickel from the overburden of chromite ore in Odisha is
established.
The HCL's process for producing primary nickel from copper refining waste will be a
breakthrough in nickel production in the country. Recycling nickel-bearing scrap in
the Organized Sector will be another source for meeting demand.
Imports of nickel ores and concentrates (Heading no. 2604) and nickel waste and
scrap (Heading no. 75030010) are allowed free as per the Foreign Trade Policy,
2015-2020. However, some forms of metal waste and scrap (ITC-HS Code No. 7503
0090) are restricted.
Nickel is not produced from primary sources in India and the demand is largely met through imports 28 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II: Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
Currently, India does not produce cobalt from primary resources and relies on
imports to meet demand. The reserves/resources of cobalt in terms of ore have been
estimated at 44.91 million tons, of which about 69%, i.e., 30.91 million
tons are estimated in Odisha. The remaining 31% resources are in Jharkhand (9
million tons) and Nagaland (5 million tons). Cobalt refining capacity is estimated at
~2,060 tons per year, with Nicomet Industries Ltd, Cuncolim, Goa and Rubamin Ltd.,
Vadodara, Gujarat being the leading producers of cobalt cathodes and compounds.
Nicomet has 1,000 tons per year (tpa) installed capacity for cobalt metal and
different cobalt salts.
Nicomet Industries Ltd produces LME-approved cobalt cathodes under the NICO
brand, along with nickel cathodes and sodium sulfate in Mumbai, Maharashtra.
Vedanta Group is also exploring ways to produce cobalt for batteries as it seeks to
capitalize on the anticipated electric vehicle boom. Sandvik Asia Ltd reportedly
recovers cobalt metal powder from cemented carbide scrap at its pilot plant in Pune,
Maharashtra. Several small cobalt chemical processors reprocess spent cobalt
catalyst from plants to produce DMT, TPA and oxo alcohols. However, information on
reprocessing of cobalt from scrap is not available. It is expected that recycled cobalt
would continue to be used for domestic supply.
With India's rising trend in cobalt consumption, it is important to recover cobalt from
various secondary sources. Hindustan Zinc Ltd has explored a lab-scale process for
recovering cobalt from purification cake, generating a 60% purity cobalt sulfate
crystal with 50% recovery. Although India lacks primary cobalt resources, there are
two potential secondary sources that have been the subject of R&D studies for
commercial applications over the years: nickel-bearing laterite deposits in Odisha and
copper slag produced by HCL.
In India, cobalt refiners have mainly served the market for chemical applications
where cobalt metal or salt is dissolved and converted to cobalt oxide for cutting tool
applications.
However, the global demand for cobalt is expected to increase significantly,
especially for use in cemented carbides used in cutting tools, catalysts in the
petrochemical industry, drying agents in the paint industry, and superalloys used
mainly in jet engine parts. The demand for cobalt is also projected to increase rapidly
in rechargeable batteries for hybrid electric vehicles, cellular telephones, aerospace,
superalloys in civil aviation, catalysts for gas-to-liquid production of synthetic liquid
fuels and energy generation industries. The surge in demand for mobile phones,
portable PCs, and other electronic devices has led to a rapid growth in the global
demand for lithium-ion batteries. The projected demand for refined electronic devices
is also massive. According to CRU, the demand for cobalt is expected to grow by an
astonishing rate of 68% between 2015 and 2025.
In India, cobalt will have significant applications in metallurgy due to increased
demand for special alloys/superalloys, cutting tools, and as an alloy in permanent
magnets. The demand for cobalt powder will continue to increase as it is widely used
in the production of bonded tools for the diamond industry.
While the Indian cobalt industry is small, it is steadily growing in various sectors,
especially in aerospace. The Aerospace Industry mainly relies on cobalt imports.
Although other industries are growing consistently, they cannot be compared to
China. The total consumption of cobalt content in India could range from 70 to 80
tons minimum and up to 100 tons maximum per month. Chemical industries mostly
use cobalt sulfate. Battery manufacturing is a significant sector with immense
potential in India, which could trigger the development of new technology and
product upgrades.
Cobalt production is limited in India and the demand is largely met through imports 29 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II: Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
Graphite is a hexagonal crystal that occurs in layered and lamellar form with a greasy
texture and gray-black metallic luster. There are two commercial varieties of natural
graphite: crystalline (flaky) and amorphous. Both flaky and amorphous graphite are
produced in India and their quality is determined by their carbon content and
physical properties. Additionally, synthetic or artificial graphite is manufactured
using anthracite or petroleum coke as raw feed.
Graphite deposits of economic importance are located in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Odisha, and Tamil Nadu. In the year 2019-20, the production of graphite decreased
by 18% as compared to the previous year, with five principal producers accounting
for 96% of the total production. The number of mines remained the same as 11 in
2019-20 and 2018-19. During the 2019-20 period, two mines that produce over
5,000 tons annually accounted for 61% of the total graphite production, while four
mines that produced between 1,000 and 5,000 tons annually contributed to 39% of
the total. The state of Jharkhand was the top producer, contributing 61% to the total
output, followed by Odisha.
The top producing states were Jharkhand and Odisha, and the active mining centers
of graphite are Palamu district in Jharkhand, Nawapara and Balangir districts in
Odisha, and Madurai and Sivagangai districts in Tamil Nadu. In Jharkhand,
disseminated deposits of flaky graphite containing 5 to 20% fixed carbon (F.C.) are
found in the Palamu district, while in Odisha, several graphite grades are produced in
areas in and around Balangir.
The graphite deposits are relatively soft and the presence of hard rocks on both sides
makes mining a relatively easy and safe process. The top layer of lateritic soil,
typically one to two meters thick, is removed using a dozer or excavator and loaded
onto a dumper for transportation to a separate dump yard in the lease area that is
not mineralized. The extracted graphite ore is then transported to a stockyard for
blending, with high-grade and low-grade ores stacked separately. After blending, the
ore is dispatched for consumption, depending on plant requirements.
Maximizing the recovery of flaky graphite from low-grade graphite ore during
beneficiation is a significant challenge as breaking the flakes would reduce the
graphite's unique properties, such as excellent lubricity and high thermal
conductivity, which are in high demand in the industry. Graphite requires
beneficiation to obtain the desired grade for various end-uses, usually occurring
mixed with country rocks. Processes for graphite beneficiation include washing,
sorting, tabling, acid leaching, and froth flotation. Froth flotation is commonly used
to produce a high-grade graphite concentrate. The beneficiated concentrate is
sometimes further enriched by chemical treatment (acid leaching, chlorination, etc.)
to obtain a high-grade concentrate containing 98% to 99% Fixed Carbon (F.C.).
Natural graphite mining and beneficiation industry in india 30 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II: Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
State/District
No. of
Mines
2019-20
Grade: Fixed Carbon contentTotal
80% or
more
40% or more
but less than
80%
Less than
40%
Quantity Value
India11 615 651 30,725 31,991 57,506
Public Sector 2-- - - -
Private Sector 9 615 651 30,725 31,991 57,506
Chhattisgarh1*-- - - -
Surguja 1*-- - - -
Jharkhand3-- 19,426 19,426 20,380
Latehar 1-- 4,676 4,676 4,730
Palamau 2-- 14,750 14,750 15,650
Karnataka2*-- - - -
Mysore 2*-- - - -
Kerala--- - - -
Ernakulum --- - - -
Odisha5 615 651 11,299 12,565 37,126
Nawapara 2-- 11,299 11,299 12,099
Raygada 3 615 651- 1,266 25,027
Tamil Nadu--- - - -
Madurai --- - - -
Sivagangai --- - - -
‘8hmn
Quantity in tons, Value in Thousand INR
End Product
Percentage of
graphite used
Quality of the graphite used
Fixed Carbon Size (micron)
Mag-Carb refractories12 87-90% 150-710
Alumina-Carb (graphitized)
alumina refractories
8-1085%min. 150-500
Clay-bonded crucibles60-65 +80% -20 to +100 mesh
Silicon carbide crucibles35 80-89%+150
Expanded (or flexible)
graphite foils and products
(e.g. sealing gaskets in
refineries)
100
90% min.
(preferably
+99%)
250-1800
Pencils50-6094 50 max.
Brake-linings1-15 98% min. 75 max.
Foundry- 40-70%53-75
Batteries - Dry cells- 88% min. 75 max.
Batteries - Alkaline- 98% min.5-75
Brushes- Usually 99%
Usually less than
53
Lubricants- 98-99%53-106
Sintered products (e.g. clog
wheels)
- 98-99%5
PaintUp to 75
50-55%
75% min.
Amorphous
powder
Flake
Braid used for sealing (e.g.
in ship)
40-50 95% min.-
Graphitized grease (used in
seamless steel tube
manufacturing)
- +99% 38 max.
Colloidal graphite100 99.9% Colloidal
Spherical graphite,also known as battery-grade graphite, is the specific commodity used in the
production of anode in lithium-ion batteries. Flake graphite concentrate is processed into ultra-
high-purity (>99.95% C), microscopic (15 to 5 microns) spheres, which are used as a battery
anode material. This decreases the surface area, to allow more graphite into a smaller volume,
thus creating a compact, lighter, more electrically conductive anode product for the battery.
From the above statistics, one can infer that theSpherical graphite
processing industry produced from flake concentrates as feedstock is still at
nascent stages.
Grade wise natural graphite production and end-use consumption 31 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- I: General Reviews); 59
th
Edition, MINERAL-BASED INDUSTRIES, INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, September 2022
Slate2017-182018-192019-20
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
Andhra Pradesh172,174 706,314 293,679 1,039,486 331,030 1,317,483
Gujarat18,362 11,496----
Jharkhand4,783 44,527 4,785 39,839 4,785 35,577
Karnataka294,261 1,541,069 332,162 2,276,289 333,425 2,284,994
Madhya Pradesh837,041 6,760,106 942,738 7,147,719 958,164 6,160,735
Maharashtra731,457 7,243,631 761,985 7,999,939 721,520 6,127,232
Odisha516,862 3,497,593 476,821 3,048,997 537,742 3,409,984
Rajasthan7,502 22,506 9,410 28,230 9,937 29,811
Telangana17,373 80,232 10,735 59,666 7,770 50,570
India2,599,815 19,907,474 2,832,315 21,640,165 2,904,373 19,416,386
Quantity in tons, Value in Thousand INR
Industry2017-182018-192109-20
Ferroalloys2,538,1002,695,9002,387,600
Iron and steel128,100167,700204,200
Others: (Chemical,
Electrode, Pelletization,
Sponge Iron, etc.)
35,50022,40024,200
All Industries27,017,0002,886,0002,616,000
* The apparent consumption of manganese ore in 2019-20 is estimated at 6.9 million tons
Quantity in tons
Production and consumption of manganese ore in India
The consumption of manganese
ore in all industries was about
2.62 million tons in 2019—20.
Ferroalloys industries accounted
for about 91% consumption
followed by Iron and Steel (8%).
Battery, Electrode, Chemical,
Zinc Smelter and Alloy Steel
industries shared the remaining
1%.
MOIL had set up a High Intensity
Magnetic Separation Plant and
1,000 tons per year (tpy)
Electrolytic Manganese Dioxide
(EMD) Plant at Dongri Buzurg
mine. In 2019-20, about 925
tons of EMD were produced. 32 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
International
perspective: lithium
minerology, refining,
bill of materials,
reserves and assets
03 33 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Li bearing
mineral
Chemical
Formula
Li %
(max.)
Occurrence
Spodumene
Li2O, Al2O3.
4SiO2
~4 %
Most abundant Li bearing mineral found
in economic deposits, occurs as crystals
in granites and pegmatites often
intermixed with quartz
Lepidolite
K2 (Li,Al)5-6
{Si6-7Al2-
1O20} (OH,F)4
~3.6%
Uncommon form of mica found in
pegmatites
Petalite
Li2O, Al2O3.
8SiO2
~2.3%
Occurs with lepidolite in pegmatites and
could alter to Spodumene
Hectorite
Na0.3 (Mg,Li)3
Si4O10 (OH)2
~0.5%
Trioctahedral smectite clay mineral
formed by alternation of volcanistic
rocks by hydrothermal activity
Jadarite
LiNaSiB3O7
(OH)
~7%
Occurs as borosilicate mineral
discovered in Serbia
Minerology of lithium
Lithium is commonly extracted from two major categories of economic
mineral deposits: pegmatites and brines. Extraction from volcanic clays
containing Li rich hectorite is yet to be demonstrated on a commercial
scale. Lithium concentrations are typically measured in parts per million
(ppm), milligrams per liter (mg/L) and weight percentage. Lithium
concentrations in the earth’s upper crust are 20 ppm (average). In igneous
rocks, the abundance is typically from 28 to 30 ppm, but in sedimentary
rocks, it can be as high as 53 to 60 ppm.
