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Towards Decarbonising Transport
2023
A Stocktake on Sectoral Ambition in the G20 Imprint
Published: July, 2023
98-2023-EN
Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
A Stocktake on Sectoral Ambition in the G20
Supported by
This publication was done under the NDC Transport
Initiative Asia, a project financed by the International
Climate Initiative (IKI)
PUBLISHED BY
Agora Verkehrswende
Agora Transport Transformation gGmbH
Anna-Louisa-Karsch-Str. 2
10178 Berlin | Germany
P +49 (0)30 700 14 35-000
F +49 (0)30 700 14 35-129
www.agora-verkehrswende.de
info@agora-verkehrswende.de
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)
Registered offices (Bonn and Eschborn):
Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 40
53113 Bonn | Germany
P: +49 (0)228 44 60-0
F: +49 (0)228 44 60-17 66
Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1–5
65760 Eschborn | Germany
P: +49 (0)61 96 79-0
F: +49 (0)61 96 79-11 15
info@giz.de
www.giz.de
Authors
Ernst Riehle, Elisabeth Le Claire, Esther Rublack,
Tim Schmidt, Sudhendu J Sinha, Joseph Teja, Gautam
Sharma
Editing
Lucais Sewell
Data collection
Marion Vieweg
Layout
UKEX GRAPHIC | Urs Karcher
Cover Image
Arshii Anjum / iStock
Please cite as
Agora Verkehrswende, GIZ (2023): Towards Decarbon-
ising Transport 2023. A Stocktake on Sectoral Ambition
in the G20.
Report on behalf of Agora Verkehrswende and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ).
To download a PDF of this publication, please scan the QR code.
Please share your valuable insights on NDC-TIA knowledge product(s). You can do
so by visiting https://tinyurl.com/ndctia-survey or scanning the QR code below.
This evaluation survey will take about 5 – 7 minutes to complete. Your responses
will help us increase the quality of future knowledge products on transport decar-
bonisation in Asia.
IKI is working under the leadership of the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action, in close cooperation with its founder, the Federal Ministry of Environment and the Federal Foreign Office 3
About this report
This publication analyses the current state of decar-
bonisation and climate ambition in the transport
sectors of G20 countries. In light of India’s G20
presidency in 2023, and with emerging economies at
the helm of the intergovernmental forum in 2022
(Indonesia) and 2024 (Brazil), this report seeks to
support global discussions surrounding sustainable
transport and the effort to achieve the goals stipulated
in international climate accords, especially the Paris
Agreement and the Glasgow Declaration.
The document is an update of the report “Towards
Decarbonising Transport 2018 – A Stocktake on
Sectoral Ambition in the G20”, published by Agora
Verkehrswende, GIZ, and REN21. A consortium of
seven leading research and international cooperation
institutes, under the umbrella of the NDC Transport
Initiative Asia, has contributed to the new addition of
the report. Agora Verkehrswende completed the work
with the support of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), SLOCAT, WRI,
ICCT, ITF, and REN21.
The report summarises the mitigation policies for the
transport sector enacted by G20 countries and
describes their progress in decarbonising the transport
sector through 2022. We have concentrated on G20
countries because collectively they account for almost
two-thirds of the world’s population, around 80% of
global economic output, nearly 75% of global exports,
and more than 80% of current global CO₂ emissions.
The transport sector – responsible for the movement
of people and goods by road, rail, air, or waterways –
is necessary for economic development, international
trade, and social participation. Despite global action
to keep global warming well below 2°C, transport
emissions continue to grow, which is why the efforts
of G20 countries to decarbonise the sector are so
important.
This report illustrates the current status and develop-
ment of the transport sector by offering an in-depth
analysis of G20 countries showcased in individual
country fact sheets and providing the latest set of
comprehensive data on transport, energy, and mobil-
ity. Five sections make up the report:
• Section 1 elaborates global climate discussions and
notable sector developments since the publication
of the 2018 report.
• Section 2 describes the role of G20 countries in
the global climate crisis and the importance of the
transport sector in achieving national ambitions.
• Section 3 spotlights Indonesia, India and Brazil,
presenting an overview of their G20 presidencies
(2022, 2023, 2024) and their sectoral ambition.
• Chapter 4 provides individual country fact sheets
with the latest available data on transport, mobility,
and energy indicators for G20 countries.
• Chapter 5 summarises the report and provides
recommendations for targeted climate action to
decarbonise the transport sector in G20 countries. 4
Preface
Dear readers,
The need to decarbonise the transport sector has
gained considerable attention in recent years in
government, business and civil society. Since 2018,
nations around the world have significantly ramped
up their commitments to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. At the COP26 in 2021, over 100 national
governments, states, cities and major corporations
signed the Glasgow Declaration, which pledges to
accelerate the transition to 100% zero-emission
cars and vans. The number of countries with net-
zero pledges and transport-related NDC targets is
rising.
These are welcome developments. However, the domi-
nant role played by fossil fuels remains unchanged, and
transport emissions continue to rise worldwide. In
addition, recent international conferences have failed
to strengthen the political momentum for transforma-
tion. The COP27 in Sharm El Sheikh in November 2022
ended without agreements on further emissions reduc-
tions, much less a commitment to the phasing out of
fossil fuels. The G20 Bali summit did not address trans-
port matters at all. New initiatives are thus needed to
bring transport to the forefront of governmental action
on climate change.
To be sure, the journey to a decarbonised transport
sector will be far from easy, not least because the
world community is already facing enormous chal-
lenges. The Covid-19 pandemic is still a serious threat
in various parts of the world. And the war in Ukraine
has triggered a crisis marked by increased geo-
political tensions, supply chain disruptions, spiralling
energy prices, and rising inflation. Apparently the
need to address multiple crises simultaneously will
be the rule rather than the exception in coming years.
Of course, the future is notoriously difficult to predict,
yet two things are abundantly clear: The climate crisis
is intensifying and will become increasingly severe.
Furthermore, given transport’s status as the sector
with the second largest emissions, the decarbonisa-
tion of transport is essential to avert the worst effects
of climate change.
G20 countries can and should take the lead in moving
towards a climate-neutral transport sector. G20 coun-
tries are responsible for the lion’s share of global trans-
port emissions. Furthermore, they are also in the best
position to encourage change, given their political and
economic influence. At this crucial moment in time,
three emerging economies assume the G20 presi-
dency: Indonesia in 2022, India in 2023 and Brazil in
2024. We hope these presidencies will usher in a
transformative perspective for the global community,
one that devotes due attention to the transport sector.
India’s motto for the current presidency – “One Earth,
One Family, One Future” – certainly gives cause for
optimism.
In this report, NDC Transport Initiative for Asia
provides insights into the sector ambitions of G20
countries to date. Funded by the International Climate
Initiative (IKI), the initiative is a joint program of seven
organisations: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internation-
ale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Agora Verkehrswende, the
SLOCAT Partnership on Sustainable Low Carbon
Transport, the International Council on Clean Trans-
portation (ICCT), the International Transport Forum
(ITF), the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Cen-
tury (REN21). We hope that this report contributes to a
vibrant policy dialogue during India’s G20 presidency
and in subsequent years, for the success of the trans-
formation will depend crucially on evidence-based
international exchange. Study | Preface
5
Vera Scholz, GIZ
Director of Division, Thematic and Portfolio
Development Asia, Latin America and Carribean
Ben Welle, World Resources Institute
Acting Director, Urban Mobility, and Director,
Integrated Transport & Innovation
Jari Kauppila, ITF
Head of Secretary-General's Office and
Head of Quantitative Policy Analysis and Foresight
Maruxa Cardama, SLOCAT
Secretary General
Hui He, THE ICCT
Regional Director China
Rana Adib, REN21
Executive Director
Christian Hochfeld, Agora Verkehrswende
Executive Director 6
Content
Imprint �� 2
About this report �� 3
Preface �� 4
Content �� 6
List of Figues / Tables �� 8
Acronyms �� 10
01 | Current national and international targets in transport �� 12
02 | The role of G20 countries in enabling sector decarbonisation�� 26
03 | The Indonesian, Indian, Brazil G20 presidencies �� 38
04 | G20 country factsheets�� 54
Argentina �� 57
Australia �� 61
Brazil �� 65
Canada �� 69
China �� 73
European Union �� 77
France �� 81
Germany �� 85
India �� 89 Study | Content
7
Indonesia �� 93
Italy �� 97
Japan �� 101
Mexico �� 105
Russian Federation �� 109
South Africa �� 113
Saudi Arabia �� 117
South Korea �� 121
Turkey �� 125
United Kingdom �� 129
United States �� 133
05 | Summary and recommendations �� 138
06 | References �� 144
07 | Annex: Data sources for factsheets �� 148
National sources �� 149 8
List of Figures / Tables
FIGURE 1.1................................................................................... 17
The NDC submission cycle
FIGURE 1.2................................................................................. 23
Transport emission pathways for the business-as-usual,
2 °C and 1,5 °C scenarios, 2018–2050
FIGURE 1.3................................................................................. 24
Projected global GHG emissions from NDCs announced prior to COP26
would make it likely that warming will exceed 1.5 °C and also make it
harder after 2030 to limit warming to below 2 °C
FIGURE 1.4................................................................................. 25
Three scenarios for future transport CO
2
emissions
FIGURE 2.1................................................................................. 27
Transport CO
2
Emissions from fuel combustion
FIGURE 2.2................................................................................ 28
CO
2
emissions in the transport sector – 1990, 2015 and 2019
FIGURE 2.3................................................................................ 29
Change in G20 per capita transport emissions between 1990 and 2020
FIGURE 2.4................................................................................. 31
G20 CO
2
-emissions from international aviation and shipping
(million ton of CO
2
)
FIGURE 2.5................................................................................ 32
G20 CO
2
-emissions from international aviation and shipping
FIGURE 2.6................................................................................ 33
CO
2
emissions in the largest G20 countries 2020
FIGURE 2.7................................................................................ 34
Development of per capita GDP and vehicle ownership in selected G20
countries 2015–2019
FIGURE 2.8................................................................................ 35
Share of renewables in electricity output for selected G20 members
FIGURE 2.9................................................................................ 36
Emissions intensity 2015–2021 for selected G20 members
FIGURE 3. 1................................................................................. 42
Road motor vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants
FIGURE 3. 2................................................................................ 45
CO
2
intensity of power
FIGURE 3. 3................................................................................ 46
Transport sector emissions by subsector
FIGURE 3. 4................................................................................ 47
CO
2
intensity of power
FIGURE 3. 5................................................................................ 52
Transport sector emissions by subsector
FIGURE 5. 1................................................................................ 136
The geometry of the Transport Transformation Study | List of Figures / Tables
9
TABLE 1.1..................................................................................... 18
Overview of national transport-related targets outside NDCs
TABLE 1.2.................................................................................... 21
Overview of national measures across G20 countries 10
Acronyms
Business as usual
Battery electric vehicle
Central Electricity Authority
Carbon dioxide
Conference of the Parties
Emission trading system
Electric vehicle
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
scheme
Fuel cell electric vehicle
Group of Twenty
Gross Domestic Product
Greenhouse Gas
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
Heavy duty vehicles
International Council on Clean Transportation
Internal combustion engine
International Energy Agency
International climate initiative
Intended nationally determined contribution
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
International Renewable Energy Agency
International Transport Forum
Just Energy Transition Partnership
Light duty vehicles
Liquefied petroleum gas
Low Carbon Transport for Urban Sustainability
Long Term Strategy
Nationally determined contribution
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century
Sustainable development scenario
Partnership on Sustainable Low Carbon Transport
Stated policy scenario
United Nations
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
World Resources Institute
BAU
BEV
CEA
CO₂
COP
ETS
EV
FAME
FCEV
G20
GDP
GHG
GIZ
HDV
ICCT
ICE
IEA
IKI
INDC
IPCC
IRENA
ITF
JETP
LDV
LPG
LOTUS
LTS
NDC
OECD
PHEV
REN21
SDS
SLoCaT
STEPS
UN
UNFCCC
WRI Study | Acronyms
11 01
CURRENT NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
TARGETS IN TRANSPORT 13
01 | Current national and international targets in transport
In 2021 the global community entered a new phase of
climate ambition by devoting increasing attention to
the decarbonisation of the transport sector. COP26 in
Glasgow resulted in an unprecedented number of net-
zero pledges, strategic declarations, commitments, and
initiatives related to transport. First and foremost was
the Declaration on Accelerating the Transition to 100%
zero-emission cars and vans. Its signatories, industri-
alised and emerging economies alike, committed
themselves to achieving the zero-emission target by
2035–2040. The willingness of countries to set more
ambitious targets like these and take increased inter-
est in transport decarbonisation show how much the
discourse has intensified since 2018.
Alongside new international agreements came activist
campaigns such as Fridays for Future, climate strikes,
the occupation of mining sites, and other international
protests. All the while, the world underwent political
and environmental turmoil. The USA withdrew from
the Paris Agreement and then rejoined under a new
administration. There were record-breaking summer
temperatures, unprecedented weather events, and
severe drought. Geopolitical realities shifted and new
international conflicts erupted. The COVID pandemic
has not only killed millions but also underlined the
connection between human economic activity and CO₂
emissions, which dropped as large parts of the globe
went into lockdown. Moreover, it drove many off pub-
lic transport and into personal cars, which rejuvenated
debate about everyday mobility across the globe.
Amid all these developments, one thing has remained
unvarying: the reality of climate change and the
urgent need for decarbonisation.
As the world’s largest economies, G20 countries are
uniquely suited to play a leading role in enabling and
enforcing the decarbonisation of the transport sector.
And it is a role they have to take seriously if we are to
prevent the direst projections from becoming reality.
Many countries around the globe set net-zero targets
and some countries announced surprisingly ambitious
policy actions. Since 2021, a number of countries have
updated their NDCs or have been in the progress of
finalising their revisions.
The following contains an overview of current inter-
national climate ambitions with a focus on the trans-
port sector and G20 countries.
NDCs
The most important targets regarding climate mitiga-
tion at the international level are the NDCs set by the
Paris Agreement and submitted to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
While the timeframe for developing the first round of
NDCs was short (2014–2015), it impelled many coun-
tries to start assessing mitigation options and seek a
national consensus on future development. In other
words, despite its ambition shortfalls, the process has
been extremely valuable. The second round of NDC
submissions finished at the end of 2021. COP26
explicitly called for updating NDCs. This has been
followed up only by a minor number of countries until
end of 2022. The third round begins in 2025.
All in all, 41% of second-generation NDCs contain
transport targets (either transport GHG mitigation tar-
gets and / or non-GHG targets for transport), according
to SLOCAT’s latest report update “Climate Strategies for
Transport: An Analysis of Nationally Determined Con-
tributions and Long-Term Strategies”.
1
Among G20
countries, Japan was the only country to set quantita-
tive GHG emissions target for the transport sector (46%
below 2013 levels by 2030). In Europe, the EU sets
emission targets for road transport that all EU member
states have to follow: by 2030 emissions per kilometre
for new road vehicles must be reduced between 31%
(vans) and 37.5% (passenger cars) from 2021 levels. In
the case of new large lorries, CO₂ emissions per kilo-
metre have to be reduced on average by 30% from
2019–2020 levels. These targets may be extended to
smaller lorries, buses, coaches, and trailers. Further-
more, the EU included the aviation sector in its ETS
system.
Two other countries besides the EU have set specific
targets regarding road vehicle emissions. Canada
established a requirement of 100% zero-emission
1 SLOCAT 2022a Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
14
Transport GHG reduction target
No G20 member
Other quantitative targets
No targets
Qualitative targets
Transport related
NDC targets and
measures in the G20
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: NDC and INDC submissions to the UNFCCC by 2022 Study | 01 | Current national and international targets in transport
15
vehicle sales by 2035. China plans that by 2030 40%
of all new vehicles will be powered by clean energy
and the carbon emission intensity of railways will
have fallen 10% relative to 2020 levels.
Thirteen of the G20 countries mention specific
transport-related measures. By contrast, USA,
Aus
tralia, Brazil, Saudi Arabia, and post-Brexit UK
have not included any specific transport related
measures in their NDCs.
Though many countries in their first-round submis-
sions stated few if any transport-related mitigation
measures, the submissions in 2020–2021 included a
notable variety which ranged from vehicle electrifica-
tion strategies and the promotion of low-emission
vehicles to the expansion of public transport. Many
countries also intend to support the shift from road to
rail in passenger and freight transport. The NDC sub-
mitted by the USA also includes the promotion of
charging infrastructure. China, which indicated one of
the most extensive lists of measures, specifically
named investment in walking and cycling infrastruc-
ture. Several G20 members plan to promote vehicle
energy efficiency through labelling (China and Argen-
tina) and improved energy efficiency standards
(China, USA, and Canada).