Brine refers to any fluid containing a high level of dissolved solids. Lithium
occurs in many brines but usually at low concentrations. Commercial
extraction from brines primarily occurs from continental brine deposits.
Spodumene has a theoretical Li2O content of 8.03%. A typical run of mine
spodumene ore can contain ~1% Li2O (eq. 0.46% Li or ~5000 ppm), while a
typical spodumene concentrate suitable for lithium carbonate production
contains 5% to 6% of Li2O (75% - 87% spodumene). Higher grade
concentrates > 7% Li2O and low-iron content are used in ceramics and more
demanding industries. The addition of lithium imparts high mechanical
strength and thermal shock resistance in ceramics and glass.
Lithium bearing brine
resources
TypeLi concentration
Seawater0.1 – 0.2 ppm
Clayton Valley, Nevada
(Silver Peak)
Continental brine 400 ppm
Salar de Atacama, Chile Continental brine 1000 – 4000 ppm
Salar de Hombre,
Argentina
Continental brine 190 – 900 ppm
Salar de Olaroz,
Argentina
Continental brine 500 ppm (mean)
Salar de Rincon,
Argentina
Continental brine 330 ppm
Salton Sea, CaliforniaGeothermal brine 100 – 200 ppm
Smackover oilfield,
Arkansas
Oilfield brine 500 ppm
Source: EY analysis based onBritish Geological Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, June 2016
Note: Li to Li2O conversion factor is 2.153; Li to Li2CO3 conversion factor is 5.323; 1% weight is equivalent to 10,000 ppm
Source:British Geological Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, June 2016 34 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Beneficiation /
concentration
(Spodumene)
Crushing and grinding of large sized pieces of ore into smaller pieces and separating on the
basis of their physical, chemical and magnetic properties
Removal of clay, silicate minerals and other gangue materials using froth floatation or dense
media separation or a combination of both to obtain ~6% Li2O concentration
Roasting
Heating in a kiln at 1050?C for 15 min. to convert naturally occurring α-spodumene (monoclinic
structure) to β-spodumene (tetragonal structure) which is chemically active to leaching
Leaching
Heating in presence of air at 250?C with addition of H
2SO
4to obtain lithium sulfate
In addition to lithium sulfate, impurities such as Fe, Al and Ca are also leached out as sulfates
Filtration and
purification
Addition of water to precipitate the impurities of Fe and Al
Lithium sulfate solution is filtered with trace levels of impurities of Mg and Ca
Carbonation
Solution is treated with Na
2CO
3to precipitate insoluble insoluble Li
2CO
3
The precipitate is washed and dried to obtain 99.3% lithium carbonate
Source:Lithium Production Processes – ScienceDirect,Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium
hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries – ScienceDirect
Brine
Ore
Lithium extraction
from earth
Concentrated Li
Brine
Concentrated
Spodumene
Lithium LiOH.H
2O
Production
Lithium Li
2CO
3
Production
NMC622
NMC811
Cathode powder
production
NMC622: 84 kWh
NMC811: 84kWh
Battery production
TTTTT
1. Primary extraction
2. Resource concentration
3. Lithium chemicals production
4. Cathode powder production
5. Battery production
T Potential transportation stage
Spodumene
Concentrate
Roast at 1050 ˚C
β– Spodumene
Potential transportation stages in lithium lifecycleSpodumene processing flow chart
Processing spodumene mineral to battery grade lithium carbonate / hydroxide
Acid leach process
(common)
Carbonate leach
process
Acid roasting
Leaching
Impurity removal
via precipitation
Solid Liquid
Separation
Ion exchange
Lithium sulfate
solution
Crystallization of
Li
2CO
3
Washing/Drying
Lithium carbonate
product
Pressure leaching
Lithium
bicarbonate
Solid liquid
separation
Crystallization of
Li
2CO
3by heating
Lithium carbonate
product
Na
2CO
3
CO
2
Na
2CO
3 35 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Beneficiation /
Concentration (Brine)
Lithium is Brine (1% lithium con.) is pumped out and poured into solar evaporation pond
Sodium chloride is precipitated first, brine is then transferred to another set of ponds in which mixture of NaCl (salt) and KCl (sylvinite) is precipitated
Remaining brine is piped to another set of ponds where it remains until concentration reaches to 6000 ppm Li and then transferred to recovery plant
Boron and magnesium
removal
Concentrated brines is rich in boron and magnesium
Boron is removed by solvent extraction using kerosene and processed to produce borated and boric acid
Magnesium is removed by adding Na
2CO
3to precipitate Magnesium carbonate, lime is then added to precipitate magnesium hydroxide
Precipitation and
filtration of Li
2CO3
Lithium rich brine is treated with sodium carbonate to precipitate Li
2CO
3slurry
This is filtered and washed with water to remove residual NaCl and dried to obtain >99% lithium carbonate
Conversion to LiOH.H
2OLithium carbonate is further treated with CaO and water to produce LiOH.H
2O
Source:Lithium Production Processes – ScienceDirect
Processing continental brine to battery grade lithium carbonate / hydroxide
Continental Brine to Lithium carbonate/hydroxide conversion
Halite pondsSylvite ponds
Carbonate
precipitation
ponds
Potash plant
Brines from
Salar
Lithium
concentration
ponds
Borate plantLithium plant
K
2SO
4
Potassium
sulfate
KCl
(potash)
brineconc. brineconc. brine
solid
if required
Borates
Boric
acid
Magnesium
carbonate
Magnesium
hydroxide
Lithium
hydroxide
Lithium
chloride
Lithium
carbonate
brine reinjected
to salar
NaCl
(salt) 36 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
OreCon. Spodumene
Con. SpodumeneLiOH.H
2O/Li
2CO
3
BrineCon. Brine
Con. BrineLi
2CO
3
Li
2CO
3LiOH.H
2O
Mineral ore to concentrated spodumene
Concentration of ore in western
Australia
Material movement from mine to facility
in diesel trucks (22 tons payload)
Plant running on diesel fuel
Produced concentrated spodumene ore
is 63% pure spodumene (5% Li
2O)
Concentrated spodumene to
LiOH.H
2O/Li
2CO
3
Spodumene shipped from Australia to
China and transported by truck to
facility
12 tons of steam per ton of LiOH.H
2O,
16.5 tons of steam per tons of Li
2CO
3
Brine to concentrated brine
Diesel used for vehicles (23%) and
generating power for operations (77%)
Stored lithium is treated as stock
rather than a coproduct, which will
eventually be recovered for value
Concentrated lithium brine has three
times the value of potash
Concentrated brine to Li
2CO
3
Trucks with 24.5 tons payload used to
transport concentrated brine to facility
Water used is a fully recycled stream
Source:Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis
of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate frombrine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion batterycathodes and lithium ion batteries – ScienceDirect
Material and energy flow by allocation methods for per ton of concentrated
brine (6% lithium) produced in the Salar de Atacama
Per ton
concentrated
brine
Unit
Facility
Level
(mass)
Facility
Level
(value)
Product
Level
Product
Process
Materials input
Lithium brineton24.1 24.1 24.1 24.1
Fresh water m
3
2.40 5.94 3.72 2.35
Energy input
Electricity MJ307 760 624 472
Diesel MJ265 657 346 327
Coproduct
Potash ton8.52 8.52 8.52 8.52
By-product (as stock in the system)
Lithium ton as LCE 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Material and energy flow per ton of Li2CO3
Per ton Li2CO3Input Unit
Materials input
Lithium brine (6% Li) 4.00ton
Soda ash2.00ton
Other
a
0.08ton
Energy input
Electricity1,500 MJ
Diesel400MJ
Natural gas2,800 MJ
Non-combustion emissions
PM 10700g
PM 2.5400g
a
Includes H2SO4, HCl, lime, solvent, and alcohol.
Material and energy flow per ton of LiOH.H2O
Per ton LiOHH2OInput Unit
Materials input
Li2CO31.05ton
CaO1.15ton
Water consumed0.50m
3
Energy input
Electricity5,000 MJ
Diesel3,000 MJ
Natural gas21,000 MJ
Non-combustion emissions
PM 10100g
PM 2.550g
Material, energy, and water inputs per ton of concentrated spodumene produced
Per ton concentrated spodumeneQuantity Units
Materials input
Spodumene ore (0.8–0.9% conc.)4.50ton
Other
a
0.015 ton
Fresh water3m3
Energy input
Diesel4,500 MJ
a
Includes sodium carbonate and a dispersant.
Material and energy flow per ton of LiOHH2O and Li2CO3produced in China from
Australian spodumene concentrate
Input Per ton
LiOHH2O
Input Per ton
Li2CO3
Unit
Materials input
Spodumene concentrate (6%
Li2O)
6.42 7.30 ton
H2SO4 (98% conc.)1.52 1.71 ton
Na2CO3(98.8% conc.) 0.025 2.05 ton
NaOH (96% conc.)1.18 0.05 ton
CaCO3(≥ 98% conc.) 0.60.7ton
Fresh water11.24 40m
3
Energy input
Electricity (China grid) 12,600 6,480 MJ
Coal (for LiOHH2O)
a
71,343 –MJ
Coal (for Li2CO3)
b
–135,890 MJ
By-product output
Na2SO41.72 1.92 ton
a
54% for steam and 46% for kiln.
b
39% for steam and 61% for kiln.
Lifecycle energy and material intensity of lithium extraction and chemical processing 37 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis
409
360
367
968587
115
1
19
3
38
32
39
34
34
2200
618
864
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0
200
400
600
800
Li2CO3LiOH 16% Li2CO3 - 84%
LiOH
Thousand tons of water
Thousand tons
Precursors for producing 56,000 tons/annum Li2CO3/LiOH from
spodumene (100 GWh/annum LIBs)
Spodumene concentrate H2SO4Na2CO3
NaOHCaCO3
Fresh water (right axis)
224235233
112
118117
64544
550
44
37
0
10
20
30
40
50
0
100
200
300
400
500
Li2CO3LiOH 16% Li2CO3 - 84% LiOH
Thousand tons water
Thousand tons
Precursors for producing 56,000 tons/annum Li2CO3/LiOH from
brine (100 GWh/annum LIBs)
Brine concentrateNa2CO3 CaO Other
Fesh water (right axis)
7.61
4.004.56
0.36
0.71
0.65
-
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
Li2CO3LiOH 16% Li2CO3 - 84% LiOH
Energy (Terra Joules)
Energy for producing 56,000 tons/annum Li2CO3/LiOH from spodumene
(100 GWh/annum LIBs)
CoalElectricity
0.16
1.34
1.16
0.08
0.37
0.32
0.02
0.19
0.17
-
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
Li2CO3LiOH 16% Li2CO3 - 84% LiOH
Energy (Terra Joules)
Energy for producing 56,000 tons/annum Li2CO3/LiOH from
brine (100 GWh/annum LIBs)
Natural GasElectricityDiesel
Material and energy intensity of lithium carbonate/ hydroxide production by 2030 38 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Emissions for concentrated brine production
Source:Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries – ScienceDirect
0.07
0.16
0.12
0.09
0.42
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
Conc. Li Brine
(Facility, Mass)
Conc. Li Brine
(Facility,
Value)
Conc. Li Brine
(Product)
Conc. Li Brine
(Process)
Conc.
Spodumene
GHG Emissions (ton CO2 eq./ton)
GHG Transit GHG
330
817 668
507
141
350
267
209303
751
414
382
5541
241
597
489
370
3
3
3
3
27
27
27
27
225
225
225
225
1024
1
1
1
1
1271
2771
2094
1724
6565
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Conc. Li Brine
(Facility, Mass)
Conc. Li Brine
(Facility,
Value)
Conc. Li Brine
(Product)
Conc. Li Brine
(Process)
Conc.
Spodumene
Lifecycle Energy (MJ/ton)
CoalNatural Gas Petroleum
OtherTransit (Coal) Transit (Natural Gas)
Transit (Petroleum)Transit (Other)
Total
Energy consumption and GHG emissions during brine/spodumene concentration 39 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries – ScienceDirect
29,962
35,966 33,254 31,773
2,18,165
-
50,000
1,00,000
1,50,000
2,00,000
2,50,000
Li2CO3
(Facility,
Mass)
Li2CO3
(Facility,
Value)
Li2CO3
(Product)
Li2CO3
(Process)
Li2CO3
BrineOre
Lifecycle Energy (MJ/ton)
CoalNatural GasPetroleum
OtherTransit (Coal) Transit (Natural Gas)
Transit (Petroleum) Transit (Other)
Total
76,570
82,873
80,025 78,471
1,87,182
-
50,000
1,00,000
1,50,000
2,00,000
LiOH.H2O
(Facility,
Mass)
LiOH.H2O
(Facility,
Value)
LiOH.H2O
(Product)
LiOH.H2O
(Process)
LiOH.H2O
BrineOre
Lifecycle Energy (MJ/ton)
CoalNatural GasPetroleum
OtherTransit (Coal) Transit (Natural Gas)
Transit (Petroleum) Transit (Other)
Total
Energy consumption during concentrated brine/spodumene to Li2CO3 /LiOH.H2O
Energy for concentrated brine/spodumene to Li2CO3Energy for concentrated brine/spodumene to LiOH.H2O 40 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
MineCompanyList of ownersLOM
Production - 2020
(tons)
Mount Marion
Mineral Resources
Limited
Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 50%; Mineral Resources Limited (Venturer) 50% 20394000
Greenbushes
Tianqi Lithium
Corporation
Albemarle Corporation (Venturer) 49%; Tianqi Lithium Corporation (Venturer) 26.01%; IGO
Limited (Venturer) 24.99%
3588000
Salar de Atacama
Sociedad Química y
Minera de Chile S.A.
Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A. (Owner) 100%70000
Salar de AtacamaAlbemarle CorporationAlbemarle Corporation (Owner) 100%2442000
Pilgangoora
Pilbara Minerals
Limited
Pilbara Minerals Limited (Owner) 100%1513468
Silver Peak Albemarle CorporationAlbemarle Corporation (Owner) 100%332200
Altura
Pilbara Minerals
Limited
Pilbara Minerals Limited (Owner) 100%13
Arcadia
Prospect Resources
Limited
Prospect Resources Limited (Venturer) 87%; Private Interest (Venturer) 13% 18.3
Bald Hill Alita Resources LimitedAlita Resources Limited (Owner) 100%3.6
Bougouni Kodal Minerals Plc Kodal Minerals Plc (Owner) 100%; Private Interest (Fractional)8.5
Ewoyaa
Atlantic Lithium
Limited
Atlantic Lithium Limited (Optionee) 100%; Merlink Resources Limited (Optionor); Obotan
Minerals Ltd. (Optionor)
11.4
Finniss Core Lithium Ltd Core Lithium Ltd (Owner) 100%8
Goulamina Firefinch Limited Firefinch Limited (Owner) 100%21.5
Grota do Cirilo
Sigma Lithium
Corporation
Sigma Lithium Corporation (Owner) 100%12.7
Karibib Lepidico Limited Lepidico Limited (Venturer) 80%; Private Interest (Venturer) 20%14
Kathleen Valley
Liontown Resources
Limited
Liontown Resources Limited (Owner) 100%; Ramelius Resources Limited (Fractional) 23
Manono AVZ Minerals Limited
AVZ Minerals Limited (Optionor) 51%; Congo (the Democratic Republic of the) (Venturer)
25%; Suzhou CATH Energy Technologies Co., Ltd. (Optionee) 24%
21
Mt Cattlin Allkem Limited Allkem Limited (Owner) 100%3.8
Mt Holland -
Lithium
Covalent Lithium Pty
Ltd
Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A. (Venturer) 50%; Wesfarmers Limited (Venturer)
50%
48
Vulcan
Vulcan Energy
Resources Limited
Vulcan Energy Resources Limited (Owner) 100%; Private Interest (Fractional) 30
Zulu
Premier African
Minerals Limited
Premier African Minerals Limited (Optionee) 100%; Private Interest (Optionor) 15
AustraliaAfrica
Source:EY Analysis
S.No. MineReserves (kilo tons)
1 Uyuni Salt Flat39,000.00
2 Salar de Atacama19,604.24
3 Cauchari-Olaroz9,938.00
4 Bonnie Claire8,358.70
5 Lithium Nevada7,321.00
6 Manono6,640.00
7 Vulcan6,415.05
8 Clayton Valley5,961.79
9 Chaerhan Lake5,600.00
10 McDermitt4,080.40
11
Cuenca Centenario-
Ratones
4,015.00
12 Greenbushes3,716.33
13 Sonora3,562.00
14 Pilgangoora3,509.00
15 Salar del Rincon3,371.10
16 Mariana3,282.00
17 Cinovec2,990.00
18 TLC2,880.00
19 Mt Holland – Lithium2,842.70
20 Alberta2,830.61
21 Salar de Olaroz2,605.00
22 Jadar2,590.00
23 Sal de Vida2,530.70
24 Salar de Cauchari2,500.00
25 Pastos Grandes2,361.00
26 Wodgina2,200.00
27 Kathleen Valley2,090.00
28 Salar del Hombre Muerto1,800.00
29 Kachi1,778.00
30 South-West Arkansas1,753.00
31 Goulamina1,570.00
32 Tres Quebradas1,447.64
33 Pozuelos1,436.43
34 Whabouchi1,257.40
35 Candelas1,193.90
36 All Others16,990.75
Total192021.73
South AmericaNorth America
Global reserves of lithium: 59% of the reserves are in the top 10 and 75% in the top 20 mines 41 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Mine CompanyList of ownersLOM
Alberta E3 Metals Corp.E3 Metals Corp. (Owner) 100%20
Authier Sayona Mining Limited Sayona Mining Limited (Venturer) 75%; Piedmont Lithium Inc. (Venturer) 25%; Karora Resources Inc. (Fractional)13.8
Candelas Galan Lithium Limited Galan Lithium Limited (Owner) 100%40
Cauchari-Olaroz
Jujuy Energia y Mineria Sociedad del
Estado
Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 46.66%; Lithium Americas Corp. (Venturer) 44.84%; Jujuy Energia y Mineria Sociedad
del Estado (Venturer) 8.5%; Grupo Minero Los Boros S.A. (Fractional)
40
Cinovec CEZ GroupCEZ Group (Venturer) 51%; European Metals Holdings Limited (Venturer) 49%25
Clayton ValleyCypress Development Corp. Cypress Development Corp. (Owner) 100%; Unnamed Owner (Fractional)40
Clayton ValleyNoram Lithium Corp.Noram Lithium Corp. (Venturer) 75%; CDN Maverick Capital Corp. (Venturer) 25%40
Clayton ValleySchlumberger LimitedSchlumberger Limited (Optionee) 100%; Pure Energy Minerals Limited (Optionor)20
Georgia Lake Rock Tech Lithium Inc. Rock Tech Lithium Inc. (Owner) 100%11
Hombre Muerto
North
Lithium South Development
Corporation
Lithium South Development Corporation (Optionor) 70%; Sino Lithium Materials Pty Ltd (Optionee) 30% 30
James Bay Allkem LimitedAllkem Limited (Owner) 100%18.8
Kachi Lake Resources NLLake Resources NL (Optionor) 75%; Lilac Solutions, Inc. (Optionee) 25%25
Keliber Sibanye Stillwater Limited Private Interest (Venturer) 57.3%; Sibanye Stillwater Limited (Venturer) 30%; Nordic Mining ASA (Venturer) 12.7%20
Lithium NevadaLithium Americas Corp. Lithium Americas Corp. (Owner) 100%46
Mariana Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. (Owner) 100%25
Maricunga Minera Salar Blanco SpA
Lithium Power International Limited (Venturer) 51.55%; Minera Salar Blanco SpA (Venturer) 31.31%; Bearing Lithium
Corp. (Venturer) 17.14%; Unnamed Owner (Fractional)
20
Mina do Barroso Savannah Resources Plc Savannah Resources Plc (Owner) 100%11
Pakeagama Lake Frontier Lithium Inc.Frontier Lithium Inc. (Owner) 100%26
Paradox Anson Resources Limited Anson Resources Limited (Owner) 100%; Unnamed Owner (Fractional)20
Pastos GrandesLithium Americas Corp. Lithium Americas Corp. (Owner) 100%41
Piedmont Piedmont Lithium Inc. Piedmont Lithium Inc. (Owner) 100%30
Global reserves of lithium: North America, South America and Europe
South AmericaNorth AmericaEurope 42 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
Mine CompanyList of ownersLOM
Pozuelos
Pluspetrol Resources Corporation
B.V.
Pluspetrol Resources Corporation B.V. (Owner) 100%20
Rhyolite Ridgeioneer Ltdioneer Ltd (Owner) 100%25.2
Rincon Argosy Minerals Limited Argosy Minerals Limited (Optionee) 90%; Private Interest (Optionor) 10%16.5
Rose
Critical Elements Lithium
Corporation
Critical Elements Lithium Corporation (Owner) 100%17
Sal de Vida Allkem LimitedAllkem Limited (Owner) 100%; POSCO Holdings Inc. (Fractional)44
Salar de Cauchari Allkem LimitedAllkem Limited (Venturer) 100%30
Salar de OlarozAllkem Limited
Allkem Limited (Venturer) 66.5%; Toyota Tsusho Corporation (Venturer) 25%; Jujuy Energia y Mineria Sociedad del Estado
(Venturer) 8.5%
20
Salar del Rincon Rio Tinto GroupRio Tinto Group (Owner) 100%24.5
San Jose Infinity Lithium Corporation Limited
Infinity Lithium Corporation Limited (Optionee) 100%; Beta Asociados, S.L. (Optionor); Disa Corporación Petrolífera, S.A.
(Optionor); Grupo Empresarial Fuertes S.L. (Optionor)
26
Separation
Rapids
Avalon Advanced Materials Inc. Avalon Advanced Materials Inc. (Owner) 100%19
Sonora Bacanora Lithium PlcBacanora Lithium Plc (Venturer) 50%; Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 50%; Cadence Minerals Plc (Fractional)19
South-West
Arkansas
Standard Lithium Ltd. Standard Lithium Ltd. (Optionee) 100%; TETRA Technologies, Inc. (Optionor)20
Tres QuebradasZijin Mining Group Company Limited Zijin Mining Group Company Limited (Owner) 100%50
WhabouchiInvestissement Québec (Venturer); Orion Mine Finance (Dup) (Venturer); The Pallinghurst Group (Venturer) 33
Wolfsberg European Lithium Limited European Lithium Limited (Owner) 100%12
Zinnwald Zinnwald Lithium PlcZinnwald Lithium Plc (Owner) 100%30
Global reserves of lithium: North America, South America and Europe
South AmericaNorth AmericaEurope 43 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
Product – lithium carbonate
Company – Product Development StageExpected capacity (ktPA)
Lithium Americas Corporation249
Commissioning (2022)60
Construction (2022)80
Feasibility study (2022)24
PEA study (2022)85
Sociedad Quimica y Minera de Chile (SQM)210
Expansion (2023)210
Grand Total459
Product – lithium hydroxide
Company – Product Development StageExpected capacity (ktPA)
Albemarle Corporation200
Production (2022)200
IGO Limited48
Train 1 – Production (2022)24
Train 2 – Construction (2024)24
Liontown Resources Limited86
Production (2029)86
Mineral Resources Limited50
Production (2022)50
Sociedad Quimica y Minera de Chile (SQM)50
Expansion (2024)50
Grand Total434
Product – Spodumene concentrate
Company – Product Development StageExpected capacity (ktPA)
AVZ Minerals Limited700
Production (2023)700
Core Lithium175
Production (2023)175
Liontown Resources Limited700
Production (2024)700
Mineral Resources Limited750
Production (2023)750
Pilbara Minerals1,190
Commissioning (2022)190
Expansion1,000
Grand Total3,515
459434
3515
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Lithium carbonateLithium hydroxide Spodumene
concentrate
Capacity (kt per annum)
Capital projects of lithium extraction and processing under pipeline 44 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
*Costs are during the year 2020
Source:Technical Report NI 43-101, Preliminary Economic Assessment, Canadian LiOH Project (minedocs.com)
COST
CATEGORY
COST CODE
CAPITAL COST
ESTIMATE (US$)
DirectEquipment47,933,932
DirectPlatework and Freight 7,190,089
DirectMechanical Installation 16,776,876
DirectCivils 23,966,966
DirectStructural Steel 9,586,786
DirectPiping 16,776,876
DirectElectrical 7,190,089
DirectControl and Instrumentation 11,983,483
DirectNon-Process - Facilities 7,190,089
DirectIndirect Field Costs 44,578,557
IndirectEPCM37,148,797
IndirectOwners Cost11,887,615
ContingencyContingency60,552,540
Pre-production
Mining Work
Pre-production Mining Work 50,257,185
Total CAPEX 353,019,880
OPEX ITEMUS$/ton LiOH
Raw Materials2,319
Logistics114
Energy614
Water39
Reagents834
Consumables75
Labour1,121
Maintenance363
General and Admin359
Waste Disposal118
Sub Total5,956
By-products-
Total*5,956
Production Capacity (tpa)15,000
CAPEX (US$)353,019,880
Life of operation (#years)20
Total productionduring operation (ton)300,000
CAPEX (US$/ton)1,177
OPEX (US$/ton)5,956
CAPEX+OPEX (USD/ton)7,133
All-in sustaining costs include adjusted operating costs and sustaining
capital expenditure, corporate general and administrative expenses,
exploration expense, reflecting the full cost of production from current
operations. The total all-in sustaining costs ranges from US$6,000 –
US$12,000 per ton LCE in countries Argentina, Australia, Chile and China.