Altogether, the new NDC climate strategies submit-
ted globally (not only in the G20) feature a strong
focus on electrification of road transport across
vehicle types: 52% of second-generation NDCs
include e-mobility-related action, as the SLOCAT
authors concluded in their report.
2
Net-zero pledges
Net-zero pledges are usually laid down in the NDCs or in
the Long-term Strategies (LTS). In 2017, Sweden became
the first country to enshrine a net-zero target in law,
vowing to achieve climate neutrality by 2045. The UK
followed in 2019 with a 2050 net-zero target. Meanwhile
also Greece, Hungary, Iceland and Spain have net zero
laws. As further G20 members Japan and South Korea
passed a net zero law in 2021 and Australia in 2022. To
date the number of countries pledging to become climate
neutral has grown significantly. Most pledges were made
in 2020 and 2021, many at the Climate Action Summit
2020 or the COP26 World Leaders Summit. In 2022 some
of these political pledges were then reflected in the
updated submissions of NDCs or LTS.
Within the G20, Mexico is the only country that has
yet to submit net-zero targets. Among the other G20
countries, the majority plans to achieve economy-wide
climate neutrality by 2050. Turkey’s target is 2053.
China and Saudi Arabia are aiming for 2060. India
envisages to be climate neutral by 2070. In Germany a
landmark court ruling in 2021 found that the country’s
current climate law was in part unconstitutional
2 SLOCAT 2022a
because it did not go far enough to ensure the funda-
mental freedoms and rights of the next generations. In
its revised climate law, Germany set a net-zero target
for 2045. In 2022, Finland set the earliest legally bind-
ing net-zero target to which any country has ever com-
mitted itself: 2035.
A growing number of cities and companies are also
making net-zero pledges. For example, Mumbai, a city
with 15.4 million inhabitants and an area of 603 km²,
plans to be climate neutral by 2050 and achieve emis-
sions reductions of 30% by 2030 and of 44% by 2040
relative to 2019 levels. In the private sector many
global players are revamping their production pro-
cesses and analysing supply chains for ways to reduce
emissions. Siemens, an economic heavy weight with a
revenue of 63 billion USD (2021) and 215 000 employ-
ees around the globe, plans to be net-zero by 2030.
According to Climate Watch’s Net-Zero Tracker
3
,
76 parties, representing 83 countries and 73.3% of
global GHG emissions, have announced net-zero
targets so far. The level of commitment towards these
targets varies from official pledges and policy targets
to legally binding regulations.
3 Climate Watch, 2022 Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
16
Net-zero targets in Law
No G20 member
Net-zero targets in Policy document
No document submitted
Net-zero target in Political pledge
Net-zero pledges
in the G20
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: Climate Watch 2022 Study | 01 | Current national and international targets in transport
17
National targets
Generally, G20 countries show more ambition in
national policy than stated in their NDCs under the
Paris Agreement.
Four countries outside the EU have set quantitative
GHG emission targets for the transport sector in their
national strategies or legislation: Argentina, Canada,
the UK, and South Africa. Australia wants to reduce
50% of carbon emissions in the passenger road trans-
port sector by 2030 relative to 2000 levels. Seven of
the G20 countries have quantitative targets not related
to GHG emissions. These targets include quantitative
goals for fuel or final energy consumption and fuel
efficiency. Australia plans to reduce fuel consumption
by 30% in road transport by 2030. Japan intends to
enhance fuel efficiency by approximately 13.4% for
trucks and other heavy vehicles and by around 14.3%
for buses by 2025 relative to 2015 fuel efficiency
standards. South Korea aims to raise fuel efficiency for
passenger vehicles to 35 km/l by 2035 and to 7.5 km/l
for heavy-duty vehicles by 2040.
A number of countries aspire a modal shift from road
to rail, waterways, public transport, and bicycles. The
EU plans to double traffic on high-speed rail by 2030
and to double rail freight by 2050. Individual European
countries have set additional targets. Germany plans to
raise the modal share in rail freight to 25% in 2030
from 19% in 2019. India has set ambitious goals in rail
freight and envisages an increase to 45% in 2030.
Indonesia, South Africa and Turkey are also aiming for
higher shares of rail transport. Modal shift targets for
waterways have been set by the EU (25% more by
2030) and by India (doubling the current 6% share by
2025). France and Japan have defined goals for bike
use.
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: GIZ 2017
The NDC submission cycle Figure 1.1
NDC SUB MISSION
2025/2030
NDC SUB MISSION
2030/2035
NDC SUB MISSION
2035/2040
Preparing the
groundwork
Developing &
negotiating the NDC
Implementing
the NDC
Transport sector
planning
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 …
UNFCCC
global
stock take
UNFCCC
facilitative
dialogue
NDCNDCNDC Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
18
Some countries have formulated specific quantitative
targets for infrastructure expansion. Australia wants
to construct 1,749 km of high-speed rail and India
envisages a high-speed rail network expansion of
7,987 km through 2051.
Saudi Arabia does not have transport-specific national
targets, although its “Vision 2030” formulates qualita-
tive objectives to increase public transportation usage
and improve the efficiency of vehicles and railways.
In 2018, only half of G20 countries had set deployment
targets for electric vehicles. Since then, all G20 coun-
tries except Argentina and Saudi Arabia have estab-
lished deployment goals. Their goals are expressed
either as EV percentages in new sales and stock fleets
or as absolute target numbers to be reached by a certain
date. China planned to reach a 20% EV share in new
sales by 2025, but achieved it early, with around 3 mil-
lion new EVs sold in 2021. It expects that up to 7 million
new EVs will be sold in 2022, and plans to reach a 40%
share by 2030, though this is likely to happen sooner.
Furthermore, China intends to electrify 100% of the
public vehicle fleet by 2035. India has targeted a 30%
EV share in passenger light-duty vehicle (LDV) sales by
2030. The EU intends to achieve a 15% share of BEVs
and PHEVs by 2025 and a 35% share of BEVs and
PHEVs by 2030. Among the G20 countries that have set
absolute target numbers are Indonesia (2 million EVs
and 13 million electric motorcycles by 2030) and Ger-
many (15 million fully electric passenger cars by 2030).
Overview of national transport-related targets outside NDCsTable 1.1
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: various (see annex)
Country CO₂ targets
Other quantitative targets
EV
deployment
targets
ICE
phase-out
targets
Efficiency
targets
Technology
targets
Renewables
targets
Modal share
targets
Argentina
Australia subsector
Brazil
Canada
China
EU
France
Germany
India
Indonesia
Italy
Japan
Korea, Rep.
MexicoSaudi ArabiaSouth Africa
Turkey
UK
USA subsector
existing Study | 01 | Current national and international targets in transport
19
Transport GHG reduction target
No G20 member
Other quantitative targets
No targets
Qualitative targets
Transport related
national targets
in the G20
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: various (see annex) Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
20
To support the switch to EVs, eight countries and the
EU set phase-out commitments for internal combus-
tion engine (ICE) vehicles. This development was sup-
ported by the COP26 declaration on “accelerating the
transition to 100% zero emission cars and vans,” which
was signed by over 130 countries. In 2022 at COP27,
the declaration reached 214 signatories. The declara-
tion includes the common goal of signatories to work
towards all sales of new cars and vans being zero
emission globally by 2040, and by no later than 2035
in leading markets. Among the G20 countries, the
declaration was signed by Canada, the UK, India, and
Mexico and around 15 countries in the EU. In October
2022, the EU council of ministers decided to reduce
car fleet limits to zero by 2035, which effectively
corresponds to a ban on ICE vehicles. However, after
ongoing discussions and the intervention of Germany,
the European Commission was asked to check if ICE
vehicles powered exclusively by e-fuels could still be
registered after 2035.
Finally, targets for charging infrastructure deployment
have been established in eleven G20 countries. The
goals are indicated in the number of charging points
and sometimes (as in Japan and South Korea) in the
types of chargers (e.g., fast and slow). Indonesia also
mentions a target for the number of installed
battery-swapping stations.
All in all, the level of ambitions at the national level has
increased significantly since 2018. But it remains to be
seen whether countries will be able to meet their
targets through effective measures. Many targets from
past years have gone unfulfilled. For example,
Germany did not meet its 2020 targets for EV stock
and the number of charging points. Several countries
were able to satisfy 2020 emission reduction targets
in the transport sector, but these achievements can
largely be attributed to COVID-19 effects. China was
one of the few countries to meet its 2020 targets for
public charging points and EV adoption.
Climate Strategies for Transport: An Analysis of Nationally
Determined Contributions and Long-Term Strategies
This Report analyses trends in transport decarbonisation ambition, targets
and actions in the climate strategies submitted by countries in the frame-
work of the Paris Agreement. Specifically, the analysis focuses on Long-Term
Strategies (LTS) starting from 2016 and on Nationally Determined Contribu-
tions (NDCs) starting from 2019. On the basis of the analysis, the report seeks to establish to what extent climate action in transport by countries is on track to deliver on the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming
below 2 °C. The Report also identifies gaps and shortcomings in the transport
dimension of these national climate strategies; while it provides recommen-dations on how to enhance it. This October 2022 Update assesses the impact
of NDCs with targets related to mitigating transport greenhouse gas emis-
sion on the overall trajectory of transport emissions. Findings show that, if the targets were to be
met, the growth of transport emissions would only be slowed down but not put on the radical
contention path that is required to support the goal of limiting global warming below 2 °C.
SLOCAT (2022), Climate Strategies for Transport: An Analysis of Nationally Determined Contributions
and Long-Term Strategies, October 2022 Update.
www.slocat.net/ndcs Climate Strategies for Transport:
An Analysis of Nationally Determined
Contributions and Long-Term Strategies
Lead author: Nikola Medimorec (SLOCAT Secretariat)
Contributors: Maruxa Cardama, Emily Hosek, Mark Major (SLOCAT Secretariat);
Daniel Bongardt, Verena Knoell, Nadja Taeger (GIZ);
Marion Vieweg (move2change)
Updated Version - December 2021
Climate Strategies for Transport: An Analysis of Nationally Determined Contributions and Long-Term Strategies
Lead author: Nikola Medimorec (SLOCAT Secretariat)
Contributors: Maruxa Cardama, Emily Hosek, Mark Major (SLOCAT Secretariat);
Daniel Bongardt, Verena Knoell, Nadja Taeger (GIZ);
Marion Vieweg (move2change)
Updated Version - December 2021
Lead author: Nikola Medimorec (SLOCAT Secretariat)
Contributors: Maruxa Cardama, Agustina Krapp (SLOCAT Secretariat)
Updated Version - October 2022 Study | 01 | Current national and international targets in transport
21
Overview of national measures across G20 countriesTable 1.2
National
programmes
to support
shift to pub-
lic transport
Measures
to support
low-carbon
freight
logisticsNational-level
measures to
support new
mobility
services
National
measures
to support
non-motor-
ised transport Energy / car -
bon emission
standards
LDV
Energy / car -
bon emission
standards
HDV
Pricing
instruments
Mandatory
vehicle
labelling
Support mecha-
nism for electric
vehicles &
charging infra-
structure
Biofuel
targetsSupport for
other low-
carbon fuels
& propulsion
systems
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Canada
China
EU
France
Germany
India
Indonesia
Italy
Japan
Korea, Rep.
Mexico
Saudi Arabia
South Africa
Turkey
UK
USA
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Note: The existence of measures does not imply their adequacy; Source: various (see annex)
existing
Translation into national measures Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
22
In order to fulfil the targets, effective measures and
political instruments are required. Table 1.2 breaks
down the different measures used across G20.
The measures apply to specific subsectors such as
passenger transport or freight logistics. Furthermore,
they concern different modes of transport such as road
or rail transport and different opportunities to shift
volumes from one mode to another. Almost all G20
countries have policies in place to support the shift to
public transport, including action plans or laws to
extend services through infrastructure expansion or
the renewal of public vehicle fleets. Some countries
such as the UK are also striving to improve the con-
nectivity between different transport modes in public
transport. The Canadian programme “Investing in
Canada” has set aside CA$28.7 billion (~USD 21 billion)
to make public transportation options more affordable.
Germany’s “9-euro ticket” represents a similar effort
(although the primary purpose of the test programme
was to support citizens during the energy crisis, not
decarbonise the transport sector). After a three-month
trial phase from June to August 2022, Germany
decided to introduce a nationwide successor ticket at a
price of 49 euros. Furthermore, eleven of the G20
countries have launched measures to promote the two
areas of active mobility: cycling and walking.
In the freight sector, many instruments seek to shift
transport volumes to rail and inland waterways. As
with the passenger sector, the key measures to support
the shift include the expansion and upgrade of infra-
structure. India plans to establish new rail infrastruc-
ture dedicated solely to freight transport. Another
important tool to decarbonise the freight sector is the
optimisation of logistic systems through the better
connectivity of transport modes and the establishment
of intermodal hubs. Currently, Japan, UK, and Germany
are planning these improvements.
The political instruments also differ in their function.
While some initiatives are regulatory, others focus on
fiscal tools and pricing instruments. In the regulatory
area, well-known instruments are energy and emission
standards. Fourteen of the G20 countries have emis-
sion standards for passenger cars and LDVs. Japan now
has the strictest emission standards, which permit
passenger car fleets to emit only 73.5 g CO₂/km per
year. The EU, the UK, and South Korea have emission
standards of 95–97 g/km for passenger cars. In Brazil,
Canada, China, India, and the USA, the fleet limit ranges
from 111–128 g/km. In the future, the EU plans to
reduce its emission standards to 59g/km (EU) in 2030.
Typical pricing policies include emission trading sys-
tems (ETS) and carbon prices / taxes. The EU plans to
extend its ETS to the transport sector starting in 2026.
China introduced a national ETS in 2021, which ini-
tially covered only the power sector, but the scope is
expected to gradually expand to include domestic avi-
ation. Several other countries – including Argentina,
Mexico, Japan, and South Africa – have introduced
carbon taxes.
Not all instruments function in a direct manner. For
instance, many important instruments support the
purchase of EVs and the roll-out of charging infra-
structure, while others try to disincentivise the use of
ICE cars. Direct support measures include purchase
subsidies, import tax exemptions, and purchase and
operational tax exemptions for electric vehicles.
Except for Saudi Arabia and South Africa, all G20
countries have initiated support mechanisms for
electric vehicles and charging infrastructure. Indirect
measures, also known as “malus” systems, charge
higher costs or taxes for vehicles with high CO₂ emis-
sions. These kinds of instruments have been intro-
duced in France and Italy.
Altogether, the current landscape of political instru-
ments and measures reflects the high level of ambition
observed in NDCs and national targets.
Whether these measures are adequate for achieving
stated targets, let alone for satisfying the objectives of
the Paris Agreement, would require intensive assess-
ment and analysis, which goes beyond the scope of
this report. But a closer look at the state of transport
decarbonisation in G20 countries could trigger dis-
cussions among members and stakeholders about
whether enhanced measures are required. Study | 01 | Current national and international targets in transport
23
Transport Emission Scenarios
The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report states
that the targets of the 2030 national deter-
mined contributions (NDCs) submitted prior
to COP26 amount to emission reductions
that are nowhere near what is needed for
2 °C and 1.5 °C pathways (see figure on the
next page). Drastic reduction measures
would have to be initiated starting in 2030
to enable a return to the 2 °C pathway, but
even so, 1.5 °C would remain out of reach.
4

The International Transport Forum (ITF) and
SLOCAT published extensive reports that
include forecasts of transport demand and
emissions. According to the latest ITF report,
by 2050 CO₂ emissions from transport will
increase by 16%, even if today’s political
commitments are fully implemented (ITF,
2021, p. 14). A strong increase in transport
demand is expected to offset policy-led
emissions reductions. One of the latest
SLOCAT publication states that by 2050
transport emissions have to drop by two-
thirds relative to 2019 levels, or 8 gigatonnes,
to achieve Paris Agreement targets.
5
4 IPCC 2022
5 SLOCAT 2021
SLOCAT has developed several forecast scenarios for transport-sector emissions. These are depicted in the graphic below. The simulation data do not yet include COVID-19 effects and the associated decline in global transport emissions.
The “BAU HIGH” assumes a business-as-usual development for mobility patterns and investment trends. This scenario projects a 4 °C or higher increase in global temperatures. The “Average BAU sce-
nario”, which assumes incremental progress in transport mitigation and an increased focus on adap-
tation, results in a 3–4 °C temperature rise. The low carbon scenarios “Average Action” and “Transport
CO₂ Ambitious” require the acceleration of radical action on transport behaviour and investment to deliver 2 °C and 1.5 °C of warming, respectively. Though a difference of just 0.5 °C, the forecast for the
“Transport CO₂ Ambitious” entails significant additional measures and emission reductions.
6
6 SLOCAT 2021
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: SLOCAT 2021
Transport emission pathways for the business-as-usual,
2°C and 1,5° scenarios, 2018-2050 Figure 1.2
0
5
10
15
20
25
2015 2020 2030 2040 2050
wp,2°CnpdTim1T5c0°°0n2°T8Ft]
Within 1.5°C temperature increase
High BAU Scenario Average BAU Scenario Average Action Scenario
Transport CO1 Ambitious Low-Carbon Scenario
World transport emissions
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
2015 2020 2030 2040 2050
G20 transport emissions Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
24
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: IPCC 2022
Projected global GHG emissions from NDCs announced prior to COP26 would make it likely that warming will exceed 1.5°C
and also make it harder after 2030 to limit warming to below 2°C Figure 1.3
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
201020152020202520302035204020452050
Trend from implemented policiesPolicies implemented by the end of 2020
NDCs prior to COP26,
unconditional elements
NDCs prior to COP26,
including conditional elements
Limit warming to 2°C (>67%)
Limit warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited overshoot
Past GHG emissions and uncertainty for 2015 and 2019
(dot indicates the median)
Limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or return warming to 1.5°C
(>50%) after a high overshoot, NDCs until 2030
a. Global GHG emissions
Modell pathways:Policy assessments for 2030:Percentile:
b. 2030c. 2050 d. 2100
95
th
75th
Median
Policy
assess-
ments
for 2030
25
th
5
th
GHG emissions [GtCO
2-eq
/year] Study | 01 | Current national and international targets in transport
25
Another scenario analysis was conducted by
the ITF. The chart on the right shows the
ITF’s transport emission forecast for three
different scenarios:
The “Recover” scenario shows expected
development if current efforts continue and
includes the aforementioned 16% increase in
emissions. More ambitious transport decar-
bonisation policies are assumed in the
“Reshape” scenario, which projects a reduc-
tion of transport CO₂ emissions by almost 70%
in 2050 relative to those in 2015. With this sce-
nario, achieving the 1.5˚C pathway is more
likely. The “Reshape+” scenario includes more
ambitious policies than those announced so
far and leverages opportunities created by
the COVID-19 pandemic to decarbonise the
transport sector .
7
Though the SLOCAT simulation is more con-
servative than the ITF model – it expects
higher emissions in the business-as-usual
scenario after factoring out COVID-19 effects –
both indicate that current political efforts
won’t be enough to fulfil Paris Agreement tar-
gets. More ambitious policy actions, drastic
targets, and rapid measures have to be imple-
mented to bring the 1.5 °C goal into reach.
7 ITF 2021b
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: ITF 2021b
Note: Figure depicts ITF modelled estimates. Recover, Reshape and Reshape+ refer to the three scenarios modelled, which
represent increasingly ambitious post-pandemic policies to decarbonise transport. ITF models used in this Outlook are typically run
by ﬁve-year increments, therefore the 2020 to 2025 recovery trend may not necessarily be linear despite being shown as such in
the ﬁgure. The shape of this “recovery curve” will depend on policy implementation and economic trajectories. IPCC 1.5˚C
represents the emissions levels needed to limit warming to 1.5˚C as introduced by the IPCC (2018) IPCC, 2018: Summary for
Policymakers.
In: Global Warming of 1.5°C, https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/. The levels were calculated based on data sourced from https://data.ene.iia-
sa.ac.at/iamc-1.5c-explorer similarly to ICCT (2020), https://theicct.org/sites/default/ﬁles/publications/ICCT_Vision2050_sept2020.pdf
Transport sector emissions pathways with low or no overshoot were selected before estimating the median emissions in each
year, error bars represent the 25th and 75th percentiles of scenarios. Emissions of black carbon are excluded as these are not
estimated in the ITF or IEA MoMo models.
Three scenarios for future transport CO3 emissions Figure 1.4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
Recover Reshape Reshape+ IPCC 1.5°C
Gigatonnes CO direct emissions (tank-to-wheel) 02
THE ROLE OF G20 COUNTRIES IN
ENABLING SECTOR DECARBONISATION 27
02 | The role of G20 countries in enabling sector decarbonisation
The mobility of people and goods is an intrinsic com-
ponent of today’s societies and our global economy.
Transport systems are crucial to personal freedom,
enabling choices about where to work, live, and spend
free time. Transport also plays a vital role in the inter-
national movement of goods, the development of global
production chains, and the operation of energy sys-
tems. Any serious discussion of climate ambition and
decarbonisation will have to give the global transport
sector ample consideration.
In 2020, G20 countries were home to more than
4.7 billion people, or 62% of the global population. By
2050 it is estimated that “only” half of the world’s
population will live in G20 countries. Nevertheless, per
capita emissions in the G20 will continue to have a
disproportionate effect. G20 countries are highly
urbanised, many live in cities – in Argentina, the
figure is 92% – and 16 nations have an urbanisation
rate of more than 70%. In 2020, almost 68% of the
world’s urban population lived in G20 countries.
More to the point, the G20 produces around 80%
of global economic output and nearly 75% of global
exports, and is responsible for more than 80% of
current global CO₂ emissions and with about 5.8 bil-
lion t CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion almost
70% of worldwide transport emissions
8
.
8 IEA 2022g
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: IEA 2022g
Transport COw Emissions from fuel combustion Figure 2.1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
19 90
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
World
World
G20
United States
India
India
China
European Union
China
India
United States
European Union
G200
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Ic073uegco:go:Gg55gcou:c1:e:IEA Indexation 100 = year 1990
World
G20
United States
China
European Union Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
28
20 of the world’s 195 countries
contribute two-thirds of
transport-related emissions
For decades now, there has a been strong link between
economic prosperity, the movement of people and
goods, and transport emissions. Worldwide, the trans-
port sector accounts for about a quarter of CO₂ emis-
sions from fuel combustion and for about 15% of GHG
emissions. In G20 countries, transport makes up
almost one-fifth of energy-related CO₂ emissions.
Since 1990 the global share of transport-related CO₂
emissions by G20 countries has decreased as emis-
sions elsewhere have risen. Even so, 20 of the world’s
195 countries still contribute two-thirds of trans-
port-related emissions, and the absolute numbers
continue to increase. Even the worldwide drop in
emissions due to the COVID pandemic did little to
change the share compared with previous years, nulli-
fying the impact of COVID on global climate change.
Transport emissions have undergone a steep in-
crease – 64% in G20 countries, 79% worldwide –
since 1990. Even in recent years, transport-related
emissions in G20 countries have been on the rise.
The most exponential growth can be found in China,
which increased more than 940% since 1990 and
16.5% since 2015. In the same periods, India’s trans-
port emissions grew by 375% and 18.4%, respectively,
while Indonesia’s grew by 365% and 13.4%, respec-
tively. Though these three countries remain the low-
est among G20 in terms of per capita transport-
related emissions (between 0.2 t CO₂ and 0.75 t CO₂),
these values continue to increase as well.
Only Japan and Germany have seen decreases in
emissions since 1990 – 5% and 2%, respectively –
and only Japan has lowered its emission levels in
recent years. Nevertheless, both continue to have
relatively high per capita emissions at more than
1.6 t CO₂ each.
For the past decades, the country with the high-
est transport-related emissions has been the
USA, which in 2019 released 1.763 Mt CO₂ in
total, or 5.4 t CO₂ per capita. Its emissions have
grown by 23% since 1990 and by 3.4% since 2015.
Hence, USA continues to be the major CO₂ emitter
globally.
Generally, transport emissions in the G20 continue to
grow. Between 2015 and 2019, they increased by 6%,
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source:  Author's ﬁgure based on data from IEA 2022g
COfiourceec:AeocAothuot'sAeﬁ:'toeugt:'oboaddnfomnaIosAEomnad2 Figure 2.2
1990
Global transport sector
emissions 4,753 Mt  CO
2
2019
Global transport sector
emissions 8,495 Mt CO
2
2015
Global transport sector
emissions 7,922 Mt CO
2
RoW
25.5%
G20
74.5%
RoW
30.7%
G20
69.3%
RoW
31.5%
G20
68.5% Study | 02 | The role of G20 countries in enabling sector decarbonisation
29
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Note: the size of bubbles indicates total emissions from the transport sector. Source: Author's ﬁgure based on data from IEA 2022g
Change in G20 per capita transport emissions between 1990 and 2020 Figure 2.3
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Canada
China
France
Germany
India
Indonesia
Italy
Japan
Mexico
Saudi Arabia
South
Africa
Korea, Rep.
Turkey
United Kingdom
United States
European Union
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-100%100%300%500%700%900%
Per capita transport
emissions
[t CO ]
Change 1990–2020 [%] Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
30
which was higher than the 2.7% increase in total G20
GHG emissions during the same period.
The vast majority of G20 emissions still stem from
burning fossil fuels to produce energy. Around 80% of
the energy used in 2019 was provided by gasoline or
diesel. The other energy sources consisted of natural
gas, LPG, electricity, kerosine, and various kinds of
biofuels. Total energy use in the G20 transport sector
increased by 25% between 2015 and 2019.
In terms of resource consumption, the outlook is wor-
rying. The G20 transport sector currently consumes
more than half of global oil demand, which besides
negative effects on the environment and climate brings
with it dependency on fossil-fuel imports. This puts a
substantial burden on national budgets and economies
and represents a risk for societies in general, as the
current price increases in the wake of global crisis and
conflict make plain. In the face of the COVID-19 pan-
demic and global trade conflicts, especially between
China and the USA, the 2019–2022 period were an
economically challenging period for G20 countries.
With few exceptions, total freight transport perfor-
mance increased continuously in China, the EU, Turkey,
Mexico and the UK between 2015 and 2019 but saw
declines in 2020 due to COVID-19 (decline rates ranged
from -4% (Italy) to around -24% in China). Strongest
declines in 2020 were seen in specific transport modes
such as aviation and waterways. For instance, Europe’s
aviation freight transport fell by 25%.
By contrast, road transport, which accounts for over
40% of freight in China, the EU, and the UK, recovered
quickly from COVID-19 disruptions and saw only
moderate declines in 2020. It continues to be the
largest source of GHG emissions in the global transport
sector. It was responsible for around 85% of G20
transport sector emissions in 2020. In many G20
countries, rail freight proved to be resilient in the first
phase of the pandemic. Not only is its carbon intensity
less than that of road transport. It requires fewer
personnel, and its operation procedures allow for
easier fulfilment of COVID-related hygiene rules. Over
the course of 2020, however, the effects of the modal
shift vanished.
Road transport continues to be the dominant mode in
most G20 countries for passengers as well as for
freight. In Germany, trips in private cars account for
almost 90% of passenger transport. In the USA, the
share of private cars in passenger transport during the
past five years was over 90%. In China and Japan,
private cars made up around 40% and 60%, respec-
tively. Total passenger kilometres travelled increased
between 2015 and 2019 in most G20 countries, but in
2020, levels declined due to the pandemic. The
decreases in passenger transport – e.g., -46% in China,
-34% in the UK – were much steeper than in freight
transport.
To safeguard operational transport systems without
compromising long-term disadvantages, countries
need to invest in clean, renewable, and efficient modes
of transport. Fossil-fuel dependency, the prospect of
limited resources, and ongoing motorisation are all
reasons why G20 countries must prioritise the tran
sition to clean energy and sustainable transport.
In 2020, even as many people remained isolated at
home because of the pandemic, G20 countries
increased their investment in transport infrastructure.
China increased its cumulative investment in road,
rail, and airport infrastructure by almost 40% relative
to 2015 levels. The USA raised its investment in road,
rail, and waterways infrastructure by 10%. Germany’s
aggregated investment for road, rail, waterways, and
maritime ports and airport infrastructure was 44%
higher than in 2015. While most G20 countries spend
well over half of their transport investment budget on
road infrastructure (USA 89%, China 85%, Japan 71%,
Germany 55%), very few countries spend the majority
on other modes of transport. One exception is the UK,
which set aside 58% of its 2020 investment budget for
rail infrastructure. Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: Author's ﬁgure based on data from IEA 2022g
G20 COV -emissions from international aviation and shipping (million ton of COV0R Figure 2.4
Road transport 78%
Int. shipping 6%
Int. aviation 4%
Domestic aviation 5%
Rail 4%
Domestic navigation 3% Other <1%
Total 2020:
~5.6 Gigatonnes
Study | 02 | The role of G20 countries in enabling sector decarbonisation
31
Maritime and Aviation
Decarbonisation debates tend to focus on road
transport. But international aviation and shipping
also contribute large amounts of GHG emissions. As
the figure on the right shows, international aviation
and shipping together account for 10% of all trans-
port emissions in the G20. According to the latest
SLOCAT Transport and Climate Change Global
Status Report, both modes globally emit more CO₂
per year than the regions of Latin America and the
Caribbean, Africa, and Oceania combined
9
.
An analysis of international aviation and shipping
over time shows that emissions from both transport
modes have increased significantly (with the
exception of the year 2020 on account of COVID).
Aviation is one of the fastest-growing sources of
GHG emissions: between 1990 and 2020, G20
international aviation emissions increased by
132%. Even though the maritime shipping sector in
general is a very energy-efficient mode of trans-
port, it increasingly causes large volumes of emis-
sions as well. As of 2021, maritime shipping was
responsible for around 90% of global trade in terms
of tonne kilometres. Emissions in international
shipping caused by the G20 countries increased by
52% between 1990 and 2019.
9 SLOCAT 2021
In order to curb emissions from international avia-tion and shipping, policy regulations must be strengthened at both the international and national levels. But this requires that individual countries first determine their share of international emis-sions. While most countries systematically collect data on domestic aviation and inland waterway shipping, there are few comprehensive approaches in place to collect, calculate, or estimate interna-tional emissions. The International Energy Agency (IEA) calculates the emissions of international avia-tion and marine bunkers on the basis of departure and arrival locations.
10
Other methods allocate
emission shares based on where the bunker fuel is sold, the nationality of the transporting company, where a ship or aircraft is registered, or the country of the operator. Another approach is to approximate
10 IEA 2022g Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: Author's ﬁgure based on data from IEA 2022g
G20 COV -emissions from international aviation and shipping Figure 2.5
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
1990199219941996199820002002200420062008201020122014201620182020
Shipping Aviation
[million tonnes]
Change 1990-2019
+52%
+132%
Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
32
emissions. Some use global emission data, e.g., the
EDGAR Database
11
, and estimate individual country
shares on the basis of GDP or national emissions.
Each approach brings both disadvantages and
benefits. Methods analysing departure and
destination countries offer a more detailed picture,
but compiling the data is complex and gaps may
11 EDGAR 2021
arise. In addition, they do not take into account emissions caused by transport operations that are initiated by one country but originate and terminate elsewhere. The approximation method based on GDP requires less effort, and is supported by the strong link between a country’s wealth and high levels of commercial air travel and container shipping. The method based on national emissions attributes a smaller amount of international
aviation and shipping emissions to countries with a high share of nuclear or hydropower supply. These countries may still be very active in international transport, however.
The figure on the next page compares emission
estimates for international aviation and shipping
produced from three different methods.
Regardless the method, China, the USA, and the
European Union account for the largest amounts of
emissions from international shipping and aviation,
followed by India and Japan. When comparing the
approaches, however, aviation and shipping emis-
sions are higher when using the emissions method
for China compared with the GDP technique.
By contrast, the emissions method results in lower
values for the USA, the EU and Japan compared
with the GDP method. The IEA data show the lowest
emissions for China, India and Japan among all
three methods both in the case of aviation and
shipping. For the EU, the IEA data result in the
highest emissions in international aviation and
shipping. An explanation may be the high number
of large European container ports and airports and
many shipping procedures and journeys originating
and ending at these points. Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: Author's ﬁgure based on data from EIA, approximations based on IEA 2022g and EDGAR 2021
COo emissions in the largest G20 countries 2020 Figure 2.6
[million tonnes]
0
20
40
60
80
100
ChinaUSAEUIndia Japan
International aviation
International shipping
GDP method Emissions method IEA data
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
ChinaUSAEUIndia Japan
Study | 02 | The role of G20 countries in enabling sector decarbonisation
33
Regardless of the precise breakdown, international
aviation and shipping release enormous quantities
of CO₂ and hence require urgent decarbonisation.
But doing so faces three unique challenges. First, in
contrast to domestic aviation and inland waterways
shipping, there are no systematic approaches to
collect, calculate, or estimate international
emissions in these areas. The lack of standards will
diffuse international responsibility and may lead to
insufficient action. Second, in contrast to road
transport, current technology does not allow the
direct use of battery electricity for common planes
or vessels. The only viable, climate-neutral solution
at the moment are electric fuels, which require
significant amounts of renewable electricity and
considerable logistical and technical effort.
However, no significant production capacities for
such fuels are available today.
Finally, aviation has other harmful effects on
climate and environment that are not related to CO₂
emissions (e.g., high-altitude nitrogen oxide
emissions, contrail cirrus formation) and no
solutions have been realised yet to mitigate these
effects. Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
34
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Note: no vehicle ownership data available for South Africa, Saudia Arabia and Russia
Source: Author's ﬁgure based on data from various sources (see annex)
Development of per capita GDP and vehicle ownership in selected G20 countries 2015–2019 Figure 2.7
1,000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000
Cars per one thousand inhabitants
GDP per capita in constant 2017 international $ per capita
Indone sia
Japan
Argentina
India
Turkey United KingdomUnited States
France
Canada China European UnionBrazilAustralia
Germany
MexicoKorea, Rep.
Italy
Decarbonising the transport sector poses considerable
challenges to all G20 countries, which find themselves
at different stages of motorisation, decarbonisation,
and transition to sustainable transport.
When plotting the development of GDP per capita and
the number of motor vehicles per person from 2015
until 2019–2020, it becomes clear that despite falling
GDP in some cases, motorisation rates continue to
grow. This means motorisation is far from being
decoupled from economic growth – it has continued to
increase even after economic growth slowed.
However, there are also positive trends when it comes
to sustainable transport in G20 countries. Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: REN21 2022.
Share of renewables in electricity output for selected G20 members Figure 2.8
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Canada
China
Ger many
European Union
France
United Kingdom
Indonesia
India
Italy
Japan
Mexico
Turkey
United States
Korean Republic
South Africa
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Study | 02 | The role of G20 countries in enabling sector decarbonisation
35
E-Mobility
The market ramp-up of electric vehicles has gained
significant momentum in recent years. With 8.4 mil-
lion vehicles, the EV fleet in G20 countries was almost
eight times as large in 2020 as in 2015. Fleet growth in
absolute numbers was largest in China and the USA,
where fleets grew by 4.9 million and 1.4 million vehi-
cles, respectively. Recent figures for China in 2022,
show new sales of electric vehicles hitting about
6 million vehicles in one year. Interesting side fact: to
date more than 90% of Electric vehicles can be found
in 25 cities around the globe
12
. The strongest relative
fleet growth was observed in the countries Brazil
and Mexico, which started with small fleets in 2015
(<500 electric vehicles) and moved up to fleets around
30 times as large. Electric vehicle new sales in G20
amounted to 1.6 million in 2020.
IEA’s scenarios STEPS (stated policy scenario) and SDS
(sustainable development scenario) forecast a cumula-
tive stock fleet growth of EVs in China, India, the USA,
and the EU of up to 123 million and 195 million EVs,
respectively
13
.
As of 2020, 560,000 slow charging points and
330,000 fast charging points were installed in the
publicly available charging infrastructure of G20
12 ICCT 2019
13 IEA 2022c
countries. The average ratio of EVs per public charging
point totals around 10.
This analysis is limited due to the availability of data.
Only 14 countries provide up-to-date data for electric
cars. Even fewer provide current data for busses, vans,
or two-to-three wheelers. Energy
Alongside the transition to electric mobility, another
key objective for reaching climate goals is to ensure
that the transport sector runs on clean energy. The
good news is that G20 countries show a clear decar-
bonisation trend. The average share of renewables in
G20 countries amounted to around 28% in 2019 (~25%
if weighted with respective total electricity generation
in TWh) and increased by almost 5 percentage points Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: EMBER 2022.
Emissions intensity 2015-2021 for selected G20 members Figure 2.9
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Canada
China
Ger many
European Union
France
United Kingdom
Indonesia
India
Italy
Japan
Mexico
Turkey
United States
Korean Republic
South Africa
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
[gCO /kWh]
Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
36
between 2015 and 2019. Brazil has the highest share of
renewable energy at over 80% (2019) due to its high
share of hydropower.
Besides the increased share of renewables in the elec-
tricity grid, increased efficiency leads to a decarboni-
sation of energy supply and declining emission grid
factors in G20 countries. The figure on the right shows
a clear declining trend of emission intensities across
most G20 countries. Some countries saw a deteriora-
tion and increase in the 2021 emissions factors as the
post-COVID economic recovery was driven by fossil
sources to a greater extent than by renewables. Coun-
tries such as Australia or Japan, however, were able to
achieve a further decline in their emission factors in
2021. The average decline rate of the emission grid
factors between 2015 and 2020 across G20 countries
amounted to around 12%.
Almost all countries have ambitions to raise their
share of renewables. For instance, Germany wants to
reach 65% by 2030, while the USA wants to achieve
100% carbon-free electricity by 2035.
But the challenge lies in including the future electricity
demand from EVs in the ramp-up of renewables. In its
STEPS forecast, the IEA expects an aggregated elec-
tricity demand for EV charging of 800,000 GWh for
China, India, the EU, and the USA by 2030. In its SDS
projection, it expects a demand of 1 million GWh for
the same group of countries.
In all G20 countries, fossil fuels in the transport sector
are subsidised or exempted from fuel taxation in some
form. Examples of financial support are fuel tax credits
for businesses (e.g. Australia), tax reductions or
exemptions (e.g., Brazil, USA, Germany, France, and
many other countries), direct payments to taxi drivers
and public transport (China), customs duty reductions
for crude oil (India), and generous funding for the
exploration, extraction, and refining of oil products
and for the stockpiling of crude oil (Japan).
In order to promote the switch to electric vehicles and
increase ambitions to reach climate goals in the trans-
port sector, it is imperative that countries eliminate
these subsidies. Moreover, they must not only support
EV use but disincentivise the use of ICE vehicles and
fuel consumption by means of malus systems.
Over recent years, there have been efforts to reform
fiscal aid for fossil-fuel sectors (e.g., in Canada and
France). However, the current energy crisis has put a
hold or reversed these efforts in many countries. Study | 02 | The role of G20 countries in enabling sector decarbonisation
37 03
THE INDONESIAN, INDIAN, BRAZIL
G20 PRESIDENCIES 39
03 | The Indonesian, Indian, Brazil G20 presidencies
The G20 comprises the world’s major industrialised
and emerging economies, which together account for
60% of the world population, 80% of global GDP, nearly
75% of global exports, and 80% of global greenhouse
gas emissions. This makes the G20 the premier forum
for international cooperation and climate action. For
the first time in history, the G20 is on track to see
three emerging economies in a row at its helm:
……… …
Indonesia in 2022, India in 2023, and Brazil in 2024. South Africa is in line to become the fourth, in 2025, though this has yet to be formally announced. After the notable increase of attention on transport-related matters at COP26, the G20 is expected to give greater priority to transport decarbonisation. Though COP27 did not provide substantial further impetus for increased ambition in this area, the LOTUS initiative
introduced in Sharm El Sheikh addresses urban mobility challenges specifically in the Global South. This section provides a short snapshot of transport-related decarbonisation measures with regard to the G20 presidency of Indonesia and the directions the subject is expected to take during the presidencies of India and Brazil. INDONESIA – 2022 Study | 03 | The Indonesian, Indian, Brazil G20 presidencies
41
3.1 Indonesia – 2022
The Republic of Indonesia is the world’s largest island
country and, for the past decade, its fastest growing
emerging economy after China and India. It is also the
world’s eighth-largest emitter of greenhouse gases,
and as such plays a key role in the global effort to meet
Paris Climate Agreement goals.
The country assumed the G20 presidency in Novem-
ber 2021, just as the world was tentatively starting to
think beyond the pandemic. The multidimensional
crisis needed a collaborative global effort, and Indone-
sia believed that the G20 could drive the global recov-
ery. For the G20 summit in Bali, Indonesia chose the
motto “Recover Together, Recover Stronger”.
Indonesia prioritised the global health architecture for
the G20. During its presidency, it has also strongly
advocated technological and financial support to help
developing countries achieve a sustainable energy
transition, especially the $100 billion a year in climate
funding promised by developed countries in 2009.
Lastly, Indonesia has emphasised the role of the G20 in
advancing global discussions regarding an equitable
digital transformation. Unfortunately, the decarboni-
sation of the transport sector has not featured in any
G20 declaration or work stream under Indonesia’s
leadership.
Indonesia’s Nationally Determined
Contribution (NDC)
Indonesia submitted its updated NDC to the UNFCCC
in July 2021. Later that year, at the COP26, it
announced a net-zero target by 2060 or sooner. Indo-
nesia has not yet revised its 2030 emission reduction
targets in its 2015 NDC – 29% without international
support or 41% with international support relative to
the business-as-usual scenario. The 2021 update
reasserted the country’s intention to retire all coal-
fired power plants by 2055. Notably, over 97% of the
reduction target will be in the forest, land, and energy
sectors. Indonesia’s Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources (EMR) has developed a roadmap for renew-
ables to increase the country’s share in power genera-
tion to 23% by 2025, 57% by 2035, and 93% by 2045.
While the transport sector accounts for one-third of
the country’s energy consumption and 40% of CO₂
emissions from final energy consumption, Indonesia
has yet to set CO₂ targets for the sector and has focused
instead on the adoption of biofuels.
Transport
With 6,000 inhabited islands among 17,000 islands in
all, Indonesia relies heavily on inter-island transport
links. The larger islands of Java, Sumatra, and Sulawesi
have extensive transport systems dominated by roads.
Many of the smaller, less developed islands have
incomplete, fragmented, and poorly maintained road
networks for internal travel and underdeveloped
infrastructure for inter-island shipping. Java and
Sumatra both have rail networks, but freight transport
is limited. The air sector is growing rapidly due in part
to the emergence of discount airlines.
Indonesia’s policy agenda includes the expansion and
improvement of transport infrastructure, and since
2014 the country has seen 16 new airports, 18 new
ports, and 2,100 km of new toll roads.
14
The country
has set targets for its modal share as well, with the aim
of increasing passenger rail to 7–9% and freight rail to
11–13% of their respective totals by 2030. Indonesia
also wants to add 712 km of high-speed rail and
3,000 km of rail tracks, and to expand its biofuel share
to 14% by 2025.
In October 2021, the country passed a carbon tax, but
implementation has been postponed twice so far. In
2022, it began to test its new Emission Trading
System. The Indonesian government cut its fossil-fuel
subsidies substantially in September 2022, which
increased gasoline prices by 30%. Other measures
implemented to date have concentrated on incentives
for electric vehicles and biofuels. A few measures sup-
port the energy / CO₂ efficiency of vehicles such as a
tax discount for low-carbon passenger cars (updated
in December 2021). Previous versions of the tax dis-
count were so successful that it led to a rebound effect:
many additional vehicles were sold as small low-cost
cars became more affordable, increasing traffic volume
and overall transport emissions. The tax discount
14 The Economist 2022a Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
42
helped the local auto industry but not the environ-
ment. The IEA reports that the average fuel consump-
tion for new cars in Indonesia is 8.1 L/100 km –
considerably higher than that of many similar coun-
tries. The Euro 4 emission standard was enacted in
April 2022.
Due to the geography of Indonesia, rail plays a very
limited role. Although water and air transport are vital
for connecting the country’s islands, they are respon-
sible for less than 10% of transport sector emissions.
Within road transport, freight transport accounts for
about 40% of total CO₂ emissions and is dominated by
light- and medium-duty vehicles. Motorcycles domi-
nate passenger transport: in 2019 there were
394 motorcycles per 1,000 inhabitants, versus
55 passenger cars and 17 freight vehicles. Two- and
three-wheelers run almost exclusively on gasoline,
consume 41% of all domestic transport fuels, and
contribute to almost half of transport emissions.
15