Economics of converting spodumene concentrate to lithium hydroxide (~15,000 tons/annum) 45 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
Conditions for siting lithium carbonate / hydroxide conversion facilities
Ease of importing raw materials
India does not have any large deposits of lithium; the refinery would need to import raw materials from other countries. The location of
the refinery should be close to ports or other transportation infrastructure to facilitate the import of raw materials. Road access for
heavy haul vehicle from highway to the site industrial zone.
Access to resources
The location should have access to other resources, such as water and power, which are necessary for the refining process. The location
should have simple access to the site for the future workforce.
Proximity to battery and electric vehicle industries
The Government of India has been actively promoting the development of the battery and electric vehicle industry, so the location of the
refinery should be close to area where these industries are so that logistics cost of final product can be minimized.
Availability of subsidies
The cost of production will be a crucial factor as India does not have a large lithium deposit and the refining process will be heavily
dependent on import of raw materials. So, the location should have favorable subsidies for setting up the refinery.
Environmental impact
The location should have minimal environmental impact and should be able to comply with all the environmental regulations and policies
for refining of chemicals and disposal of industrial waste. The location should be far from residential areas. 46 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
The Petroleum, Chemicals and Petrochemicals Investment Region (PCPIR) policy by the
Ministry of Chemicals and Petrochemicals, Govt. of India has been in existence since 2007.
PCPIR is a designated investment region with an area of around 250 sq. km planned for the
establishment of manufacturing facilities for domestic and export led production in
petroleum, chemicals and petrochemicals, along with the associated services and
infrastructure. The State Government plays the lead role in setting up of the PCPIR. It
identifies a suitable site, prepares the proposal and seeks approval from a High-Powered
Committee. State government is responsible for availability of reliable quality power, bulk
requirements of water, road connectivity, Sewerage and effluent treatment linkages, from
the edge of PCPIR to the final disposal sites. Key highlights of PCPIR policy:
Strategic location at ports for domestic and global markets
Availability of adequate land with Government agencies/developers
Excellent connectivity, institutional mechanism for management and implementation
Ready availability of technical and skilled personnel
Investment opportunities in utilities and services
Dahej -
Gujarat
Paradeep -
Odisha
Vishakhapatnam –
Andhra Pradesh
Cuddalore
Nagapattinam -
Tamil Nadu
GujaratAndhra Pradesh OdishaTamil Nadu
Location/
Region
Dahej, Bharuch Vishakhapatnam Paradeep
Cuddalore-
Nagapattinam
Total Area
(Sq. kms.)
453640284257
Anchor
Tenant
ONGC Petro Additions
Limited (OPaL)
Hindustan Petroleum
Corporation Ltd. (HPCL)
Indian Oil Corporation
Ltd. (IOCL)
Nagarjuna Oil
Corporation Ltd. (NOCL)
Anchor
Project
Status
Commissioned in
March 2017
Anchor Tenant for
Greenfield project yet to
come on board
Commissioned in
February 2016
Construction work,
stalled since 2011, yet
to restart
PCPIRs offer potential sites for investing and setting up lithium chemical refineries 47 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Industrial-Policy2020.pdf (gujarat.gov.in),https://ficci.in/spdocument/23084/White Paper on PCPIR Policy Review.pdf,Reserve Bank of India - Publications (rbi.org.in),Rajasthan Investment Promotion Scheme 2022
The PCPIR in Dahej, Gujarat, has attracted more investments than the other three PCPIRs
in India. The main reason behind more investments is clear long-term policy for investors,
which facilitates ease of doing business. The state has undertaken various measures to
enhance the “Ease of Doing Business” experience like implementation of Gujarat Single
Window Clearance Act, 2017 which aims to facilitate a process for the speedy issuance of
various licenses, clearances and certificates required for setting up a business unit.
Gujarat MSME Act was also implemented in 2019 according to which an MSME in Gujarat
can now start operation upon receipt of an acknowledgement certificate from the state
nodal agency by submitting the 'Declaration of Intent’ and without taking various
approvals for the first three years. It has also formed an Investor Facilitation Agency (IFA)
which operates at the state and district level for supporting prospective investors in the
state. The state also provides Fixed Capital investment (FCI) to large industries for setting
up manufacturing operations in the state in the form of capital subsidy without any upper
ceiling. 10% and 12% of eligible FCI (excluding land) is provided for general and thrust
sectors respectively without any upper ceiling in equal annual instalments of INR40 crore
every year. The state had ~51% share (1st Rank in India) of IEMs filed in India in terms of
value with a proposed investment of US$49 billion in 2019 as per the data released by
DPIIT, Government of India.
Gujarat is ranked fifth in ease of doing business index by the Department of Industrial
Policy and Promotion (DIPP). Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Tamil Nadu ranks 1, 14 and 15
in the same index. Even after being ranked 1 in the ease of doing business index, Andhra
Pradesh is not able to attract investments due to lack of poor power and water
availabilities. Other challenges which are faced by these PCPIRs are:
Elusive ROI: high financial risks with new projects and no attractive financial schemes
Absence of utilities: lack of utilities like electricity, water, alternate energy, sewerage
systems and ETPs
Land acquisition and regulatory issues: slow pace of acquisition and limited
government support, absence of a Single Window for approvals
Lack of facilitative policy regime: no incentive to downstream industries because of
high interest rates and lack of export incentives
Feedstock for downstream: anchor tenant not sparing feedstock for downstream units
Rajasthan State Industrial Development and Investment Corporation Limited (RIICO) plans
to develop a PCPIR in the vicinity of 9 MMTPA refinery cum petrochemical complex under
construction by HPCL Rajasthan Refinery Limited (HRRL) at Pachpadra in the Barmer
district. RIICO plans to complete the setup of a refinery complex by October 2023. The
upcoming refinery is coupled with other regional advantages, such as:
Within the influence region of the Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) and eight
other corridors pass through the state
Access to major ports – Kandla, Mundra, JNPT and numerous other ports along west
coast
Six-lane expressway running adjoining to the HRRL complex offering unhindered
connectivity to Bhatinda and Jamnagar refineries for feedstock requirements and
northern and western regions and ports for product evacuation
Exemption for seven years from 100% of Electricity Duty, 100% Land Tax, 100% Market
Fee
Capital subsidy of 13—28% of eligible fixed capital investment available for
manufacturing industries depending on the size of investment. Amount is to be
disbursed in annual instalments in 10-year capital with cap of INR50 Cr in year 1 to 3,
INR 65 Cr in year 4 to 7 and INR 80 Cr in year 8 to 10.
The Vishakhapatnam PCPIR faced public outcry over possible pollution to be caused by the
petrochemical unit. So, to avoid the name PCPIR, it is being implemented as part of Vizag-
Chennai Industrial Corridor (VCIC) funded by the Asian Development Bank. The region is
announced to be developed as a mega petrochemical hub. VCIC is envisaged as a node
centric development platform with four nodes, Visakhapatnam Node, Machilipatnam Node,
Donakonda Node and Yerpedu - Srikalahasti Node. Amara Raja batteries have its
manufacturing facility in Chittoor, which is around Yerpedu–Srikalahasti node. The
corridor brings along the complementary components that include:
A trade and transport corridor and long coastline and strategically located ports are
expected to help India connect with dynamic Southeast and East Asia
Urban centers along the corridor and production clusters producing goods for both
consumption in the surrounding region and for global trade
Dahej in Gujarat, Barmer in Rajasthan and Yerpedu–Srikalahasti node in AP are well positioned to attract
investors for setting up lithium refineries 48 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
04
International
perspective: spherical
graphite processing,
bill of materials,
reserves and assets 49 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Overview: graphite refining process, reserves and mine production
Anodes for LIB cells are made ofspherical graphitethat involves
processing/refining natural or synthetic graphite to have the right shape,
particle size, and crystalline properties suitable for lithium intercalation
chemistry.
Global output of mined graphite is highly concentrated with China
accounting for almost three-fifths (59.1%) and the next four largest
countries together exceeded one-quarter (26.9%) of the worldwide total in
2020. Reported global mine output of natural graphite steadily declined
during 2015—20, with a notable dip in 2017. Some of the major suppliers
of refined battery grade graphite are Hitachi Chemical, BTR New Energy,
and Superior Graphite in the United States. The natural graphite must be
properly heat-treated to obtain a high degree of graphite crystalline
domains with exposed edge planes and surface treated (forming gas, nitric
acid, and so on) to obtain the appropriate surface chemistry for solid
electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation. Both oxygen-free surfaces and
oxygen-rich surfaces can be beneficial for performance, depending on the
electrolyte composition, cathode cell chemistry, and cycling conditions.
A lack of integration among raw and intermediate material producers
characterizes the global value chain for artificial graphite, along with the
lack of corporate participation by either battery manufacturers or EV
manufacturers. Most of global production is petroleum-based rather than
coal tar-based. Major producers of calcined petroleum coke are most in
the United States, followed by China and India.
Source:Global Value Chains: Graphite in Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehiclesgvc_paper.pdf (usitc.gov),https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/graphite-statistics-and-information
Mining flake
graphite ores
(HS 2504.10)
Calcining
petroleum coke
(HS 2713.12)
Recovering coal
tar pitch
(HS 2708.10)
Milling, heating, and
graphetization of needle
coke or needle coke pitch
intoartificial graphite
(HS 30801.10)
Milling, processing, and
purifying refinednatural
graphite
(HS 2504.10)
Milling,
processing, and
coating spherical
graphite
(HS 8545.10)
Anode
manufacturing
by applying
graphite paste
to copper foil
Lithium-ion battery
componenets assembly
ChinaChina
United States,
China, India
China
China, Japan,
United States
Japan,China, Korea,
Western Europe, United States
Japan,China, Korea,
Western Europe, United
States
0
500
1000
1500
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Thousand metric tons
Mined Natural Graphite
ChinaMozambique BrazilMadagascar IndiaAll Others
Graphite: Simplified process flow chart from extraction, through processing, to
battery components assembly 50 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Graphite ores (small flakes) extracted from either open-pit or underground operations
are crushed and ground to get fine particles
Flotation process is used to separate out the graphite from various impurities to attain
a concentrate with a 90% to 97% graphite content
Source:Global Value Chains: Graphite in Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehiclesgvc_paper.pdf (usitc.gov),Performance and cost of materials for lithium-based rechargeable automotive batteries | Nature Energy
Natural graphite: Deposit types and characteristics
Description
Leading mine
sources
Carbon
content (%)
Advantages Disadvantages
Flake — more common form,
with visible flaky particles
Brazil, China,
Mozambique
80−90
Low cost, and
low impurities
Inconsistent
quality
Amorphous— more common
form, with small crystalline
particles
China 70−90 Lowest cost
High impurities
including ash
Crystalline-vein — least
common form, with particle
sizes ranging from fine
flakes, medium needles, to
grainy lumps
Sri Lanka 70-99+
Very high
grades
Small deposits,
underground,
high cost, and
small particles
Natural graphite to battery grade anode material processing
Graphite concentration
Purification, spheroidization and coating
The remaining impurities (siliceous ash, sulfur, iron, and other metals) are removed
either by wet-chemical leaching with strong acids or high-temperature electrical,
thermal treatment with halogen gasses
The concentrated graphite is dried and grinded to get uniform particles
?Spheroidization? is done to get porous ?micro-balls? (10?30 microns diameter) by
heating in a kiln. The individual flakes curl into spheres to achieve increased packing
density and reduced particle size for more efficient electrical conductivity
This spheroidal graphite is subsequently coated with pitch or asphalt, followed by
baking in a furnace to produce coated spheroidal graphite that prevents expansion
and exfoliation of graphite
Graphite
core
Carbon
shell
1.Mining from graphite ore
2.Mechanical separation
3.Flotation
4.Drying and screening
Step 1: Mining and flotationStep 2: Material Processing Step 3: Particle refinement
1.Micronization
2.Spheroidization
3.Purification (wet chemical/thermal)
1.Conditioning
2.Grinding
3.Classifying
4.Coating 51 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Global Value Chains: Graphite in Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehiclesgvc_paper.pdf (usitc.gov),Performance and cost of materials for lithium-based rechargeable automotive batteries | Nature Energy,
http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=EDATA&f=cmID%3APK
Graphite
core
Carbon
shell
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Million metric tons
Petroleum Coke Producing Countries
United StatesChinaIndiaBrazilSaudi ArabiaAll others
Synthetic graphite to battery grade anode material processing
1.Carbon precursor (coke/pitch)
2.Calcination: soft carbon
3.Crushing, grinding
4.Classifying
Step 1: Pre-treatmentStep 2: Material Processing Step 3: Particle refinement
1.Graphitization (>2,500˚C)
1.Conditioning
2.Grinding
3.Classifying
4.Coating
Petroleum coke to calcined petroleum coke/needle coke
Residual oil from petroleum refinery operations are roasted in a coking furnace to drive off
the volatile components.