15 IEA 2022g
Indonesia’s transport sector emitted 149.67 Mt CO₂ in
2019. Some 92% of total transport emissions came
from road transport. Passenger transport accounted for
around 60% in total transport emissions. Per capita
emissions, both in total and in the transport sector, are
among the lowest in the G20. Nevertheless, transport
emissions grew by 365% from 1990 to 2019 and
motorisation levels continue to increase.
In 2020, only 0.1% of all energy used in transport was
renewable electricity. An additional 11.8% consisted of
biofuels. Fossil fuels are mostly constituted by gasoline
(51.1%) and gas / diesel (33%).
Electric Mobility
Indonesia aims to develop a domestic EV industry and
establish itself as a regional hub. The country pos-
sesses large amounts of natural resources needed for
battery production (e.g. nickel and cobalt). Therefore,
the government has introduced an active industrial
policy with export restrictions and domestic produc-
tion requirements to attract foreign direct invest-
ments.
16

The Electric Vehicle Roadmap, published by the gov-
ernment in September 2020, set ambitious annual EV
production targets: 600,000 four-wheeled and
2.45 million two/three-wheeled EVs on the road by
2030.
17
The EV stock targets are 2.5 million EVs by
16 The Economist 2022a
17 AHK Indonesia 2021
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: ATO 2022
Road motor vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants Figure 3.1
2015 2018 2019
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
485 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION R ATE
23
26
17
48
64 55
389
429
394
[per 1,000 inhabitants] Study | 03 | The Indonesian, Indian, Brazil G20 presidencies
43
2025 and 2 million passenger vehicles and 13 million
two/threewheelers by 2030. Indonesia also plans to
allow the sale only of electric motorcycles by 2040 and
electric passenger cars by 2050. Nevertheless, the
current market share of EVs remains very low – below
1% (654 units) of total car sales in Q3 2021.
18
Energy
The energy sector in Indonesia relies heavily on coal
(66.3% in 2020); the country’s secondary source of
energy is gas (16.8%). Compared with domestic poten-
tial, renewables play only a minor role in Indonesia’s
energy mix, with a share of 14%.
19
The energy sector’s
CO₂ emissions have more than doubled since 2000,
18 IEA 2022h
19 GTAI 2022a
reaching 598 Mt in 2021.
20
Growing energy demand is
closely linked to GDP growth. Coal, with a share of 75%,
has been the main driver of increasing CO₂ emission
levels.
21

In 2022, the government increased its efforts and
promises for the green transition in the energy sector.
In September, the Indonesian president Joko Wikodo
announced a ban on new coal plants. In the same
month, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
(EMR) published a 2060 Net-Zero Emission Roadmap
for the energy sector, and stated that additional energy
generation from 2030 onwards will be produced only
by new, renewable power plants.
22
On November 15,
2022 the Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP)
was signed, which promises 20 billion dollars of public
and private foreign money to speed up Indonesia’s
green transition and its phase-out of coal. The part-
nership was accompanied by remarkable promises
from the Indonesian government:
• achieving net-zero emissions in the power sector
by 2050 (10 years earlier than initially planned),
• peaking emissions by 2030, and
• expanding renewables to make up one-third of
electricity generation by 2030.
23

20 GTAI 2022b
21 IEA 2022g
22 ESDM 2022
23 The Economist 2022b
Agora Verkehrswende (2022) | Source: IEA 2022a
Agora Ve kaVhrswrnsde(r Figure 3.2
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
117
116
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[g COfi/kWh]

Index values: 2000 = 100 INDIA – 2023 Study | 03 | The Indonesian, Indian, Brazil G20 presidencies
45
3.2 India – 2023
India is the world’s largest parliamentary democracy,
its second-most populous country, and its fifth-largest
economy. It is also a key player in this unique moment
of human history, as the global community works to
build a decarbonised economy. In December 2022, it
assumed the G20 presidency for the first time and will
host the Leaders’ Summit in 2023.
For India, the presidency is not only an opportunity to
set new priorities among G20 members; it is also a
chance to shape the global agenda on climate action
from the vantage point of emerging economies.
“India understands the suffering of all other
developing countries, shares them, and will
continue to express their expectations.”
Prime Minister Modi at COP26
Indonesia, who held the presidency for 2021–2022,
chose the slogan “Recover Together, Recover Stronger”
for its tenure. India has selected the motto “Vasudhaiva
Kutumbakam”, or “One Earth One Family One Future”,
and one of its six priority areas is to create a “clean,
sustainable, just, affordable, and inclusive energy
transition”.
India’s updated Nationally Determined
Contribution (NDC)
The Indian government submitted its updated NDC to
the UNFCCC in August 2022. In its revised contribu-
tions, India took the five climate action elements
(Panchamrit) that it announced at COP26 and included
them as part of its enhanced climate targets. For India,
it was a step towards achieving India’s long-term goal
of reaching net-zero by 2070.

The core targets of India’s NDC are to reduce the emis-
sions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030 relative to
2005 levels, to ensure that 50% of its installed electric-
ity capacity is from non-fossil fuel-based energy
resources by 2030, and to propagate a healthy and
sustainable way of living based on traditions and val-
ues of conservation and moderation through the gov-
ernment’s flagship Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Envi-
ronment).

India’s NDC targets and priorities are likely to form a
realistic outline for other emerging economies and to
further encourage international discussions of climate
action under the G20 umbrella. New agreements,
shared responsibilities, and obligatory international
cooperation are expected to constitute the core ele-
ments of India’s leadership. The country’s updated
NDC follows the stance it took at the COP26 on the
transfer of funding and low-cost climate technologies
from developing countries. In its NDC, India reiterated
that “new and additional financial resources as well as
the transfer of technology are the commitments and
responsibilities of the developed countries under the
UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement”.