The residual solid material is heated in a rotary kiln to burn-off the volatile residual water
and organic compounds to yield calcined petroleum coke with a carbon content of 97.0% to
99.5%
Only 5% of all petroleum coke produced meets the high-purity and structural requirements.
These are known as needle coke.
Coal tar to pitch coke
Coal tar, a thick dark liquid obtained from coal coking operations, is transferred to another
coking furnace to drive off the volatile components and yield solid coke.
Distillation of this solid coke is done to remove water in the dehydration column, followed by
removal of organic volatiles to yield coal tar pitch
The coal tar pitch is heated in an electric furnace to bake the carbonaceous materials at 800?
1,300 °C into fine-grained pitch coke
Graphitization
The needle coke or pitch coke is heated in an electric furnace at higher temperatures in the
range of 2,600 °C to 3,300 °C to crystallize the aligned carbonaceous materials into graphite 52 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Life cycle assessment of natural graphite production for lithium-ion battery anodes based on
industrial primary data – ScienceDirect,Material and energy flows in the production of cathode andanode materials for lithium ion batteries121442.pdf (anl.gov)
Aggregated life cycle inventory for natural graphite production according to primary data collection at a Chinese manufacturer
Reference Product Mining Flotation Spheronization Purification Coating Unit
Per 1t graphite
ore
Per 1t graphite
concentrate
Per 1t
spherical
graphite
Per 1t spherical
purified graphite
Per 1t coated
spherical graphite
Input
Energy sources
Electricity
8.7506 2,1003054,550 kWh/t
Diesel2.241 0.996 0.4150.2490.249 kg/t
Hard coal50kg/t
Natural gas1,050MJ/t
Material inputs
Graphite ore (11% C)9,590kg/t
Graphite concentrate2,220kg/t
Spherical graphite1,130kg/t
Spherical purified
graphite
1,010 kg/t
Ammonium nitrate0.248kg/t
Pine oil1.163kg/t
Diesel0.012 1.551kg/t
Ceramic grinding
media
9kg/t
Hydrofluoric acid180kg/t
Hydrochloric acid200kg/t
Nitric acid100kg/t
Water22.02725m3/t
Lime400kg/t
HSP oil pitch50.0 kg/t
Nitrogen1.5 kg/t
Outp
ut
By product
Graphite fines1,215kg/t
Emissions to air
NOx0.138kg/t
Graphite dust5kg/t
Steam (H2O)0.113 320.145320.145kg/t
Off gas (CO2)0.040 183.33357.75062.407 kg/t
Nitrogen1.5 kg/t
Emissions to water
Pine oil1.047kg/t
Diesel1.396kg/t
Wastewater21.70724.773m3/t
Solid waste
Tailings8,596kg/t
Industrial waste0.0250.2591745.5 kg/t
Material and Energy Inputs for the Production of 1 ton of Synthetic Graphite
Carbonization
Carbon anode
baking
Graphitization
Material inputs (ton/ton)
Pet coke0.95 0.99---
Coal tar pitch0.24 0.22---
Energy inputs (MMBtu/ton)
Residual oil--- 1.8---
Diesel--- 0.33---
Natural gas5.1 2.4---
Electricity--- 0.5714
Total5.1 5.214
Non-combustion Emissions
(g/ton)
NOx9,300 760---
PM4,100 320---
SOx64,000 4,100---
CO2440,000 150,000 ---
Energy
production and
transportation
Auxillary
materials
production and
transportation
Emmisions
into air,
water and
soil
Ore
Flake graphite Ore (11%C)
Flake graphite concentrate
(95%C)
Spherical graphite(95%C)
Spherical purified graphite
(99,95%C)
Coated spherical graphite (99,95%C)
System boundary
Foreground System
Background System
Usage
Mining
Flotation
Spheroidization
Purification
Coating (including
carbonization and
finishing)
Life cycle inventory of materials for natural graphite processing to battery grade anode 53 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
The largest electrical energy consumption takes place in the spheroidization step (~
2,400 kWh) as well as in the coating step (~ 4,500 kWh)
The least energy is required in the purification and mining process
Hard coal plays a significant role as an energy carrier within the flotation step.
The coating process is the key driver of GHG emissions with about 4000 kg CO2 eq. mainly
associated with the electrical energy required for the process
The second largest contributing process (2,000 kg CO2eq.) is the flotation process, due to
the electrical energy required as well as the grinding media (ceramic) and direct CO2
emissions released in the process
The main emission drivers in the purification process (~1,300 kg CO2eq.) are the acids
used and the lime used for neutralization
Overall, the mining process has a rather minor impact with ~380 kg CO2 eq.
Source:Life cycle assessment of natural graphite production for lithium-ion battery anodes based on industrial primary data - ScienceDirect
9616 kg
CO2eq
/1000 …
Coating
41%
Flotation
21%
Spheroidization
20%
Purification
14%
Mining
4%
Electricity
38%
Transport
2%
Remains
1%
Electricity
11%
Ceramic
5%
Direct emissions
5%
Remains
1%
Electricity
20%
Lime
5%
Acids
4%
Electricity
3%
Remains
2%
Transport
2%
Eelctricity
2%
GHG emissions summary in battery grade graphite processing
860
2342 2402
617
4553
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Energy consumption (kWh/ton)
Energy consumption for each process step for 1 ton of produced
anode graphite according to data from a Chinese graphite
manufacturer
Electricity Coal Diesel Natural gas
Energy consumption and emissions while processing natural graphite into anode graphite 54 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis, Global Value Chains: Graphite in Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehiclesgvc_paper.pdf (usitc.gov)
Firm name (foreign headquarters location) Mine location
State, province, region, county,
etc.
Country
Extrativa Metaquimica S.A.MaiquiniqueBahia StateBrazil
JMN Mineracao S.A.Mateus LemeMinas Gerais StateBrazil
Nacional de Grafite LtdaItapecerica, Pedra Azul, Salto da Divisa Minas Gerais StateBrazil
Imerys Graphite and Carbon (Switzerland)Saint Aime du Lac des IlesQuébec ProvinceCanada
Eagle Graphite Corp.Black CrystalBritish Columbia Province Canada
Ontario Graphite Ltd.KearneyOntario ProvinceCanada
Timcal Ltd.Lac des IlesQuébec ProvinceCanada
Jixi Aoyu Graphite Co. Ltd.Jixi, LuobeiHeilongjiang Province China
Nei Mongol Xinghe Jingxin Graphite Co. Ltd. Xinghe CountyNei Mongol Autonomous Region China
Shenzhen BTR New Energy Materials Inc. ChangyuanHeilongjiang Province China
China Minmetals Corp.Yushuan, Luobei CountyHeilongjiang Province China
Graphit Kropfmühl GmbHKropfmühlBavaria StateGermany
Agrawal Graphite Industries Ltd. Belpara DistrictOdisha StateIndia
Tamil Nadu Minerals Ltd.Sivaganga DistrictTamil Nadu StateIndia
Yeongchon GraphiteYeongchonHwangnam ProvinceNorth Korea
Etablissements Gallois S.A.
Artsirakambo Mine, Brickaville; Marovinsty Mine,
Vatomandry; Ambalafotaka Mine, Toamasina
Atsinanana ProvinceMadagascar
Graphmada Equity Pte. Ltd. (Stratmin Global
Resources plc., United Kingdom)
AntsirabeVakinankaratra Province Madagascar
LoharanoArivonimamo Province Madagascar
Grafitos Mexicanos, S.A. de C.V. Lourdes, Topiyeca, San JuanSonoraState Mexico
GK Ancuabe Graphite Mine S.A. (Germany)AncuabeCabo Delgado Province Mozambique
Syrah Resources Ltd. (Australia) BalamaCabo Delgado Province Mozambique
Imreys Graphite and Carbon (Switzerland)OtjiwarongoOtjozondjupa RegionNamibia
Skaland Graphite AS (LNS Group) Traelen Mine, SkalandTroms CountyNorway
Kahatagaha Graphite Lanka Ltd. Kahatagaha MineNorthwestern Province Sri Lanka
Bogala Graphite Lanka Plc. (Germany) Bogala MineSabaragamuwa Province Sri Lanka
Sakura Pvt. Ltd.Ragedara MineCentral ProvinceSri Lanka
Leading Edge Materials Corp. (Canada) WoxnaGävleborg CountySweden
Zavalyevskiy graphite complex ZavalyevskiyAutonomous Republic of Crimea Ukraine
Zimbabwe German Graphite Mies Ltd. Lynx Graphite Mine, KaroiMashonaland West Province Zimbabwe
S. No. Country Reserves (million ton) Percentage of total
1 Turkey9027.7%
2 China7322.5%
3 Brazil7021.6%
4 Madagascar268.0%
5 Mozambique257.7%
6 Tanzania185.5%
7 India82.5%
8 Uzbekistan7.62.3%
9 Mexico3.11.0%
10 Korea, North2.00.6%
11 Sri Lanka1.50.5%
12 Norway0.60.2%
Total325100%
90
7370
2625
18
87.6
3.12.01.50.6
-
20
40
60
80
100
Reserves (million tons)
Natural graphite reserves
Global reserves and assets of natural graphite 55 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
05
International perspective:
nickel ore to battery
market —pathways,
reserves and assets 56 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Nickel extraction processing, equipment and technologies
►Nickel is a naturally occurring metallic element with a silvery-white, shiny
appearance. It is the fifth most common element on earth and occurs extensively
in the earth’s crust and core. The world’s nickel resources are currently estimated
at almost 300 million tons. Known nickel resources have significantly increased
over the past 30 years, with a corresponding rise in nickel mine production.
Australia, Indonesia, South Africa, Russia and Canada account for more than 50%
of the global nickel resources. Economic concentrations of nickel occur in sulfide
and in laterite-type ore deposits.
►While mine production in Canada and Russia is mainly linked to the mining of
sulfide-type ore deposits, Indonesia and the Philippines predominantly mine
laterites. In Australia, both laterite and sulfide mine production takes place. Due
to their geological formation, laterite-type ore deposits and mines are principally
found in equatorial regions and production from this type of deposits has steadily
increased in recent decades.
►Nickel Class I describes a group of nickel products comprising electrolytic nickel,
powders and briquettes, as well as carbonyl nickel.
►Nickel Class II comprises nickel pig iron and ferronickel. These nickel products
commonly have a lower nickel content and are used especially in stainless steel
production, where stainless steel producers take advantage of the iron content.
►Nickel is one of the most valuable common non-ferrous metals, along with
aluminum, copper, lead and zinc (Al, Cu, Pb, Zn). Given its value as a commodity,
the commercial motivation to use nickel effectively in the first place is very
strong. There is a similarly compelling incentive for recovering and recycling
nickel effectively at all stages of the production and use cycle.
Source:Life of Nickel by Nickel Institute
Nickel SulfidesNickel Laterites
Primary
mineral
Pentlandite Fe5Ni4S8
Garnierite
Ni2Mg4Si4O10(OH)8
Pre-
concentration
5 to 10 XMinimal
Associated
pay metals
Copper, Cobalt, Gold, Silver, PGMs Cobalt
Major
impurities
Iron, Sulfur, Gangue (Rock) Iron, Gangue
Processing
options
Roaster - Electric Furnace Smelting
Flash Furnace Smelting
Rotary Kiln - Electric
Furnace Smelting
Smelting
temperature
1300°C1600°C
Energy source Concentrate, Electricity Fossil fuel, electricity
Primary
product
Nickel Matte
Ferronickel (Class 2)
20 to 40% Ni
Final product
post refining
High purity nickel cathode (Class 1)
> 99.8% Ni, Plus by-products
N/A
Atmospheric
emission
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 57 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Glencore Nickel presentation dated May 2021
Fluidized bed
roaster
Converting
furnace
Electric furnace
Concentrate
20% Ni+Cu
2% Ni
20% Ni+Cu
Slag
Slag
50% Ni+Cu
78% Ni+Cu
Matte
To refinery
Acid
plant
Converting
furnace
Flash furnace
Concentrate
20% Ni+Cu
Slag
Slag
50% Ni+Cu
78% Ni+Cu
Matte
To Refinery
Acid
Plant
Oxygen
Fossil fuel
Roaster Electric FurnaceFlash Furnace
Primary energy consumption25,000 kWh per ton Ni+Cu500 kWh per ton Ni+Cu
Ni, Co recovery98%, 75%96%, 50%
Nickel sulfide processing 58 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Glencore Nickel presentation dated May 2021
Rotary
dryer
Rotary
kiln
Electric furnace
Ore
2% Ni
Fossil fuel
2% Ni
Fossil fuel
2.2% Ni
Slag
Ferronickel
20-40% Ni
To Market
Rotary Kiln – Electric Furnace (RKEF)
Primary energy consumption20,000 kWh per ton Ni
Coal consumption8 tons per ton Ni
Ni, Co recovery92%, n/a
Nickel laterite processing 59 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Glencore Nickel presentation dated May 2021
Laterite
70%
Sulfide
30%
Smelting
90%
Leach 10%
Smelting
90%
Leach 10%
NPI
47%
FeNi
14%
Class 1
39%
Stainless
Steel
70%
Batteries
5%
Alloys
Plating
Other
25%
OreProcessingProductEnd Market
Nickel ore to market pathways 60 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
Mine CompanyList of ownersLOM
Production -
2020 (ton)
Kola Division
Public Joint Stock
Company Mining and
Metallurgical Company
Norilsk Nickel
Public Joint Stock Company Mining and Metallurgical Company Norilsk Nickel (Owner) 100%
172,357
Sudbury
Operations
Glencore plc Glencore plc (Owner) 100%
91,500
Nickel West BHP Group Limited BHP Group Limited (Owner) 100%
80,100
Sorowako PT Vale Indonesia TbkPT Vale Indonesia Tbk (Owner) 100%
72,237
Ontario DivisionVale S.A.Vale S.A. (Owner) 100%
43,200
Murrin Murrin Glencore plc Glencore plc (Owner) 100%
40,800
Cerro Matoso South32 Limited South32 Limited (Venturer) 99.94%; Mineworkers (Venturer) 0.06%
40,600
Voisey's Bay Vale S.A.Vale S.A. (Owner) 100%
35,700
Barro Alto Anglo American plc Anglo American plc (Owner) 100%
34,900
Koniambo Glencore plc Societe Miniere du Sud Pacifique SA (Venturer) 51% ; Glencore plc (Venturer) 49%
34,500
Ramu
Metallurgical
Corporation of China
Ltd.
Metallurgical Corporation of China Ltd. (Venturer) 56.97%; Jilin Jien Nickel Industry Co., Ltd.
(Venturer) 11.05%; Jiuquan Iron and Steel (Group) Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 11.05%; Jinchuan Group
International Resources Co. Ltd (Venturer) 5.93%; Mineral Resources Development Corp (Venturer)
3.94%; Private Interest (Venturer) 2.5%; Nickel 28 Capital Corp. (Carried) 8.56%
33,659
Moa Bay Moa Nickel S.A. General Nickel Co SA (Venturer) 50%; Sherritt International Corporation (Venturer) 50%
31,506
Goro
Prony Resources New
Caledonia consortium
Prony Resources New Caledonia consortium (Venturer) 95% ; Societe de Participation Miniere du
Sud Caledonia SAS (Venturer) 5%
31,000
Nova-BollingerIGO Limited IGO Limited (Owner) 100%10.3
30,436
Terrafame Terrafame Oy Terrafame Oy (Owner) 100%22
28,740
Weda Bay PT Weda Bay Nickel
Tsingshan Holding Group Co., Ltd. (Venturer) 51.3%; ERAMET S.A. (Venturer) 38.7%; PT Aneka
Tambang Tbk (Venturer) 10%
23,500
Forrestania Western Areas LimitedWestern Areas Limited (Owner) 100%; Wesfarmers Limited (Fractional)
20,926
Eagle
Lundin Mining
Corporation
Lundin Mining Corporation (Owner) 100%3
16,718
Onca Puma Vale S.A.Vale S.A. (Owner) 100%34
16,000
Ravensthorpe
First Quantum Minerals
Ltd.
First Quantum Minerals Ltd. (Venturer) 70%; POSCO Holdings Inc. (Venturer) 30%
12,695
Kevitsa Boliden AB (publ) Boliden AB (publ) (Owner) 100%
11,074
Nkomati
African Rainbow
Minerals Limited
African Rainbow Minerals Limited (Venturer) 50%; Public Joint Stock Company Mining and
Metallurgical Company Norilsk Nickel (Venturer) 50%
10,638
Codemin Anglo American plc Anglo American plc (Owner) 100%
8,600
Trojan
Bindura Nickel
Corporation Limited
Bindura Nickel Corporation Limited (Owner) 100%5.4
5,730
S.No. Mine
Reserves (kilo
ton)
1 Polar Division15,299
2 NORI11,512
3 TOML9,954
4 Weda Bay9,334
5 Dumont5,721
6 Jinchuan5,502
7 Turnagain4,844
8 Hanking Group4,802
9 Punta Gorda4,093
10 Zebediela4,010
11 Jacare3,913
12 Terrafame3,880
13 Biankouma-Sipilou3,810
14 Koniambo3,428
15 Kalgoorlie3,189
16 Nickel West3,136
17 Decar3,111
18 Kola Division3,066
19 Tapunopaka2,940
20 Mindoro2,926
21 Cerro Matoso2,878
22 Crawford2,874
23 Pomalaa East2,690
24 Goro2,633
25 La Sampala2,624
26 All Others96,973
Total219,142
Nickel reserves, mines and assets 61 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:EY Analysis
CompanyProjectProduct type Project development stage
Expected capacity
(TPA)
Capex (US$m)
Projected
completion
Canada Nickel Company Timmins Nickel District
GlencoreRaglan phase 2 and Onaping depth projectsCommissioning2,025
Nickel Mines Ltd. Angel Ni projectProduction2,022
Nickel Mines Ltd. Hengjaya mine
Talon Metals Corp Tamarack Nickel ProjectDrilling2,022
ValeBahodopi e Pomalaa110,0002,026
ValeOnça Puma 2nd FurnaceProduction15,0002,023
ValeThompson121
ValeVoisey's Bay
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.Dumont Nickel-Cobalt RoyaltyNi and Co Construction
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.Ramu Nickel Cobalt OperationNi and Co Production
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.Turnagain Nickel and Cobalt Royalty Ni and Co Exploration
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.
Flemington Nickel, Cobalt and Scandium
Royalty
Ni, Co and ScExploration
Nickel 28 Capital Corp.Nyngan Nickel, Cobalt and Scandium RoyaltyNi, Co and ScConstruction
Nickel Mines Ltd. Oracle Ni projectNickel metal25,200
Canada Nickel Company Crawford projectNickel sulfideFeasibility study1,2002,022
Capital projects of nickel extraction and processing under pipeline 62 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
International
perspective: cobalt ore
to battery market —
pathways, reserves
and assets
06 63 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Cobalt is generally recovered as a by-product of copper or nickel mining. The major
cobalt-producing regions are the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Zambia, with
some large deposits also known in Australia, Russia, Cuba, New Caledonia and Canada.
Cobalt can be found in economic concentrations in three principal deposit types:
Cobalt is also concentrated in a variety of other geological settings and deposit types.
Some concentrations of cobalt may also occur on the sea floor in iron-manganese-rich
nodules and cobalt-rich crusts, although to date no cobalt has been commercially
extracted from these. The major cobalt-producing regions are the Democratic Republic
of Congo (DRC) and Zambia, with some large deposits also known in Australia, Russia,
Cuba, New Caledonia and Canada.
Cobalt is produced and traded in many forms, including concentrates, intermediate
compounds, high-purity metal and salts. Pure cobalt metal is produced by two principal
processing routes, hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy. Hydrometallurgy relies on
differences in the solubility and electrochemical properties of different materials.
Following leaching, copper is recovered, and impurities removed before the recovery of
cobalt and, finally, of nickel, if any, is present. Pyrometallurgy uses differences in the
melting points and densities of materials to separate them. The ore is heated together
with a reducing agent to facilitate chemical reactions that separate the metals from
other compounds. Some impurities are driven off in gaseous form and others are
separated into a slag. After smelting, cobalt normally remains combined with nickel, and
the two are subsequently separated using electrolytic processes (solvent extraction and
electrowinning).
Source:BGS COMMODITY REVIEW – Cobalt,Mineral Commodity Summaries 2022 - Cobalt (usgs.gov)
63%
20%
14%
3%
Cobalt Mine Production by deposit type - 2017
Stratiform sediment -
hosted Cu-Co 63%
Ni-Co laterites 20%
Magmatic Ni-Cu (-Co-
PGE) 14%
Other 3%
Country
Mine Production
- 2021
% Production
Reserves
(tons)
% Global
Reserve
Congo (Kinshasa) 120,000 72.6% 3,500,000 45.8%
Russia7,600 4.6%250,000 3.3%
Other countries 6,600 4.0%610,000 8.0%
Australia5,600 3.4% 1,400,000 18.3%
Philippines4,500 2.7%260,000 3.4%
Canada4,300 2.6%220,000 2.9%
Cuba3,900 2.4%500,000 6.5%
Papua New
Guinea
3,000 1.8% 47,000 0.6%
Madagascar2,500 1.5%100,000 1.3%
Morocco2,300 1.4% 13,000 0.2%
China2,200 1.3% 80,000 1.0%
Indonesia2,100 1.3%600,000 7.8%
United States700 0.4% 69,000 0.9%
World total 165,300 100.0% 7,649,000 100.0%
Cobalt minerology, refining, reserves and mine production
Stratiform sediment-
hosted copper-cobalt
deposits
Nickel-cobalt laterite
deposits
Magmatic nickel-copper (-
cobalt-platinum-group
element) sulfide deposits 64 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Geometallurgy of cobalt ores: A review - ScienceDirect
Sediment hosted Cu-Co deposit
DRC, Zambia
Crushing,
milling
Acid leach
Neutralizati
on and CCD
Solvent
extraction
Impurity
removal
Precipita-
tion
Re-
leaching
Refining
Crushing,
milling
Froth
flotation
Sulfating
roasting
Acid leach
Neutralizati
on and CCD
Solvent
extraction
Impurity
removal
EW
Cu
route
Cu
route
Cobalt metalCobalt chemicals
Cu-Co oxide
ore
Cu-Co sulfide
ore
Hydroxide
Ni Laterites
Australia, New Caledonia, Cuba, Philippines
Drying,
crushing
Reduction
roasting
Ammonia
leach
CCD and
thickening
Solvent
extraction
Precipita-
tion
Neutralizati
on and CCD
Screening,
upgrading
HPAL
Preciptation
sulfide
Preciptation
hydroxide
Re-leachingRe-leaching
Solvent
extraction
Solvent
extraction
Hydrogen
reduction
EW
Ni
route
Ni
route
Cobalt metalCobalt powderCobalt sulfide
Nickel Limonite/
Saprolite ore
Nickel Limonite
ore
HydroxideSulfide
Magmatic Ni sulfides
Canada, Australia, Russia
Crushing,
milling
Froth
flotation
Drying or
roasting
Flash
furnace
Leaching
(Cl
2/NH
4/H
2SO
4)
Electric
furnace
Solvent
extraction
Hydrogen
reduction
EW
Ni
route
Cobalt metalCobalt powder
Nickel Sulfide
ore
Ni (Co) Concentrate`
Sulfide matte
Cobalt arsenide
Morocco
Crushing,
milling
Froth
flotation
Roasting
Acid leach
Solvent
extraction
EW
Screening,
upgrading
Cobalt metal
Cobalt Arsenide
ore
CCD: Counter Current Decanation, EW: Electrowinning, HPAL: High Pressure Acid Leaching
Refining cobalt ore to pure metal and battery grade chemical precursors 65 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:https://greet.es.anl.gov/files/update_cobalt
Refined CoSO
4reacts with ammonium bicarbonate (NH
4HCO
3) to produce a CoCO
3slurry
The produced CoCO
3slurry goes through centrifugation, filtration, and washing to produce a
concentrated CoCO
3solution.
The solution subsequently undergoes evaporation, drying, and an iron-removal step, to
produce a refined CoCO
3solid
The solid is then calcined to produce battery-grade Co
3O
4powder
NaOH
Open-pit
mining
Underground
mining
Ore milling
and flotation
Sulfatizing
roast
Leaching
Acid
production
Solvent
extraction
PrecipitationLeachingElectrowinningElectrowinning
Solvent
extraction
CoOOH
Synthesis
Calcination
Evaporation
and
crystallization
Drying
Cu-Co
ore
Sulfide
concentrate
Oxide
concen-
trate
Soluble Cu-Co
Oxides
Sulfur
Cu/Co
solution
Co solution
Crude
Co(OH)
2
H
2SO
4, Na
2S
2O
5
Cobalt metal
Cu
solution
Copper cathode
Kerosene
Crude
CoSO
4
solution
CoSO
4
solution
CoSO
4
crystal
Battery
grade Co
3O
4
Battery grade CoSO
4
H
2SO
4
Co
solution
MgO
SO
2
CoSO
4
solution
CoOOH
Refining process of Cu-Co oxide and sulfide ore to battery grade cobalt
Hydrometallurgical Processing
Milling is done which reduces the ore size to one that is suitable for subsequent mineral
extraction and leaching processes. The ore is converted into an enriched concentrate by
flotation.