Transport
The movement of people and goods is the backbone of
India’s fast-paced economic development. India’s
strong emphasis on socioeconomic growth and the pace
of its urbanisation has increased its mobility demand.
As a result, transport emissions rose from 105 Mt CO₂
in 2000 to 325 Mt CO₂ in 2019. While transport related
emissions grew by 18.4% from 2015 to 2019, per capita
emissions grew by 13.5% in the same period. Despite
strong growth rates, however, its per capita emissions –
0.25 metric tons CO₂ – are the lowest in the G20.
India’s total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion
increased by 375% between 1990 and 2019, yet they
represent a relatively low share of total emissions –
only 14%. Among other reasons, this is due to the high
carbon intensity of India’s power generation. Never-
theless, transport sector emissions could increase 65%
by 2030 and 197% by 2050 relative to 2020 levels. Road
transport is the main contributor to sector emissions,
followed by rail transport. The nearly 7% of sector emis-
sions from rail is one of the highest shares in the G20.
India is committed to further increasing the share of
rail in freight transport to 45% by 2030. The country
aims to have a 30% share of electric LDV sales by 2030
and the government is working on plans to require all
two-wheelers to be electric by 2026. India signed the Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
46
COP26 declaration on transitioning to 100% zero-
emission cars and vans by 2040. National, sub
national, and municipal measures are in place to sup-
port public transport and low-carbon freight and to
enhance the energy and carbon efficiency of vehicles.
Since April 2018 they have included a fuel efficiency
standard for heavy-duty vehicles. In July 2020, India
railways announced plans to achieve net-zero emis-
sions by 2030. This follows a target to achieve com-
plete electrification of its network by 2023.
India has taken dedicated actions in its push for
cleaner mobility. It has accelerated electrification, ini-
tiated a drive for green hydrogen, integrated new
transport systems via the Gati Shakti platform,
planned industrial corridors to shift freight transport
to cleaner modes, planned high-speed rail to move
people from road and air, constructed several metro
rail systems, developed lower-cost metro systems for
smaller cities, emphasised green mobility in urban
areas, and provided national support for bus systems,
among many other measures.
Research suggests that up to 1.7 Gt CO₂e can be avoided
by 2030 if India adopts greener policies in its passen-
ger and freight transport sectors
24
.
According to a study by the India Energy Storage Alli-
ance (IESA), the Indian EV market will grow at a com-
pounded annual rate of 49% between 2021 and 2029.
25

To meet Paris Agreement targets, the share of EV sales
(including two- and three -wheelers) will need to be
between 80–95% by 2030 and 100% by 2040
26
.
Several national programmes, including the National
Urban Transport policy and the Smart Cities Mission,
have been established to reduce vehicle traffic and
increase transport efficiency. BS VI standards (based on
Euro VI) standards, which were introduced in April 2020,
establish an important precedent for leapfrogging directly
from Euro IV-equivalent to Euro VI-equivalent stand-
ards. The Indian government has advanced different tar-
gets and policy frameworks to introduce alternative,
emissions-reducing fuels in the transport sector. Blend-
ing petrol with 20% ethanol is one such initiative. Its tar-
get year was recently moved up from 2030 to 2025
27
.
Hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles are seen as another
potential clean-energy alternative for the transport sec-
tor. India has also laid out a detailed plan for energy stor-
age systems to increase the grid integration of renewable
energy, in which fuel cells play an important role.
24 NITI Aayog, 2020
25 IESA 2022
26 Climate Action Tracker, 2020a
27 NITI Aayog, 2021
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: IEA 2022g
Transport sector emissions by subsector Figure 3.3
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Water-borne navigation
Total national em issions
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
[Mt CO] Study | 03 | The Indonesian, Indian, Brazil G20 presidencies
47
Electric Mobility
The global electric vehicle (EV) market is developing at a
rapid pace. In 2021, the overall global share of electric
vehicles (including both battery-electric vehicles [BEVs]
and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles [PHEVs]) reached
8.3%, with 6.75 million vehicles on the road. This is an
increase of 108% from the number of EVs in 2020.
Compared with other G20 countries, the Indian EV
market is evolving quickly. Close to 0.32 million vehi-
cles were sold in 2021, a year-on-year increase of
168%. The government has prioritised the adoption of
electric mobility and already in 2013 it launched the
National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020
(NEMMP) and subsequently the Faster Adoption of
Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles (FAME) Phase I and
Phase II. This scheme has earmarked $1.25 billion to
incentivise demand for electric vehicles (EVs) with
upfront subsidies and the support of a charging infra-
structure. FAME II will subsidise one million electric
two-wheelers, 500,000 electric three-wheelers,
55,000 electric cars, and 7,000 electric buses. Another
$125 million has also been made available under FAME
II for the provision of charging stations. Up to early
2022, the programme has supported more than 200
thousand electric vehicles (mostly two- and three-
wheelers). Further programmes and measures have
been put in place to support EV deployment:
National E-Bus Programme: NITI Aayog is driving an
initiative to aggregate demand for 50,000 e-buses.
More than 20,000 e-buses are at various stages of
deployment. Prices of e-buses without subsidy have
come down by 29% in relation to the cost of petrol/
diesel vehicles.
State EV Accelerator Program: Based on the conviction
that clear EV policies are important for attracting
investment and generating employment and prosper-
ity, NITI Aayog has been advocating for India’s states
and union terrorities (UTs) to adopt EV policies within
the scope of this programme. So far, NITI Aayog has
inspired 33 states/UTs to adopt EV policies. Twen-
ty-six additional states/UTs have announced their
intention to adopt EV policies; in 7 states/UTs, such
policies are in the draft stage.
Shoonya – Zero Pollution Delivery Campaign: This
campaign promotes the use of EVs for urban deliveries
and ride-hailing. Shoonya, which means “zero” in
Sanskrit, refers to the potential from which possibility
emerges. Inspired by this meaning, the Shoonya cam-
paign plans to revolutionise the transport sector with
a radical and rapid transition to zero-emission vehi-
cles. Together with 140 industry partners, 70 million
deliveries and 40 million rides have been completed.
Battery Swapping Policy – A draft battery policy has
been prepared by NITI Aayog.
Electric Freight Accelerator for Sustainable Transport
– India (E-FAST India) is a platform designed to
encourage policy discourse and support pilot projects
in the area of heavy duty freight electrification.
EV and Battery Storage Centres of Excellence and
Higher Education Programmes – Sixteen Indian
Institutes of Technology (IITs) have launched dedicated
courses and centres focusing on EV and battery stor-
age research.
To provide a platform for public and private sector
stakeholders to engage in discourse, NITI Aayog
launched the Forum for Decarbonising Transport in
August of 2021. It aims to catalyze and sustain stake-
holder engagement for more ambitious policy action in
transport. It also provides an impetus for international
and cross-sectoral knowledge exchange, to identify
concrete action opportunities and related implemen-
tation and monitoring strategies.
Energy
Coal is still the dominant fuel source for power genera-
tion in India, representing around 75% of total genera-
tion. Presently, India’s $3.12 trillion economy con-
sumes 9,850 TWh. Electricity generation in 2021 was
1,715 TWh. Of this, green electricity makes up only
17%. Nevertheless, due to the efforts to increase
renewable energy capacity, the CO₂ intensity of power
has dropped significantly, as the figure below shows.
The Council for Energy, Environment, and Water
Research has estimated that net-zero emissions by Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
48
2070 will require 5,630 GW of solar capacity, a 99%
reduction in coal use between 2040 and 2060, and a
90% decline in crude oil consumption between 2050
and 2070. A wide range of mechanisms support
renewable energy in India. Renewable Purchase
Obligations (RPO) for distributors mandate minimum
quantities of renewables. Since 2010, reverse auctions
have been used to procure solar PV and solar thermal
capacity; since 2017, these auctions have also been
used for wind energy. Additional programmes support
rooftop solar solutions and solar agricultural pumps
through grant schemes. The solar cities programme
aims to convert one city per state to run completely on
solar power.
There is significant uncertainty over the future of coal
power capacity in India. In the recent Third Biennial
Report to the UNFCCC, India highlighted its desire to
continue with coal, citing its need for development
and energy security. While India has been reducing
its share of coal power development, it remains the
second largest coal pipeline globally after China, and
has over 200 GW of coal-fired capacity in operation
(11% of global capacity). The CEA projects that the
capacity will increase to almost 266 GW by 2029–
2030, and potentially reach 300 GW given the number
of coal projects in the pipeline. Obviously, this planned
increase is not consistent with the Paris Agreement.
To produce a Paris Agreement compatible pathway,
India’s coal power generation would need to decrease
immediately to a share of 5–10% by 2030 and be
phased out before 2040
28
. As it stands now, there is a
significant risk that India’s coal assets will be
stranded, especially when considering that two-
thirds of India’s coal-fired power plants were built
in the last ten years.
India has a largely homegrown nuclear power pro-
gramme. The share of nuclear energy in the total elec-
tricity generation in the country has remained around
3 to 3.5% since 2014. As of March 2022, India’s
installed nuclear power capacity was 6780 MW and is
targeted to increase to 22,480 MW by the year 2031.
The Indian government is committed to growing its
nuclear power capacity as part of its massive infra-
structure development programme.
The government aims to transform India into an
energy-independent nation by 2047. Its plan involves
green hydrogen as an alternate fuel to fossil-based
products. In 2020, India’s hydrogen demand stood at
6 million tonnes (MT) per year. By 2070, green hydro-
gen could meet 19% of industry’s needs. India has
declared its ambition to become an exporter of hydro-
gen to Japan, South Korea, and Europe.
Currently, India is formulating a comprehensive policy
framework to promote energy storage in the power
sector. Its aim is to promote the creation of large-scale
storage systems across the country. It foresees the
construction of technology-agnostic storage system at
28 Climate Action Tracker, 2020b
the generation, transmission, and distribution levels of
the electricity sector. The government’s immediate
target is to set up 4000 MWh of battery storage
capacity to increase renewable penetration in the
national grid. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) /
MoP’s Report on Optimal Generation Capacity Mix has
projected that 27,000 MW/108,000 MWh of battery
storage capacity (or four hours’ worth) will be installed
by 2029–2030.
Decarbonisation of Transport a Priority for
Socioeconomic Growth
Indian society is filled with young entrepreneurs
combining digital technology with innovative trans-
port demand solutions to increase the effectivity and
sustainability of mobility services. This fast-paced
Agora Verkehrswende (2022) | Source: IEA 2022a
Agora Ve kaVhrswrnsde(r Figure 3.4
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[g COfi/kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100 Study | 03 | The Indonesian, Indian, Brazil G20 presidencies
49
environment is an ideal multiplier for the transforma-
tion of urban mobility. Likewise, India’s G20 presi-
dency represents a chance to inject clean transport
into the G20 agenda and help mainstream the decar-
bonisation of the sector by mid-century. The approach
adopted by India could be a lesson for others and help
demonstrate its climate-action leadership.
On 2 May 2022, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and
Federal Chancellor Olaf Scholz signed a partnership
agreement for green development aligned with the
climate and sustainability goals of the United Nations.
The partnership is intended to strengthen bilateral
cooperation and expand cooperation with actors in
science, the business community, and civil society.
To this end, Germany intends to invest at least ten
billion euros by 2030. BRAZIL – 2024 Study | 03 | The Indonesian, Indian, Brazil G20 presidencies
51
3.3 Brazil – 2024

The Federative Republic of Brazil, the largest country
in Latin America by size, population, and GDP, is seek-
ing a return to sustainable GDP growth after years of
economic and political volatility. Environmental pro-
tection was just one of the aspects that suffered from
the socio-political turmoil of the past few years. In
2020, as the COVID pandemic slowed global economies,
Brazil was one of just a few G20 members to see only a
minor decrease in greenhouse gas emissions. In 2021,
emissions grew by 12.2%, exceeding 2019 levels and
representing the largest annual increase in 19 years.
29

Transport is one of the main sources of the country's
emissions.
In October 2022, the former president Luiz da Silva
won the general election and will once again become
the country’s head of state. Prior to the election, Da
Silva, known as “Lula”, promised a Brazilian “Green
New Deal”. The initiative he proposed focuses on
• the protection of the Amazon rainforest,
• the green transformation of the economy, and
• higher taxes on polluting industries and tax cuts for
climate measures.
Another goal is to take a more active role in interna-
tional climate protection policy.
30

29 IEA 2022g
30 Reuters 2022a
Brazil will assume the G20 presidency at the end of
2023 for the 2024 term, after India’s term ends, mak-
ing it the third emerging economy in a row to take the
helm. Should Brazil’s new climate focus hold sway, the
decarbonisation of the transport sector may become a
new area of focus for the G20.
Brazil’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)
In 2015, Brazil submitted its first NDC, which was one
of the most ambitious among the emerging economies.
The country published its second NDC update in
March 2022, when Jair Bolsonaro was still president.
The country reiterated its commitment to achieving
climate neutrality in 2050, with interim greenhouse
gas emission reduction targets of 37% by 2025 and
50% by 2030 relative to 2005 levels. The 2022 NDC
also contained improved percentage reduction targets
vis-a-vis the country’s first update in 2020.
But the second update also included increases in
short-term emissions compared with the previous
NDC – 314 million tonnes in 2025 and 82 million
tonnes in 2030. The 2022 update also fails to clarify
earlier pledges such as the elimination of deforestation
by 2030 or Brazil’s signing of the Global Methane
Pledge. Furthermore, none of the NDC drafts contain
transport-sector-specific targets for 2030. The head
of Lula’s environmental team promised in October
2022 to submit an updated NDC proposal if he wins
the election.
Transport
In Brazil, the world’s fifth-largest country by area, long
travel distances are the norm. It is no surprise that it
has 4,000 domestic airports, more than most other
countries worldwide but one (USA). Yet in most parts
of the country transport infrastructure is underdevel-
oped and poorly maintained, posing a major obstacle to
the movement of freight and people. The best devel-
oped infrastructure is along the coastline and in the
southeast, around the densely populated metropolitan
areas of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. But the further
inland you go, the sparser and worse it becomes.
31

Brazil’s total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion
increased by 98% between 1990 and 2020. Emission
increases in the transport sector have outpaced those
from fuel combustion in general, growing 136% during
the same period. The domestic transport sector is
responsible for 47% of emissions from fuel combustion.
This is due to the large percentage of renewables (84%)
in Brazil’s energy generation. The country’s per capita
emissions from transport are below the G20 and world
averages.
In Brazil, road is the most used mode of transport, and
passenger cars are the most common motorised form.
For every 1,000 inhabitants in 2020, 330 own a car,
while only 137 own motorcycles and 22 own utility
vehicles. Cars are responsible for more than 70% of the
country’s total vehicle kilometres, and road transport is
31 GTAI 2021 Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
52
responsible for 91% of emissions within the transport
sector. Emissions from the sector are projected to grow
16% by 2030 and 48% by 2050 relative to 2020 levels.
32

Brazil has enacted a range of climate measures in the
transport sector, particularly in the area of biofuels.
The RenovaBio policy seeks to reduce the carbon
intensity of the Brazilian transportation matrix by
expanding the use of biofuels and creating a carbon
32 World Bank (2022c)
credit market to offset emissions of greenhouse gases
by fossil fuels. Still, there are significant gaps in the
promotion of public transport and alternative modes of
travel. The 2018 “Rota 2030” regulation includes tax
reductions for EVs and a mandatory vehicle efficiency
improvement of 11% by 2022.
Electric Mobility
EVs are an absolute niche product in Brazil. So far,
electric vehicles have not featured prominently in
government or industry plans to decarbonise the
transport sector, and the country has yet to develop an
overall EV strategy. Less than 0.1% of the total passen-
ger car fleet is electric. The same percentage applies to
newly registered cars, and most of them are hybrids.
Brazil’s charging infrastructure is also insufficient.
Nevertheless, the country has set an ambitious EV
stock target: 600,000 EVs by 2030. It has also pro-
posed phasing out the sale of fossil fuel-powered
engines by 2060.
The country’s main focus now is to increase the use of
biofuels. Biodiesel blending with conventional diesel is
currently mandated at 10%, and is required to increase
to 15% in April 2023.
33
Almost one-quarter of the
energy used in the transport sector comes from bio
fuels and renewable electricity. The largest part of
energy used in the transport sector is gas / diesel
(43.6%), followed by motor gasoline (24.9%).
The primary means of freight transport are trucks,
which carry more than 60% of the total volume. The
Brazilian transport sector consumes one-third of
domestic final energy consumption.
34
Although freight
transport accounts for only 4% of Brazil’s vehicle fleet,
it contributed 40% of total transport sector emissions
in 2019.
35
The energy use of heavy trucks has risen
substantially since 2000, and in 2020 the increase
33 Reuters 2022b
34 EPE 2021
35 ICCT 2021
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: IEA 2022g
Transport sector emissions by subsector Figure 3.5
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Water-borne navigation
Total national em issions0
50
100
150
200
250
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
[Mt CO] Study | 03 | The Indonesian, Indian, Brazil G20 presidencies
53
reached 219%. Freight vehicles are also a major source
of air quality pollutants in the big cities.
36