Concentrate containing sulfides undergo sulfating roasting or pressure oxidation, which
converts sulfides into more soluble oxides. Then the concentrate can be fed to the leaching
tank. Concentrate containing oxides can be directly fed to the leaching tank.
The leached slurry then undergoes several solvent extraction and stripping steps to
increase the concentrations of copper and cobalt and separate them out as a copper-rich
solution and a cobalt-rich solution.
The cobalt-rich solution goes through a few precipitation steps to remove iron, aluminum,
and manganese impurities, and to recover contained copper.
In the end, magnesium oxide (MgO) is used to precipitate Co(OH)
2with ~35% cobalt content.
Battery Grade CoSO
4production
Co(OH)
2is treated with H
2SO
4, which leaches cobalt out as CoSO
4. Sodium metabisulfite
(Na
2S
2O
5) is also added to the leaching step to convert the remaining Co
3+
into Co
2+
.
The leached solution undergoes several precipitation steps to remove iron and aluminum.
Solvent extraction by P-204 to remove other impurities, another solvent extraction by P-
207 to separate cobalt from nickel, stripping by sulfuric acid to produce refined CoSO
4.
Finally, the solution is evaporated, followed by filtration and drying to produce battery-
grade CoSO
4crystals
Battery Grade Co
3O
4production 66 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:https://greet.es.anl.gov/files/update_cobalt
Mass allocationEconomic value allocation
CoSO4
production
Co3O4
production
Co
electrowinning
Mining Ore processing Mining Ore processing
Material consumption
Sulfur (ton/ton)--- 0.721--- 3.153 --- --- ---
Limestone (ton/ton)--- 0.938--- 4.102 0.056--- ---
Lime (ton/ton)--- 0.342--- 1.494 0.022--- ---
NaOH (ton/ton)--- 0.041--- 0.180 2.735 0.640---
MgO (ton/ton)--- 1.175--- 1.175 --- --- ---
H2SO4(ton/ton)------------ 2.570--- ---
HCI (ton/ton)------------ 1.409--- ---
Kerosene (ton/ton)------------ 0.047--- ---
Na2S2O5(ton/ton)------------ 0.080--- ---
NH4HCO3(ton/ton)------------ 0.574 1.850---
Na2CO3(ton/ton)------------ 0.088--- ---
Non-fuel-combustion process emissions
PM10 (g/ton)55,849--- 183,592--- --- --- ---
PM2.5(g/ton)5,764--- 18,949--- --- --- ---
SO2(g/ton)--- 6,575--- 28,760 --- --- ---
CO2(g/ton)--- 680,400---
Energy consumption
Diesel (MJ/ton)22,757--- 74,809--- --- --- ---
Electricity (MJ/ton)--- 7,075--- 30,946 10,909 112 11,104
Natural gas (MJ/ton)--------- 28,314 19,511---
Water consumption
Fresh water (m
3
/ton)6.66 34.06 21.90 148.98 49.56 12.44---
Life cycle inventory of materials and energy consumption for cobalt processing 67 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:Life Cycle Assessment - Cobalt Institute
Electricity usage and direct emissions (e.g., diesel usage) are known impacts particularly for Global Warming Potential (GWP). Auxiliaries (i.e., chemicals)
contribute significantly for the emissions. It is notable that transportation, though a very visible impact in global value chains, accounts for between 7.5% of
the total product GWP.
0.5 0.7 0.3 2.6 2.3
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Mining Benification and
Operation
Tailings Primary
extraction
Refining
GHG emissions – Crude Cobalt Hydroxide [kg CO2 eq. / kg]
AuxillariesWaste water treatment Production of fuels
Direct emissions Raw materials productionElectricity
Total
0.3 0.3 0.1 1.0 2.0 0.004 0.3
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
MiningBenification
and
Operation
TailingsPrimary
extraction
RefiningWater and
waste water
treatment
Transport
GHG emissions - CoSO4.7H2O [kg CO2 eq. / kg]
AuxillariesWaste water treatment Production of fuels
TransportElectricity-onsite Water
Raw materials productionElectricity
Total
Global warming potential of different stages of Co(OH)2 and CoSO4 production 68 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
03/19 09/19 03/20 09/20 03/21 09/21 03/22 09/22
US$/ton
Cobalt
S.No. Mine Reserves (kt) Percentage (%)
1 Opuwo257 24.00%
2 Boss244 22.80%
3 Nkana Slag 152 14.20%
4 Thackaringa 81 7.60%
5 Nico74 6.90%
6 SCONI72 6.70%
7 Luiswishi 38 3.60%
8 Mt Thirsty 32 3.00%
9 Idaho Cobalt Operations 28 2.60%
10 Norseman27 2.50%
11 Bou-Azzer 16 1.50%
12 Iron Creek 11.3 1.10%
13 Kipushi Tailings 10.4 1.00%
14 Kambove9.4 0.90%
15 Kasese Tailings 9.4 0.90%
16 Coronation Dam 4.3 0.40%
17 Flemington 2.7 0.30%
18 Wollogorang 1.2 0.10%
19 McAra0.6 0.10%
20 Werner Lake 0.3 0.00%
MineCompanyList of ownersLOM Production - 2020 (t)
Bou-AzzerCompagnie de Tifnout Tighanimine Managem S.A. (Owner) 99.79%; Unnamed Owner (Owner) 0.21%2,416
Idaho Cobalt OperationsJervois Global LimitedJervois Global Limited (Owner) 100%7
Mt ThirstyConico Ltd.Conico Ltd (Venturer) 50%; Greenstone Resources Limited (Venturer) 50% 12
ThackaringaCobalt Blue Holdings Limited Cobalt Blue Holdings Limited (Owner) 100%17
FlemingtonAustralian Mines LimitedAustralian Mines Limited (Owner) 100%18
NicoFortune Minerals LimitedFortune Minerals Limited (Owner) 100%20
SCONIAustralian Mines LimitedAustralian Mines Limited (Owner) 100%30
-
50
100
150
200
250
300
Cobalt Reserves (kilo ton)
Reserves and assets of cobalt, price history of cobalt 69 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source: EY Analysis
Company Project
Product
type
Project
development
stage
Expected
capacity
(TPA)
Capex
(US$m)
Projected
completion
Project details
Glencore
Production step-up from 2022 in line with the ramp-up of Mutanda (to c.10kt p.a. over the outlook period)
and higher volumes from the Katanga cobalt circuit
Polymet Mining
Corp.
NorthMet project
Cobalt
concentrate
and
hydroxide
1,204
Phase I: produce and market copper and nickel concentrates
Phase II: production of nickel- cobalt hydroxide, and precious metals precipitate products
Vale Voisey's Bay
Cobalt
deposit
Open pit mine nearing the end. Underground mining to develop two new ore bodies, extending to 2034.
Signed deal in 2018 worth $690 million for sale of by product cobalt with Wheaton Precious Metals Corp and
Cobalt 27 Capital Corp
Electra Battery
Minerals
Battery Materials
Park - Cobalt
Refinery
Battery
grade
cobalt
Construction6,500 2,025
Phase 1 - Funded US$67m capital for commissioning in Dec'22. Operate refinery in North America with 50
tons per day (tpd) Co(OH)2feed from Glencore and IXM; Ramping up to 6,500t battery grade cobalt per year
Phase 2 - Recycling demonstration plant with the investment of US$3m. Work commenced to commission
lithium -ion battery recycling line in 2023 in Ontario, Canada.
Phase 3, Nickel sulfate plant, initially producing in excess of 60,000 tons of nickel.
phase 4, replicate in Finland, South Korea and China, catering to a rapidly expanding battery cell industry in
the U.S. and Canada.
China
Molybdenum
KFM copper and
cobalt mine in
DRC
Cobalt
deposit
Drilling
Exploration work during 2021. A total of 14 drilling holes were completed with a total drilling footage of
4,937.5 meters.
China
Molybdenum
TFM copper and
cobalt mine in
DRC
Cobalt
deposit
Drilling
Exploration activities in 2021 around the copper and cobalt and limestone deposit. Geological exploration
activities carried out in DDPN, Pumpi west, Kamalondo south, Fungurume Hill, Kansalawile south, Mambilima
and Mofya
Electra Battery
Minerals
Iron Creek project
Cobalt
deposit
Drilling
Completed 2,500-metre drill program in 2021, targeting extensions to the resource along strike to the
cobalt-rich east and copper-rich west. Increase the resource size at Iron Creek and advance the asset
towards a development decision in next 2 years
Sherritt
International
Moa - slurry prep
plant
Mixed
sulfides
Production 1,700 27 2,024
Slurry Prep Plant - increased mixed sulfides feed for refinery; reduced ore haulage distances; reduced carbon
intensity; underpins expansion with the capacity of 1,700 tons of increased mixed sulfides production. Total
budget within US$20k to US$25k per ton of increased nickel capacity.
Sherritt
International
Fort
Saskatchewan
refinery
Refined
metal
Debottlenecking
Current annual capacity of ~35,000 (100% basis) tons of nickel and ~3,800 (100% basis) tons of cobalt.
Debottlenecking at Fort site - upgrade/expand equipment to increase total refined metal output capacity to
~41,000 tpa.
Capital projects under pipeline 70 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
Strategies and
action plan for
supporting
domestic value
addition 07 71 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Strategic interventionLithiumNickelCobaltGraphite
Domestic exploration,
mining and refining of
critical battery minerals
Preliminary exploration (G3) in the
Salal-Haimana area of Reasi District of
Jammu and Kashmir (UT) has
indicated ~5.9 million tons of mineral
bearing resources in the inferred
category
Lack of mining and refining capacity
necessitates reliance on imports
~189 million tons of mineral
bearing resources estimated in
Odisha, Jharkhand and
Nagaland
Lack of mining and limited
refining capacity for battery
grade nickel precursor
necessitates reliance on imports
~45 million tons of
estimated mineral bearing
resources in Odisha,
Jharkhand and Nagaland
Limited refining capacity
necessitates reliance on
imports
Graphite deposits of economic importance and
active mining centers are in Jharkhand,
Odisha and Tamil Nadu
Spherical graphite refining capacity is
negligible and therefore necessitates reliance
on imports
Private sector announcements to manufacture
spherical graphite may reduce import reliance
in future
Overseas exploration and
mining of critical battery
minerals
G2G dialogues are advancing with friendly countries (e.g., Australia, Chile, Argentina, Bolivia etc.) for joint exploration and mining; Government of India has set
up KABIL to ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals through G2G negotiations and acquiring mining assets abroad
Establish supply chain
linkages with friendly
foreign countries
G2G dialogues are advancing for setting up ‘Critical Minerals Security Partnership (CMSP)’ among G20 member countries and also within the Indo-Pacific
economic framework
R&D to develop recycling,
extraction technologies and
find earth abundant
alternatives to critical
battery minerals
A private sector start up based in Noida has established recycling technology with commercialized products and services
DST has supported 42 projects to disseminate the knowledge of advancement in future energy materials - aluminum ion batteries, sodium ion batteries,
polymer batteries and graphene-based batteries
ARCI has been engaged in the development of indigenous technologies to produce electrode materials (cathode and anode)
ISRO is working on indigenization of Graphite based materials for Space applications. R&D efforts on advanced materials based on cylindrical cells aim to
further improve energy density, cycle life and safety
Department of Atomic Energy has fabricated Sodium ion coin cell with an energy density of ~200Wh per kilogram using indigenously synthesized electrode
material. A cost-effective lab scale synthesis procedure for electrode materials has been established and the technology has been transferred to several
companies. Several efficient cathode materials for the next generation Li-S battery have also been developed. A polymer-based proton battery has also been
designed and fabricated
CECRI has been engaged in cheaper iron based redox flow batteries for stationary energy storage applications. They have also focused on scaling up the
synthesis of high-power Li-ion battery materials and utilizing electrospun nanofibers as functional materials for Lithium-Sulfur batteries. They are also
developing new magnesium-sulfur (Mg-S) battery chemistry and electrodes through synthesis, characterization, and simulations.