After road transport, inland waterways and rail are the
most dominant modes of transport in domestic freight
traffic, each accounting for around 15% of goods trans-
ported. Brazil plans to expand their use in the future.
The Bolsonaro administration planned to extend the
domestic railway system by increasing investment
considerably, adding 600km of railway annually
through 2030.
37

Energy
Brazil is the leading G20 country in terms of the share
of renewable energy in its energy mix, at almost 84%.
38

As a result, the country has one of the least carbon-
intensive energy sectors in the world. Its current
installed total energy generation capacity – 175 GW
– makes it the world’s seventh-largest global producer.
Programmes such as PROFINA have been in place
since 2002 to promote the expansion of renewable
energies. Hydropower is the main contributor to
energy generation and accounts for almost two-thirds
of the total. This abundance is one of the main reasons
for the projected increase in the updated 2022 NDC.
But Brazil has faced various droughts over the past
years and has thus needed to intensify its use of fossil
gas to compensate for the shortage of hydropower.
36 EPE 2021
37 EPE 2021
38 McKinsey & Company 2021
This might explain the overall increase in the CO₂
intensity of its power supply.
3.4 Conclusion
While the decarbonisation of transport has not become
a standalone priority under Indonesia’s G20 presi-
dency, its efforts and the available information regard-
ing the presidencies of India and Brazil indicate the
major role that the transport sector plays in national
socioeconomic activity and climate action. Decoupling
sector emission from economic growth will be a key
element in creating a sustainable future not only for
these three emerging economies but also, by virtue of
their outsize influence in the G20, for the global com-
munity at large. 04
G20 COUNTRY FACTSHEETS 55
04 | Country factsheets
The country factsheets aim to provide a comprehen-
sive snapshot of the transport sector in G20 member
countries, including their decarbonisation ambitions
to date. We elaborate on recent sector developments,
highlight the countries’ NDCs and national targets, and
spotlight factors impacting domestic transportation
needs.
Our mobility indicators provide insight into motorisa-
tion rates and transport volumes, while our energy-
related indicators show fuel use, gasoline and diesel
prices, and the status of electric vehicle adoption.
Furthermore, the factsheets peek over the rim of the
“transport box”, providing some information regarding
the closely linked energy sector.
Data availability in the transport sector is limited, and
data quality is often poor. When available, we have
used consistent datasets, such as those from the IEA,
the World Bank, EDGAR, OECD, and the International
Transport Forum. In some cases, we supplement these
data with other sources, such as national data or inter-
national studies. Accordingly, the data are not neces-
sarily fully comparable between countries. However,
they effectively serve their main purpose: to enhance
our understanding of the situation in individual coun-
tries, and to identify significant differences between
countries.
Information on all data sources can be found in
annex I.
This report does not assess implemented measures
with a view to their stringency or how far they are
able to achieve stated goals or the objectives of the
Paris Agreement. The factsheets present measures
that from their design or intention could potentially
contribute to mitigation.
National sources are not always available in English.
Due to resource constraints, we were not able to ana-
lyse all potentially relevant documents, so additional
measures may exist.
A core aim of the factsheets is to assess the level of
ambition in each nation, including the steps taken to
implement the measures we have identified. NDCs
represent the internationally declared targets for cli-
mate action, and they often serve as a basis for ambi-
tion at the international level. The factsheets summa-
rise each country’s overall commitment, transport
related targets included in the NDC, and mitigation
measures and action relevant to transport. Addition-
ally, the factsheets show the national targets that
countries have set for the transport sector or individ-
ual subsectors, if they exist.
G20 Transport Sector Factsheets: Our Contribution to Enhanced Transparency Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
56 MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION ARGENTINA
EV
TARGETS
ARGENTINA
57
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
2015201520192019
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2020
Source: RAILISA STAT UICSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Argentina is characterised by long travel distances and a high level of
urbanisation. Travel between cities relies almost exclusively on road
transport, including well-developed and low-cost bus services. Air
transport has also been growing in importance. Although the country
has the 6
th
largest rail system in the world, rail transport is negligible.
The government is aiming to revive the rail system, and
re-nationalised the railway operator in 2015. Urban transport and
cargo rely mostly on road transport, with the exception of Buenos
Aires, which operates a metro system and tram lines.
Argentina revised its original NDC, reducing the absolute emission
target from 483 Mt CO₂e to 349 Mt CO₂e by 2030 and has committed
to net-zero emissions by 2050. It has not set any targets for the
transport sector. Since January 2018, Argentina has a carbon price in
place and it implemented a mandatory vehicle labelling scheme.
Argentina is one of the few G20 countries that has not yet
implemented CO₂ or energy efficiency standards.
• ECONOMY-WIDE NET-ZERO
TARGET BY 2050
• LIMIT GHG EMISSIONS TO
349 MT CO₂e BY 2030
[NO DATA]
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: AFAC
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
Road, car
Rail, other
Road, bus
Aviation
All other
transport
modes
2020
0.71%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
6.23%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
[NO DATA]
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2020)
45 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
0.6%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
14.6% (2020–2050)
16.58 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
31.6 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
[No Data]
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
321 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
0.28 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
41.8 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
95.2% (2050)
92.1% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0
13.1
86.9
12.7
8 7.9
0 20 40 60 80 100
5749
38
240 264 264
Source: UNSTATS
FemaleMale
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
[billion pkm]
[billion tkm]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA]
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
8
6
4
2
0
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
** does not include all transport modes
Source: ITF / OECD
* does not include all transport modes TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 5859
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
47.64 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.13
1.081.06
0.83
0.48%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
162.24 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Argentina's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion increased by 74% between 1990
and 2019, deacreasing by 6% in 2020. Emissions peaked in 2015. Emissions in the
transport sector have increased by 67% between 1990 and 2019, also peaking in 2015
and decreased by 21% between 2019 and 2020. Under average business-as-usual,
transport emissions are expected to grow 13% by 2030 and 39% 2050, compared to the
2020 level. Road transport is the subsector with the largest emissions.
3.58
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
28.2%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-9.7%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
67.2%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+100%
0%
- 100%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
10
5
0
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 5859
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA, 2021
Source: IEA
Source: REN21
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
[NO DATA]
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 16% by 2021
• 18% by 2023
• 20% by 2025
• 26% by 2030
[NO DATA]
SLOW CHARGE
[NO DATA]
FAST CHARGE
[NO DATA]
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
[NO DATA]
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
[NO DATA]
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
119.36
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
106.56
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Argentina passed a hydrogen law in 2006 and a hydrogen
plan in 2014, foreseeing a national fund for the promotion of
hydrogen. This has not yet been implemented.
• An update of the hydrogen law is ongoing.
• An interministerial hydrogen working group exists.
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
Battery reuse and recycling
• There is no regulation or policy in place that requires or
promotes the re-use and recycling of batteries.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
-5000050001000015000200002500030000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
0-520 25 305 10 15
Source: IEA (2021); Oeko Institute (2022)
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
[1,000 vehicles]
The majority of electricity in Argentina is generated using
natural gas, and a third of power generation is from hydro.
In 2019, generation from wind surpassed that from oil for the
first time. The 2007 feed-in tariff law mandated the creation
of a trust fund that pays a premium for electricity produced
from renewables.
Between 2016 and 2018, the auctioning scheme 'RenovAr'
conducted three auctioning rounds, leading to contracting of
4.5 GW of renewable electricity. The 'PERMER' program
supports renewable energy solutions in rural areas not
connected to the grid.
5.9%
94.1%
28.8
-0.15
1.5
-1.9
-4
0.3
0
16.2
2015
2021[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 60IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
In Argentina, the already ongoing recession was
exacerbated in 2020 through the pandemic, leading to
a GDP decline of 9.9%. Growth resumed in 2021 with
over 10%. Effects on transport emissions was
moderate, with emissions decreasing by only 9% in
2020. Public transport ridership fell by 80% below pre-
pandemic levels in the first wave, and remained at
around half of previous levels throughout 2020.
Ridership has been back to pre-pandemic levels since
December 2021. After the lockdowns, walking has not
only returned to previous levels, but has seen a
substantial increase since December 2021.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
• Economy-wide net-zero target by 2050
• Limit GHG emissions to 349 Mt CO₂e by 2030

Transport related NDC measures
A range of planned measures, including:
• Energy efficiency labelling of vehicles
• Promotion of low-emission vehicles and
alternative fuel vehicles
• Renovation of minibuses and trucks
• Improvement of rail freight infrastructure
Future targets at national level
• A reduction of transport sector emissions
of 5.9 MT CO₂e by 2030 compared with BAU,
corresponding to a reduction of 7.6%
• Build 20 BRT corridors by 2030; 18 are already
completed
National ICE phase-out commitments
• Ban on the sale of new ICE vehicles from 2041
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards LDV
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments Carbon tax since January 2018
Mandatory vehicle labellingIn May 2022, the new comparative labelling scheme was launched.
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
Reduced import tax for electric and hybrid cars from 35% down to 0–5% for models with manufacturing plants in the country, with a maximum cap on the number of vehicles that can receive the preferential tax
Source: See national sources Argentina
~623 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
91.6 billion Pesos
Source: IMF 2022, UITP 2020
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
There are no specific environmental or social/
economic sustainability criteria for biofuels in
Argentina. However, being a major exporter of
biodiesel, the government of Argentina closely
monitors other countries’ criteria and regulations in
order to avoid restrictions on its exports.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
Law N° 27.132 reactivated the passenger and cargo railways, the renewal and
improvement of railway infrastructure and the incorporation of technologies and services that contribute to the modernization and efficiency of the public railway system. Additionally, 18 BRT lines had been put in place by the end
of 2020.
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Law N° 27.132 reactivates the passenger and cargo railways.
• Road freight efficiency pilot programme as part of the 'Intelligent Transport Program'
• Green freight programme
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
No measures at national level
Mobility MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA
61
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2020
Source: RAILISA STAT UICSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Transport in Australia is characterised by long travel distances. The
country's population is concentrated along the eastern and southeast-
ern coastlines, leaving large swathes of the country sparsely populated.
Given the size of Australia and the concentration of the population in
selected areas, air travel plays a large role. 95% of the large rail system
outside urban centres is used for freight. Extensive urban sprawl and
low-density suburban development lead to long commuting times and
heavy reliance on personal vehicle ownership. In freight, rail transport
leads in terms of tonne-km travelled, but coastal freight also captures
significant transport volumes.
Australia's goal of reducing emissions 26 – 28% below 2005 levels by
2030 does not include a specific transport sector target. Transport tar-
gets and measures at the national level are scarce, largely focusing on
electric vehicles. Australia is one of the few G20 countries that does not
yet have energy or CO₂ related emission standards for light duty vehicles.
• 26 – 28% REDUCTION IN
GHG EMISSIONS IN 2030
COMPARED TO 2005
• ECONOMY-WIDE NET-ZERO
TARGET BY 2050BY 2025 – 26:
• 25% OF NEW LIGHT PASSENGER
& 30% OF NEW LIGHT
COMMERCIAL VEHICLES SALES
• 20% OF NEW BUS SALES
• 50% OF NEW GOVERNMENT
FLEET LEASES
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ITF / OECD
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
** does not include all transport modes
Source: BITRE
* does not include all transport modes
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
1%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
7.40%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2015 – 2016)
5%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2020)
26 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
0.3%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
25.4% (2020–2050)
3.34 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
37.2 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
385.9 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
763.3 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
220.8 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
22.2 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
91% (2050)
86.2% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0
35.5
64.5
35.7
64.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
146
152 158
569 574 571
34 34 34
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics
FemaleMale
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
13
13
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
2015
2019
4
5
4
14
65
6999
66
34
1
16
10
12%
2-/3-wheeler TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 6263
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
104,16 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
3.92
4.16 4.11
3.79
1.16%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
389.4 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Australia's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion have increased by 50% between
1990 and 2019, remaining almost stable between 2009 and 2019, before dropping 4%
in 2020. The country has one of the highest per capita emissions globally, 2.5 times the
G20 average and almost three times the global average. Transport sector emissions
are growing faster than the overall economy, increasing by 65% between 1990 and
2019, before dropping almost 7% in 2020. Emissions from the sector are projected to
grow 6% by 2030, compared to the 2020 level, and then remain relatively stable. While
road transport plays the most important role in generating emissions from the sector,
domestic aviation has been increasing in importance and now is responsible for 7.3%
of transport sector emissions.
15.16
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
25.9%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
2.4%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
63.4%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+100%
0%
- 100%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
40
20
0
60
80
100
120
140
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 6263
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
Source: IEA
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
0.39%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
No mention
2,000 *
SLOW CHARGE
350 *
FAST CHARGE
2.8%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+1,233.3%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
48,000
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
98.87
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
98.87
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Australia adopted a hydrogen strategy in 2019.
• AU$500 million committed to hydrogen since 2015.
• The 'Mission Innovation Renewable and Clean Hydrogen
Challenge' aims to advance technology.
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
Battery reuse and recycling
• There is no regulation in place that requires the re-use and
recycling of batteries.
• Voluntary battery stewardship scheme (B-Ccycle) under operation
of the Battery Stewardship Council funded by a levy on battery
imports with the aim to increase the recycling rate.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
-15000-10000-5000050001000015000200002500030000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-1520 25 3050-5-1010 15
Source: ACCC (2020), Green Network (2022)Source: COAG Energy Council, BR4
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
[1,000 vehicles]
Coal is still the dominant fuel source for power generation in
Australia, representing just over half of total generation, with
an increasing share of natural gas and renewables. The
renewable energy target set for 2020 was met in 2019 and
the support instruments were extended to help achieve the
2030 targets:
• the Large-scale Renewable Energy Target (LRET), which
requires high-energy users to acquire a fixed proportion of
their electricity from renewable sources, and
• the Small-scale Renewable Energy Scheme (SRES), which
provides subidies for the installation of small-scale renew
able energy systems such as rooftop solar, solar water heat-
ers, heat pumps, and small-scale wind and hydro systems.
18.6
-0.6
2 7.7
-3.4
0.6
-13.4
14.3
1 7.9
2015
2021
4
48[NO DATA] [NO DATA]
0.7%
99.3% AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 64IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Australia experienced a moderate contraction of the
economy of 2.2% in 2020, but growth resumed in 2021
with the growth rate doubled, compared to before the
pandemic. In the first wave of the pandemic in April
2020, transit ridership in Australia fell to 20% of pre-
pandemic levels. Ridership has recovered slowly, but
was still below 80% in December 2021. By June 2022,
public transport use was still 25% below baseline
levels. Car use recovered much faster and largely
returned to pre-pandemic levels by mid 2020.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to a 26 – 28% reduction in
GHG emissions in 2030 compared to 2005

Future targets at national level
Construction of 1,749 km of high-speed rail
(proposed)
National EV deployment targets
By 2025 – 26:
• 25% of new light passenger motor vehicle sales
• 30% of new light commercial vehicles sales
• 20% of new metropolitan bus sales
• 75% of all new Australian Government
fleet leases
• deploy EV charging stations in over 400 busi-
nesses and 50,000 households and provide
access to 1,000 public fast-charging stations
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehi-
cles (LDV)
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labelling• Fuel consumption labelling standard (ADR81/02)
• Green Vehicle Guide website (planned)
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Tax and import tariff exemptions for EVs
• Charging and hydrogen fuelling infrastructure support through the
AU$ 250 million Future Fuels Fund
• Investment support to select fleets, such as public transport buses
and commercial fleets
• Subsidies for smart charging technology in households
• Information programmes for customers
Source: See national sources Australia
~5,454 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
8.42 billion AUD
Source: IMF 2022, Beck et al (2021), Google community mobility reports 2022
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
There are no specific environmental or
social/economic sustainability criteria for
biofuels in Australia.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
No measures at national level
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
Inland rail projects to develop a 1,700 km rail system, building on existing
infrastructure and including logistics and connection hubs, to shift freight
from road
National-level measures to
support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support
non-motorised transport
No measures at national level
Mobility
A$ MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS BRAZIL
EV
TARGETS
BRAZIL
65
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
2015201520192019
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Brazil is characterised by long travel distances, with most urban
centres lying along its 7,500 km coastline. Inland areas are sparsely
populated. Air transport plays an important role, with 4,000 airports
in operation, the second largest number globally. Brazil has large
highway and rail networks. Rail is mostly used for freight transport.
Although Brazil has an extensive network of navigable rivers, just
14% of cargo is transported using inland navigation.
Brazil did not yet set any sector-specific targets for 2030 that would
support its objective to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. Although
Brazil has enacted a range of measures, particularly in the area of
biofuels, there are still significant gaps in the promotion of public
transport and new modes of transport. The 2018 'Rota 2030'
regulation includes a mandatory efficiency improvement for
vehicles of 11% by 2022 and tax reductions for electric vehicles.
• 37% REDUCTION IN GHG
EMISSIONS IN 2025, AND
50% REDUCTION IN GHG
EMISSIONS IN 2030
COMPARED TO 2005
• CLIMATE NEUTRALITY
BY 2050
600,000 EV STOCK ACROSS
ALL MODES BY 2030
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: Ministério da Infraestructura
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
Rail, other
Aviation
All other
transport
modes
2020
2.38%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
7.77%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
5.10%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
213 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
2.7%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
8.3% (2020–2050)
25.43 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
33.2 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
[No Data]
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
488.7 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
1.5 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
185 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
92.4% (2050)
87.1% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 20 40 60 80 100
19
21
21
290
314 323
119
129
134
Source: UNSTATS, IBGE
FemaleMale
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
[billion pkm]
[billion tkm]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA]
20
15
10
5
0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 6667
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
193.96 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.02
0.98 0.92
0.86
1.22%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
410,99 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Brazil's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion have increased by 122% between 1990
and 2019, with the transport sector outpacing this development at 136%. Per capita
emissions from transport are, nevertheless, still far below the G20 and world average.
The transport sector is responsible for 42% of total emissions, the largest share within
the G20. This high share is attributable to the extremely large percentage of electricity
generation from renewables (84%). Emissions from the sector are projected to grow 18%
by 2030 and 50% by 2050, compared to the 2020 level. Road transport is responsible for
91% of the emissions within the transport sector, followed by domestic aviation with just
over 3%.
1.93
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
46.4%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-10.2%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
135.8%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+200%
0%
- 200%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
50
100
150
200
250
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 6667
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 23% by 2030 (excluding hydro)
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
117.82
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
97.14
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• New hydrogen policy-making process planned to be
launched soon.
• Studies are ongoing.
• Brazil launched the Guidelines for National H₂ Program
(PNH₂) in August 2021, with a strong focus on R&D and
stakeholder governance.
Battery reuse and recycling• The National Solid Waste Management Policy introduces the responsibility of producers, retailers, importers and distributers of batteries for the safe disposal and delegated it to industry to propose sector agreements specifying how industry should comply to the law.
• Importers and domestic manufacturers of batteries are required to prepare a Batteries Management Plan.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-10050 100 150 200-50 0
Source: IBAMASource: IEA (2021), Green Hydrogen Organisation
0
40
80
120
160
200
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Brazil already has a high share of renewable electricity
generation due to abundant hydropower, and most fossil
fuel-based generation relies on natural gas. Since 2002 the
PROFINA programme encouraged renewable energy
development by providing for 20-year power purchase
agreements (PPAs) with the state-owned utility company
Eletrobrás. Since 2005, concessions have been awarded
using an auction model, providing renewable electricity at
lower cost than the feed-in tariff offered through PROFINA.
The programme is still in place, although there have been no
auctions since 2016. Wind power sales and component
imports are exempt from certain taxes and levies, and
renewable energy technologies receive discounts on
transmission and distribution tariffs.
24.3%
75.7%
152.8
0.8
16.0
-13.3
-69.5
0.1
8.5
75.7
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
0.03%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
450 *
SLOW CHARGE
5 *
FAST CHARGE
0.47%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+8,481.1%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
12,700
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0 3 6 9 12 15
0
0
0
0
0
13 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 68IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Brazil experienced a 3.9% contraction of the economy
in 2020, following three years of low growth. In 2021,
growth resumed at almost triple the growth seen
before the pandemic. Rail ridership dropped 63% in
March 2020 and public transport ridership in
metropolitan areas around 70%. By May 2020, public
transport ridership across the country was estimated
to be 80% below pre-pandemic levels.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to a 37% reduction in GHG emissions
in 2025, and a 50% reduction in GHG emissions in
2030 compared to 2005

National EV deployment targets
600,000 EV stock across all modes by 2030
National ICE phase-out commitments
Ban sales of fossil fuel powered cars by 2060
(proposed in 2017; on hold as of late 2022)
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
• Fuel effiency targets effectively set through the 'Innovar' programme expired end of 2017. The new regulation 'Rota 2030' was published on
6 July 2018 and includes a mandatory efficiency improvement for vehicles of 11% by 2022, corresponding to and efficiency standard of 127.8 g/km.
• Furthermore, there are emission standards for light duty vehicles
(PROCONVE L7 & L8).
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
There are emission standards for heavy duty vehicles (based on Euro VI).
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingBrazilian Vehicle Labeling Program (PBEV) voluntary labelling
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Import tax exemption for EVs. Expansion and extension until 2025 are
under development.
• Obligation for companies benefitting from tax reductions under the Rota2030 scheme to invest in research and development for electric mobility (under development)
Source: See national sources Brazil
~4,167 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
22.5 billion BRL
Source: IMF 2022, World Bank 2020
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
There are no environmental sustainability criteria in
Brazil’s biofuel mandates. Greenhouse gas emission
reduction levels are not considered, nor is indirect
change in land use.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• National Urban Mobility Policy (PNMU)
• Big Cities Mobility: upgrading public transportation systems
• Mobility law (2012)
• Free public transport for seniors (65+ years)
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• National Logistics Plan 2035: Increase annual freight transport on rail from 21.5% to 40%
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• National Urban Mobility Policy (PNMU)
• Mobility law (2012)
Mobility
R$ MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS CANADA
EV
TARGETS
CANADA
69
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
2015201520192019
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: RAILISA STAT UICSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Canada is the second largest country in the world by area. Around
90% of Canadians live within 160 km of the US border. The country
features large forests and extensive areas covered by continuous per-
mafrost. Despite having the world's fourth largest rail system, passen-
gers are mainly transported by road and increasingly by air. Neverthe-
less, railways are important for freight transport, and are intercon-
nected with the US rail system. The Great Lakes are an important
water route, both domestically and for freight transport to the US.
Canada has a national target of reducing transport sector emissions
6.5% below 2018 levels by 2030 and aims for 100% zero emission LDV
vehicle sales by 2030. The country aims to achieve net-zero economy-
wide emissions by 2050. Measures largely focus on improving the
efficiency of vehicles and moving to zero-emission vehicles. However,
there are substantial funds dedicated to investments in public trans-
port infrastructure. Shifting freight away from road does not feature
prominently in Canadian policies.
• 40 – 45% REDUCTION IN
GHG EMISSIONS IN 2030
COMPARED TO 2005
• ECONOMY-WIDE NET-ZERO
TARGET BY 2050
• 20% OF NEW LDVS SALES BY
2026 & 60% OF NEW LDVS
SALES BY 2030
• 35% OF TOTAL MHDV SALES
BEING ZEVS BY 2030
• 5 000 NEW ZEV TRANSIT &
SCHOOL BUSES UNTIL 2026
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ITF / OECD
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
Road, car
Rail, other
Aviation
All other
transport
modes
2020
1.39%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
3.8%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
8.2%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2020)
38 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
0.5%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
21.1% (2020–2050)
4.24 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
40.4 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
1.8 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
673.8 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2019)
449.2 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
31 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
87.3% (2050)
81.6% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0
0
100
100
0 20 40 60 80 100
30 30 30
618 624 624
20 20 20
Source: Transport Canada, Canada Statistics
FemaleMale
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
[billion pkm]
[billion tkm]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA]
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
500
400
300
200
100
0
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
** does not include all transport modes
Source: Transport Canada 2021, ITF / OECD
* does not include all transport modes TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 7071
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
184.53 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
4.57
5.07 4.91
4.20
1.66%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
556,78 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Canada's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion have increased by 36% between
1990 and 2019, with transport sector emissions increasing by 47% over the same period,
dropping by almost 14% in 2020. Transport sector emissions represent 33% of total
emissions, due to the high share of renewable electricity generation. Per capita
transport emissions are among the highest globally, more than four times as high as the
global average. Emissions from the sector are projected to remain largely stable up to
2030 and then decline 9% by 2050, compared to the 2020 level. Canada has an
unusually high share of emissions from pipeline transport, which is the third largest
contributor at over 5%, after road transport and aviation.
14.65
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
31.5%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
1.4%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
47.2%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+100%
0%
- 100%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 7071
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
No mention
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
97.86
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
84.76
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Canada adopted a hydrogen strategy in 2020.
• Vision to supply 30% of energy through hydrogen by 2050
including more than 5 million FCEVs
• Development supported through the CA$1.5 billion Clean
Fuels Fund
• Currently one 20 MW green hydrogen plant in operation
Battery reuse and recycling• There is no regulation in place at the national level that requires the re-use and recycling of batteries, apart from general safety regulation.
• Some provinces have regulation that makes producers accountable,
but these do not apply to EV batteries.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-150-20050 100 150 200-100 -50 0
Source: Canadian Battery AssociationSource: IEA (2021); Oeko Institute (2022)
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Canada already has a high share of renewable electricity
generation due to abundant hydropower and the use of
nuclear energy. Most fossil fuel-based generation relies on
natural gas. In 2020 and 2021, Canada introduced a range of
measures to support renewables at the national level,
including funding for research and incentive schemes, such
as the 'Smart Renewables and Electrification Pathways
Program', the 'Greener Homes Initiative' and the 'Clean
Energy for Rural and Remote Communities Program'.
4.1%
95.9%
194.8
0.8
5.4
-15.2
-158.2
-0.2
36.7
69.1
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
1.2%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
12,000 *
SLOW CHARGE
3,100 *
FAST CHARGE
6.6%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+1,643.2%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
308,637
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
18
8
300[NO DATA] AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 72IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Canada experienced a 5.2% contraction of the
economy in 2020. Growth resumed in 2021 with the
growth rate 150% higher than before the pandemic.
Urban transit and bus trips dropped to 15% of the
pre-pandemic level by May 2020 and despite recovery
remained low at 53% in March 2022. Air transport also
dropped sharply, with passenger load factors as low as
26% in April 2020 and remaining at around 50% at the
end of the year.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
• Committed to a 40 – 45% reduction in
GHG emissions in 2030 compared to 2005
• Regirement of 100% zero emission
vehicle sales by 2035
Transport related NDC measures
• Improvement of vehicle efficiency standards
• Investment in support to zero-emission
vehicles & infrastructure, public transport,
and active transport
Future targets at national level
A reduction of transport sector emissions of 6.5%
below 2018 transport emissions by 2030
National EV deployment targets
• 20% of new LDVs sales by 2026 & 60% of
new LDVs sales by 2030
• 35% of total MHDV sales to be ZEVs by 2030
• 5,000 new ZEVs in transit and school by 2026
• Add 50,000 charging and hydrogen stations to
the charging network
National ICE phase-out commitments
• 100% LDV ZEV sales by 2035
• 100% MHDV ZEVs sales by 2040 (subset)
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
Current (2022):• Passenger cars: 111 g/km
• Light commercial: 158 g/km
Future (2025):• Passenger cars: 99 g/km
• Light commercial: 139 g/km
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
• Heavy-duty Vehicle and Engine GHG Emission Regulations
(from model year 2014)
• An update of the standards was approved in 2018 and will apply
from model year 2021
Pricing instruments • Excise tax on fuel-inefficient vehicles
• The Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change established carbon price benchmarks for provinces starting at CAD 10/t CO₂
in 2018 increasing annually to reach CAD 50/t CO₂ in 2022 with a target of
at least CAD 170/t CO₂e by 2030.
Mandatory vehicle labellingEnerGuide Label for Vehicles
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• iZEV program with purchase subsidies since 2019, scheduled
to run until 2025.
• Purchase incentive program for MDVs and HDVs since 2022
• Tax write-off for business investments in heavy-duty ZEVs
• Zero-emission transit fund for public transit and school buses
• Zero Emission Vehicle Infrastructure Program providing investment subsidies, scheduled to run until 2027
Source: See national sources Canada
~1,083 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
1.5 billion CAD
Source: IMF 2022, Statistics Canada
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
Canada has defined a set of non-mandatory
principles for sustainable biofuels.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Investing in Canada Plan: put forward CA$28.7 billion for public
transit projects across the country that will create more affordable
transportation options.
• Public Transit Infrastructure Fund with CA$3 billion per year from 2026
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
No measures at national level
National-level measures to
support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support
non-motorised transport
No measures at national level
Mobility
C$ MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS CHINA
CHINA
73
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2020
Source: China Statistical Yearbook 2021Source: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
China is the world's most populous country and 4th largest by area.
The majority of the population lives in the eastern half of the country;
transport infrastructure is thus most developed along the eastern
seaboard. While China has the world's largest high-speed rail network,
and second-largest rail network overall, the majority of freight is
transported by road. Furthermore, China has been rapidly motorising;
there were 194 private cars per 1000 inhabitants in 2020, up from just
16 in 2005. This has led to substantial congestion and pollution
problems in urban areas.
In 2021 China announced the 1+N policy system for CO₂ peaking and
carbon neutrality, which aims to achieve CO₂ peaking before 2030 and
carbon neutrality before 2060. A related action plan for transport is
expected to be announced before the end of 2022. The country has
already set and achieved targets for electric vehicles and 'new energy
vehicles'.
• PEAK CO₂ EMISSIONS
BEFORE 2030
• ACHIEVE CARBON
NEUTRALITY BEFORE 2060
• LOWER CO₂ EMISSIONS PER
UNIT OF GDP BY OVER 65%
FROM THE 2005 LEVEL
• NEV SALES SHARE: 20%
BY 2025 AND 40% BY
2030 (ACHIEVED IN 2021)
• 72% SHARE OF NEVS IN
NATIONAL URBAN PUBLIC
TRANSPORT
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: calculations based on
China Statistical Yearbook 2021
Source: China Statistical Yearbook 2021Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Aviation
Waterways
2020
18.80%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2022)
4.90%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
1.08%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2020)
1,411 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
18.2%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
-7.9% (2020–2050)
149.71 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
38.4 years
AVERAGE AGE (2020)
Source: World Development Indicators
3,534.9 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME (2019)
338 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
13,998.8 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME (2019)
866.7 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
80% (2050)
61.4% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
16.4
25.9
45.3
46.7
38.3
2 7. 3
0 10 20 30 40 50
15
20
22
118
180 194
132
116
123
13
13
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
2015
2019
0.2
0.2
0.20.2
22
13
27
36
20
22
20
43
49
3631
25
2433
Source: World Development Indicators, China Statistical Yearbook 2021
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants] TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 7475
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE ¹
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
1,052.80 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.05
0.65 0.75
0.72
29.58%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
9,932.10 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
China is the world's largest emitter, releasing 10 billion tonnes of CO₂ in 2020, 32% of
the global total. Despite the pandemic overall emissions grew by 2% in 2020. Transport
sector emissions grew 944% from 1990 to 2019, due to rapid motorisation and greatly
increased transport activity. Nevertheless, the sector only represents under 11% of total
national CO₂ emissions, the lowest share within the G20. Emissions in the transport
sector are projected to grow another 42% by 2030 and 70% by 2050, compared to
2020 levels. China is the only country with notable electricity-related emissions from
road transport, representing 5% of the sector's emissions. This is due to the massive
surge of electric vehicles in cities, combined with the high carbon intensity of electricity
generation. The country also has the highest shares of emissions from domestic
aviation and navigation within the G20 at 8% and 7.3%, respectively.
7.04
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
10.6%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
8.7%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
944.5%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+1,000%
0%
- 1,000%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2030
2050
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 98%
2%
7475
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA, 2021
Source: IEA
Source: REN21, NDC, IEA Energy Sector Roadmap China
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
3%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 25% share of non-fossil fuels in primary energy
consumption by 2030
• 1,200 GW of wind and solar by 2030
680,000 *
SLOW CHARGE
470,000 *
FAST CHARGE
16.0%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+1,835%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
8.89 million
vehicles *
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US Cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
100.46
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
88.92
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• China has not yet announced a national hydrogen strategy.
• 95% of the hydrogen produced is currently fossil-fuel based.
• Public funding of US$20 billion dedicated to hydrogen projects
• Transport target: 1 million FCEVs by 2035
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
*New sales for 2022 expected to reach 6 million vehicles
Battery reuse and recycling
• Mandatory traceability system with unique code for each battery
• Promotion of cascade use and recycling, with further legislation under
development
• Manufacturers of EVs and related enterprises are responsible for
battery recycling and must establish recycling service outlets.
• Pilot projects are under way for management system that allows
battery tracking across the lifecycle.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Total fossil aviation fuels
Natural gas
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
Production Exports Imports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1000 kt]
0-100100 200 300 400 500 600
Source: Agora VerkehrswendeSource: Hydrogen Council 2021
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
[1,000 vehicles]
Coal is still the dominant fuel source for power generation in
China, representing 64% of total generation (global avg.:
37%). In 2016, China launched a series of 5-year plans for RES,
which set 2020 targets for individual technologies, all of
which were met. Subsidies are provided to power suppliers
through feed-in tariffs. In 2018 the Action Plan for a Smart
Photovoltaic Industry was approved, aiming to strengthen
the PV manufacturing industry.
In 2021, a budget increase for renewable power subsidies was
approved. The China Development Bank has also established a
special loan to support carbon peaking and carbon neutrality.
In addition to projects with guaranteed remuneration at the
national level, local authorities have the right to set on-grid
tariffs and run auctions for renewable projects. In July 2021,
China officially launched its national carbon trading market
which operates with production-based allocation, not a cap.
195
-35
37
-63
-2
-2
542
425
2015
2021
297
141
21
7,800
656
430 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 76IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
China experienced a slowdown in economic growth to
2.2% in 2020, yet the effects of the pandemic on GDP
were less pronounced than in other countries. Overall
economic growth recovered in 2021. Due to suspended
public transport services in some cities during the early
phase of the pandemic, there was an increase in car
travel and cycling, including shared micromobility. By
early 2021, public transport ridership was still estimated
to be 50% below 2019 levels. Freight activity in 2020 is
estimated to have dropped by 25% compared to fore-
cast volumes. China is the only G20 member where
transport sector emissions increased in 2020, by 2%.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
• Aims to have CO₂ emissions peak before 2030 and
achieve carbon neutrality before 2060
• Committed to reducing CO₂ emissions per unit of
GDP by over 65% from the 2005 level