Strategies for critical battery mineral supply chain resilience – status quo review 72 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Strategic intervention Action plan
Domestic exploration, mining
and refining of critical mineral
resources
National stockpiling of refined mineral precursors used in LIB electrodes
Incentives for critical battery mineral exploration, mining and extraction through appropriate royalty and tax regimes
PLI for setting up critical mineral processing / refining units, especially for Li2CO3 / LiOH, NiSO4, CoSO4 and Spherical
graphite
Production linked incentives for extraction of critical minerals through recycling LIBs
Overseas exploration and
mining of critical mineral
resources
Strengthen Indian missions in critical mineral bearing foreign countries to facilitate due diligence of greenfield / brownfield
mining assets, acquisition and investment by Indian companies
Strengthen KABIL to plan and undertake joint exploration, mining activities in critical mineral bearing foreign countries
Establish supply chain linkages
with friendly foreign countries
“G20 Critical Minerals Security Partnership” (G20-CMSP) should focus on building resilient supply chain of critical battery
minerals, including stockpiles in different member countries as per comparative advantages in extraction and processing
Key stakeholders should prioritize Critical Battery Minerals Supply Chain as a key pillar of Indo-Pacific economic framework
and a key factor in diplomatic outreach with mineral bearing foreign countries
R&D to develop recycling,
extraction technologies and
find earth abundant
alternatives to critical battery
minerals
Formulate national R&D grand challenge for:
developing high performance LIB electrodes made from earth abundant alternatives
direct lithium extraction technologies from seawater that canselectively separate lithium from sea water using physical or
chemical processes
Strategies for critical battery mineral supply chain resilience – action plan until 2030 73 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Domestic exploration, mining and refining of critical battery minerals (Li, Ni, Co and Graphite)
Key stakeholders and action plan until 2030
1324
National stockpiling of refined mineral precursors used in LIB electrodes
Strategic reserves of battery mineral precursors can act as buffer against
global supply chain disruptions and extreme volatility in commodity prices
Key stakeholders:Ministry of Mines and KABIL
PLI scheme for setting up critical battery mineral processing / refining
units from ore concentrates
Key stakeholders:Department of Chemicals & Petrochemicals for battery
grade Li precursors from ore concentrates; Ministry of Mines for battery
grade Ni, Co and Spherical Graphite commodities
Incentives for critical battery mineral exploration and mining through
appropriate royalty and tax regimes
Key stakeholders:Ministry of Mines, state governments of J&K, Odisha,
Jharkhand, Nagaland, Tamil Nadu and others with identified mineral bearing
resources
PLI scheme for extraction of critical battery minerals from recycling
used LIBs
Key stakeholders:NITI Aayog and Ministry of Environment & Forests for
regulated mechanism involving collection and transportation of used Li-
ion batteries from end users to OEMs / recycling companies 74 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Overseas exploration and mining of critical battery mineral resources (Li, Ni and Co)
Key stakeholders and action plan until 2030
12
Strengthen Indian missions in critical mineral bearing foreign
countries to facilitate due diligence of greenfield / brownfield
mining assets, acquisition and investment by Indian companies
Technical assistance from domain experts in critical battery mineral
resources exploration, extraction, asset due diligence and
acquisitions in India’s foreign missions of critical mineral bearing
countries can add significant value
Key stakeholders:
Indian missions in Australia, Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, DRC,
Indonesia, etc.
Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India
NITI Aayog
KABIL
Strengthen KABIL to accelerate plan and undertake exploration,
mining activities in critical mineral bearing foreign countries
Institutional capacity building and resources for undertaking
technology enabled reconnaissance and prospecting activities, due
diligence for economic viability of mining operations, environmental
and social impact assessment, compliance with local laws, etc.
Key stakeholders:Ministry of Mines, NITI Aayog, NALCO, HCL, MECL 75 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Establish supply chain linkages with friendly foreign countries
Key stakeholders and action plan until 2030
12
“G20 Critical Minerals Security Partnership” (G20-CMSP)
CMSP should focus on building resilient supply chain of critical
battery minerals, including stockpiles in different member
countries, as per comparative advantages in extraction and
processing. Joint technology development collaborations for
chemical processing from ore concentrates, recycling etc. should
also be focused.
Key stakeholders:
Ministry of External Affairs
Ministry of Mines
G20 secretariat
NITI Aayog
Critical Battery Minerals Supply Chain should be prioritized as a
key pillar of Indo-Pacific economic framework and a key factor in
diplomatic outreach with mineral bearing foreign countries
Key stakeholders:
Ministry of External Affairs
Ministry of Mines
NITI Aayog 76 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Key stakeholders and action plan until 2030
R&D to develop LIB recycling, extraction technologies, and earth abundant alternatives to critical battery
minerals1
Formulate national R&D grand challenge for developing high
performance LIB electrodes made from earth abundant
alternatives.
Focus should be cost optimization of active cathode and anode
materials (< 20 USD/kWh) for mass adoption of LIBs.
Key stakeholders:
NITI Aayog
Ministry of Science & Technology
DST
ARCI
ISRO
DEA
CERCI
Academia
2
Formulate national R&D grand challenge for direct lithium
extraction technologies from seawater that can selectively separate
lithium from sea water using physical or chemical processes.
Focus should be extracting lithium with lower GHG emissions, energy
consumption, higher yield, lower cost, less production time and many
other advantages. Testing of discharge from Seawater desalination
plants to evaluate lithium concentration and economics of DLE.
Key stakeholders:
NITI Aayog
Ministry of Science & Technology
DST
ARCI
ISRO
DEA
CERCI 77 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing
References and
Annexure 08 78 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Input Materials
Inventory required
for 1 ton Li2CO3
Inventory required
for 1 ton LiOH.H2O
Unit
Demand to
manufacture 56
thousand tons/annum
Li2CO3
Demand to
manufacture 64
thousand tons/annum
Li2OH.H2O
Demand to manufacture
100GWh/annum LIBs
(12% Li2CO3and 88%
LiOH.H2O)**
Unit
Spodumene
concentrate
7.36.4 ton 409408408 thousand ton
H2SO41.711.52 ton 969796 thousand ton
Na2CO32.050.03 ton 115215 thousand ton
NaOH0.050.67 ton 34338 thousand ton
CaCO30.700.60 ton 393838 thousand ton
Fresh water 40.0011.24 m
3
2200715892 thousand ton
*Li
2CO3 to LiOH.H
2O conversion factor of 1.14 is applied by conserving the mass of Lithium.
** By 2030, global demand for LiOH is estimated as ~1.4 million metric tons LCE (~1.59 million metric tons LiOH.H
2O), while Li
2CO
3demand as 218,000 metric tons LCE as
per the BNEF article. This gives the demand ratio of Li
2CO
3to LiOH.H
2O as 12:88. (Will the Real Lithium Demand Please Stand Up? Challenging the 1Mt-by-2025 Orthodoxy
| BloombergNEF (bnef.com))
Raw material requirements for producing 100 GWh/annum of LIBs
Critical materials
Demand to manufacture 100 GWh /
annum LIBs (Thousand
tons/annum)
Cathode active material 193
Graphite98
Aluminum91
Copper41
Electrolyte: LiPF
6 8
Chemical precursors
Demand to manufacture ~193 thousand ton/annum
active cathode material (Thousand tons/annum)
Li
2CO
356
NiSO
453
CoSO
448
Demand to manufacture 100 GWh/annum LIBs (Thousand tons/annum)
Li
2CO
356
LiOH.H
2O*64 79 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Recycling MethodProsConsRecovered Materials
Hydrometallurgy
(most common)
Applicable to any battery
chemistry and configuration
Only economical for batteries
containing Co and Ni
Copper, Aluminum, cobalt,
Li2CO3. Anode is destroyed
Pyrometallurgy
(smelting)
Applicable to any battery
chemistry and configuration
Only economical for batteries
containing Co and Ni; Gas clean-up
required to avoid release of toxic
substances
Cobalt, nickel, copper,
some iron. Anode is
destroyed
Direct Recycling
(supercritical CO2)
Almost all battery materials can
be recovered
Recovered material may not
perform as well as virgin material,
mixing cathode materials could
reduce value of recycled product
Almost all components
(except separators)
Source:Economics and Challenges of Li-Ion Battery Recycling from End-of-Life Vehicles (nrel.gov),
Technologies of lithium recycling from waste lithium ion batteries: a review - Materials Advances (RSC Publishing)
Binder
Waste lithium-ion batteries
Discharging
(submerge in salt solution)
Dismantling and
Separation
(b) Solvent treatment (c) Calcination
(b) Mechanical treatment
Shearing crushing
(cutting)
Impact crushing
(Comminution)
Dry sieving
(Size separation)
Ultrasonic
inNMP
Thermal treatment
(600C/15min)
Washing and drying
Separation and Sorting
Ptlastic,
separator
Electrode plate
(Cathode, Anode)
Binder
Cu, Al foil
Al, Cu
Plastic
Separator
Active Materials
(Cathode, Anode)
Crushed waste LIBs
Pre-treatment methods
Cathode:
LiNi
xMn
yCo
2O
2...
Anode: Li
xC
6
Active Materials Leaching
Leaching in
acid, alkali
Co
3+
, Ni
3+
,
Mn
3+
, Li
+
ion
solution
Adding
Precipitant
(NaOH, NH
4OH)
Precipitant
Separation
Precipitant
(Co, Mn...)
Precipitation
pH adjustment
Co, Mn, Ni precipitation
Li solution
Precipitation
Adding
Extractant
(Cyanex 272)
Solution separation
Non-aqueous dissolved Co
3+
, Ni
3+
, Mn
3+
Aqueous dissolved Li
+
Non-
aqueous
Aqueous
Others
(Co, Mn...)
Aqueous
solution
Solvent extraction
Adding Li ion
Sieve (MnO
2)
Others
(Co, Mn...)
Sieve
Acid
Li adsorption
Manganese type Sieve
Selective adsorbs Li
+
Sieve acid
leaching
Selective adsorption
Adding
precipitant
(Na
2CO
3)
Li precipitation
Na
2CO
3-> 2Na
+
+ CO
3
2-
2Li
+
+ CO
3
2-
-> Li
2CO
3(s)
Li chemical
(Li
2CO
3)
Hydrometallurgy
Process flow of li-ion battery recycling 80 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
Source:MIT Study on the Future of Energy Storage, June 2022
The chemical cost of stored energy for
battery electro chemistries is shown
against the year in which the system
first appeared in the public domain.
Technologies pre-1900 are shown
against the left axis.
Chemical cost is calculated as the cost
of the negative electrode material,
positive electrode material, and
electrolyte, divided by the stored
energy.
Abbreviations: LMO = lithium
manganese oxide, LCO = lithium cobalt
oxide, LFP = lithium iron phosphate,
LNMO = lithium nickel manganese
oxide, LTO = lithium titanium oxide,
NMC = lithium nickel manganese cobalt
oxide, NCA = lithium nickel cobalt
aluminum oxide, P2-MN = P2-type
sodium manganese nickel oxide, NTP =
sodium titanium phosphate, NMO =
nickel manganese oxide, NiCd = nickel–
cadmium, NiMH = nickel metal hydride,
AQDS = 9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-
disulfonic acid
Chemical cost of stored energy for existing and emerging battery electro chemistries 81 Mine to Market: Critical Minerals Supply Chain for Domestic Value Addition in Battery Manufacturing 12345678
1.Need–for–ACC–Energy–Storage–in–India.pdf
(niti.gov.in)
2.ACC Scheme Notification 9June21.pdf
(heavyindustries.gov.in)
3.Update of Bill-of-Materials and Cathode
Chemistry addition for Lithium-ion Batteries in
GREET 2020, Argonne National Laboratory
4.BatPaCV5.0 by UChicago Argonne, LLC
5.Nickel sulfate vs metal: Is the market shifting
towards new pricing mechanisms? | S&PGlobal Commodity Insights (spglobal.com)6.Green Metals Battery Metals Watch The endof the beginning (goldmansachs.com)7.MIT Study on the Future of Energy Storage,
June 2022
8.Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- I:
General Reviews); 59
th
Edition, MINERAL-
BASED INDUSTRIES, INDIAN BUREAU OF
MINES, September 2022
9.Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, (Part- II:
Metals and Alloys); 59
th
Edition, Nickel,
INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES, August 2021
10.CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL
STATISTICS AT A GLANCE - 2021, Ministry of
Chemicals and Fertilizers, Department of
Chemicals and Petrochemicals, Statistics and
Monitoring Division
11.https://tradestat.commerce.gov.in/;
12.http://www.eximguru.com/indian-customs-duty/
13.https://www.batterybrunch.org/battery–
report
14.https://www.iea.org/reports/india–energy–
outlook–2021
15.https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=
&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiVtd3m_L78AhXuXGwGHRbQAKAQz40FegQIRRAn&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DAo1tvps_-ZQ&usg=AOvVaw0JjpTkSahOAvgLYCqNPKiR&cshid=167342158168154716.https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiVtd3m_L78AhXuXGwGHRbQAKAQz40FegQISxAY&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DzhP8KV0Bo7I&usg=AOvVaw3kgnuqrMrJ6SzQ0VzCatph&cshid=167342159421948217.(10) Modern Mining - How Eagle Mine
produces nickel and copper – YouTube
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