Transport related NDC targets
• Amongst new vehicle sales, achieve a 40% share
for new energy and clean energy-powered
vehicles by 2030
• By 2030, reduce the carbon emissions intensity of
new commercial vehicles by 9.5% and of railways
by 10% (from 2020 levels)
• Peak oil consumption in land transport by 2030
Transport related NDC measures
A wide range of measures are foreseen across
all modes, including:
• Upgrade of energy efficiency standards and
improved labeling
• Investment in large-capacity public transport
infrastructure
• Investment in infrastructure for walking and
cycling
• Support for clean energy road vehicles and
the electrification of railways
• Measures to optimise freight and enhance the
share of rail and water
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
Current phase IV fuel efficiency standard: 5l/100km
• Passenger cars: 117 g/km • Light commercial: 166 g/km
• Varying fuel efficiency standards for 2- and 3-wheelers
Fuel efficiency targets for passenger cars for:
• 2025: 4l/100km • 2030: 3. 2l/100km
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
Phase 4 fuel efficiency standards tighten fuel consumption standards by ~15% compared to stage 3 (takes effect January 1, 2025 for new type-approvals) and July 1 2026 for all new heavy duty vehicles.
Pricing instruments The national ETS was launched in 2021. The scope is expected to be gradually
expanded to include domestic aviation. There is no timeline yet for this expansion.
Some of the provincial pilot ETS systems already cover domestic aviation; the Shanghai pilot system also covers shipping.
Discount on 50% for the annual vehicle and vessel tax for fuel efficient vehicles smaller than 1.6 L.
Mandatory vehicle labellingFuel economy labeling for vehicles under 3500 kg
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• New Energy Vehicle dual credit system: EV credit of 14 – 18% in 2021 – 23 for LDVs (under discussion for HDVs)
• NEV purchase subsidies extended to 2022, but with gradual reductions
•
Acquisition tax and excise tax exemption, circulation and ownership tax exemption
• Further mechanism addressing vehicle supply equipment, charger installation, battery swapping and public charging infrastructure
Source: Chinese national sources
~23.3 BILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
166 billion CNY
Source: IMF 2022; ITF 2021
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
Subsidies for grain-based conventional ethanol were
eliminated in 2016. The advanced cellulosic ethanol
production subsidy has not changed since 2018.
International investors are forbidden from investing
in grain-based ethanol production.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
14
th
five-year plan includes a further increase in the urban rail, intercity rail and
high-speed rail networks and for the first time does not include a target for the expansion of highways.
Busses and trolleycars are exempt from the 10% vehicle purchase tax.
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
The 2019 Outline for Building China’s Strength in Transport establishes a strategic framework for a green and efficient logistics system.
The 14
th
five-year plan for the transport system, approved in January 2022, sets the
objective of improving waterway transport facilities and building comprehensively integrated transport hubs.
National-level measures to support new mobility services
A range of guidelines regulate ride hailing, carsharing, and associated data collection. This includes minimum requirements and standards with the aim of
promoting new energy vehicles and regulating parking and payments.
National measures to support non-motorised transport
A number of guidelines have been adopted to promote safety, control parking,
and ensure safe and convenient payment methods.
Mobility MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS EUROPEAN UNION
EV
TARGETS
EUROPEAN UNION
77
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: European UnionSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
After Brexit, the EU comprises 27 member states on the European
continent, each of which have divergent transport systems and
challenges. Air transport has been growing in importance for
passenger travel, particularly since the rise of budget airlines.
Nevertheless, road transport remains the most important mode for
passenger and freight transport.
The EU does not have specific emission targets for the transport
sector, but does have a 14% renewables target for transport by 2030.
Additional targets for high-speed rail use, water transport and rail, as
well as electric vehicles and charging infrastructure exist for 2030.
The economy-wide long-term goal is to achieve net-zero emissions by
2050. Many measures related to the efficiency of vehicles are
governed by EU legislation, including CO₂ emission standards for
passenger cars, light- and heavy duty vehicles, as well as mandatory
labeling requirements.
• AT LEAST 55% REDUCTION
IN GHG EMISSIONS IN
2030 COMPARED TO 1990
• ECONOMY-WIDE NET-ZERO
TARGET BY 2050
• 100% EV SHARE IN NEW
SALES OF PASSENGER CARS
AND VANS MANDATORY
FROM 2035
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ACEA
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
14.86%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
[No Data]
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
3.63%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
448 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
5.8%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
-5.0% (2020–2050)
111.69 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
44.1 years
AVERAGE AGE (2021)
5,951.3 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
641 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
3,289.1 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
335.43 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
84.4% (2050)
75.0% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
020 3050104060
73
80
81
513
555 560
73
79
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
2
2
5
5
74
73
13
12
5
4
53
54
29
30
9
2
2
8
10
8
Source: European Union, Eurostat
FemaleMale
EU%
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019
2-/3-wheeler
0.30.4
3.9
51.9
44.2
5.7
50.3
44.0
** does not include all transport modes
Source: European Union
* does not include all transport modes TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 7879
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
828.81 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.83
1.781.85
1.60
7.91%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
2,655.88 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion in the European Union have decreased by
24% between 1990 and 2019. Transport sector emissions during the same period have
increased by 22% reaching a share of 31% of total emissions. Emissions in the sector
are projected to remain more or less stable up to 2050 under business-as-usual. Road
transport is responsible for 94% of transport sector emissions, with rail generating only
2% of emissions, most of this from electricity use.
5.93
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
31%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-6.0%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
22.4%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+100%
0%
- 100%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 7879
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 32% gross final energy consumption by 2030
• 60 GW offshore wind by 2030
• 300 GW offshore wind by 2050
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
135.30
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
121.23
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
Source: European Commission
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• The EU adopted a hydrogen strategy in 2020.
• Target is to install at least 6GW of renewable electrolysers
in the EU by 2024 and 40GW by by 2030.
• The project pipeline under the European Clean Hydrogen
Alliance includes 750 projects, including 240 on mobility.
Battery reuse and recycling• The new EU Battery Regulation contains requirements to reduce and monitor the carbon footprint of EV batteries.
• The agreement sets binding minimum levels for the recycled content of cobalt, lead, lithium and nickel, supply chain due diligence requirements and material recovery targets.
• From a circular economy perspective, it also contains recycling efficiency targets for cobalt, copper, lead, lithium and nickel as well as requirements for minmum recycled contents for these raw materials.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-300100 200 300 400 500-200 -100 0
Source: European ParliamentSource: European Commission
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
The EU has set renewable energy targets and requires
member states to define action plans for meeting their
obligations. It does not have any EU-wide support
mechanisms, but has issued guidance for the design of
support schemes.
7%
93%
19.1
-1.5
213.8
-219.3
-2.9
-7.4
4 47. 3
382.8
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
1.5%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
[No Data]
SLOW CHARGE
[No Data]
FAST CHARGE
18%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+1,320.8%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
4,040,059
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer, ACEA, EEA
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
05001000150020002500300035004000
250
127
34
7
1
3,906 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 80IMPLEMENTATION
Across the European Union, public transport ridership
fell drastically by up to 90% and international rail
passenger volumes dropped by almost 100% in the
first pandemic wave in 2020. While car driving
returned to 93% and active transport to 90% of
pre-pandemic levels by October 2021, public transport
usage is still at 77%. Overall, rail passenger-km
decreased by 46% in the first half of 2020, compared
to 2019, but have further decreased between October
2020 and January 2021, reaching a decrease of 68%
below pre-pandemic levels. Levels remained at 24%
below 2019 by March 2022.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to at least 55% reduction in GHG
emissions in 2030 compared to 1990

Transport-related measures
Inclusion of aviation in the EU ETS; process for the
inclusion of shipping also far advanced
Future targets at national level
Renewable Energy Directive recast:
• < 14% of final transport energy consumption by 2030
• New proposal to reduce greenhouse gas intensity
of transport fuels by 13%–16% by 2030 across all
modes

Sustainable & Smart Mobility Strategy:
• High-speed rail traffic to double by 2030,
rail freight to double by 2050
• +25% water transport by 2030
• 90% emission decline by 2050 compared with 1990
National EV deployment targets
• See National ICE phase-out commitments
• 1 million public charging stations by 2025
and 3 million by 2030

National ICE phase-out commitments
100% EV share in passenger cars and vans from
2035
Energy
Energy/carbon emission standards for passenger cars and light duty vehicles (LDV)
Targets for average CO₂ emissions from new passenger cars and LDVs:• In 2025, 15% lower than in 2021 for passenger cars and LDVs
• In 2030, 55% lower than in 2021 for passenger cars and 50% lower for LDVs
• In 2035, 100% lower than in 2021 for passenger cars and LDVs
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
Targets for average CO₂ emissions from new heavy duty vehicles:• In 2025, 15% lower than in 2019
• In 2030, at least 30% lower than in 2019
Pricing instruments • Inclusion of domestic aviation in EU-ETS, inclusion of maritime proposed for 2024
• Participation in CORSIA first phase
Mandatory vehicle labellingCar Labelling Directive 1999/94/EC
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Standards for interoperability of charging infrastructure
• Super-credits for zero- and low-emission vehicles within the CO₂ emission standard
• The European Directive on the energy performance of buildings, mandates charging infrastructure for buildings with >10 parking spaces. A proposed
revision would add additional requirements
• Direct investment in charging infrastructure
• The latest EU battery regulation promotes sustainable batteries over the
entire life cycle
Source: See national sources EU
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
[No Data]
Source: EU Parliament, CER
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
The EU Renewable Energy Directive II from 2021 caps
the use of 'high-risk indirect land use change (ILUC) bio-
fuels' at 2019 levels until 2023 and requires a phase out
of these until 2030. The REDII also sets a GHG emission
savings threshold for biofuels to count towards the
target of 65% for transport biofuels from 2021.
The EU does not provide direct subsidies for fossil
transport fuels. Subsidies in the sector are defined
at the members state level.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Directive on Passenger Coach Services, to stimulate the development of bus connections over long distances across Europe
• European Local Energy Assistance (ELENA) providing grants also for public transport improvements
• EU 2021 Rail Corridor Initiative – Action Plan to boost passenger rail transport (planned).
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Combined Transport Directive
• Connecting Europe Facility (CEF) for Transport
• EU 2021 Rail Corridor Initiative – Revision of the Rail Freight Corridor Regulation (planned)
National-level measures to support new mobility services
• European Strategy on Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (revision planned)
• Legal framework on the approval of automated vehicles (to be completed)
• Assessment of regulatory action for multimodal digital service providers planned
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• Pan-European Master Plan for Cycling Promotion
• Support for the development of cycle infrastructure in eligible regions under the European Structural and Investment Funds
Mobility MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS FRANCE
EV
TARGETS
FRANCE
81
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: ITF / OECDSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
With 67 million inhabitants, France is the second most populated
country in Europe. Nearly 20% of the population is clustered in the
Paris region. The transport system is similarly centralised, with many
roads and railway lines leading to and from the French capital. Road
transport is by far the leading mode of transport for passengers and
freight, despite the country's extensive rail and waterway systems.
France aims to reduce emissions from land transport to zero by 2050.
This is to be supported by a ban on sales of fossil-fuel vehicles from
2040 onward. France has implemented a wide range of measures to
promote low-carbon transport and energy sectors.
• ACHIEVE AT LEAST A 55%
REDUCTION IN GHG EMIS-
SIONS IN 2030 RELATIVE
TO 1990
• ACHIEVE ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET BY 2050
• 1.8 MILLION PASSENGER
PHEVS, 3 MILLION PASSENGER
BEVS AND FCEVS, AND
500,000 LIGHT COMMERCIAL
BEVS AND FCEVS BY 2028
• PRODUCTION OF 2 MILLION
EVS BY 2030
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ITF / OECD
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
2.27%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
9.49%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
4.81%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
67 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
0.9%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
2.1% (2020–2050)
123.08 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
41.8 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
1,169.5 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
692.4 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
214.6 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
54.6 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
88.3% (2050)
81% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
94
97 93
541 556 554
46
46 46
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
2
1
2
1
5
5
4
4
70
68
55
14
17
18
16
76
79
3
4
7.1
55.3
3 7.6
9.7
59.1
31.2
Source: UNSTATS, European Union, Eurostat
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019
2-/3-wheeler
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
** does not include all transport modes
Source: ITF / OECD, Eurostat
* does not include all transport modes TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 8283
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
126.06 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.87
1.93 1.87
1.59
0.87%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
293.74 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion in France decreased by 15% between 1990 and
2019 and per capita emissions are just below the world average. Over the same period,
transport-sector emissions increased by 10%, but dropped by 15% in 2020. Under a
business-as-usual scenario, sector emissions are projected to remain relatively stable
through 2050. As the French energy sector relies heavily on nuclear power, energy-
sector CO₂ emissions are relatively low. Accordingly, the transport sector in 2019 was
responsible for 43% of the country's emissions.
4.36
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
42.9%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-3.5%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
10.3%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+100%
0%
- 100%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 8283
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 33–36% renewables in the electricity mix by 2028;
40% by 2030
• 101 to 113 GW by 2028
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
155.51
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
139.73
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• France adopted a hydrogen strategy in 2018. In 2022, its
2030 investment plan earmarked 1.9 billion euros
for hydrogen.
• France aims to construct 100 stations supplied with locally
produced hydrogen by 2023 and between 400 and
1000 stations by 2028.
• The country envisions 20,000–50,000 light commercial
hydrogen vehicles and 800–2000 heavy hydrogen vehicles
on the road by 2028.
Battery reuse and recyclingBattery use and recycling in France are governed by the EU Battery
regulation.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
1600000
1800000
-10000-50000500010000150002000025000300003500040000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-105 10 15 20 25 30 35 40-5 0
Source: BR4, IEA (2022)
0
20
40
60
80
100
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Power generation in France is predominantly from nuclear,
followed by renewables. Various policies promote RES
development in France, with the most important being
renewable power tenders, a feed-in tariff and a market
premium. France pledged to ban coal-fired power
generation.
7.4%
92.6%
0.6
0
35.5
-8.9
-0.1
-0.2
33.1
29.5
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
2.20%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
50,000 *
SLOW CHARGE
4,500 *
FAST CHARGE
19%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+940.5%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
793,070
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0100200300400500600700800
54
72
22
0
0
720 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 84IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
France experienced an 8% contraction of its economy
in 2020. Growth resumed in 2021 at almost triple the
rate seen before the pandemic. Passenger-km
dropped by 41% in 2020 relative to 2019, while
occupancy decreased only by 26%, one of the lowest
values in the EU. Rail freight dropped by 7% between
2019 and 2020. Overall, transport emissions decreased
by 15% in 2020, a substantial drop compared with the
1% decrease in 2019.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to at least a 55% reduction in GHG
emissions in 2030 relative to 1990 levels
Transport related NDC targets
• Inclusion of aviation in the EU ETS
• CO₂ emission targets for road transport
Future targets at national level
• Triple share of bicycles in transport by 2024
• Carbon-free land transport by 2050
National EV deployment targets
• 500,000 passenger PHEVs, 660,000 passenger
BEVs and FCEVs, and 170,000 light commercial
BEVs and FCEVs by 2023
• 100,000 public EV charging points by
31 December 2023
• 1.8 million passenger PHEVs, 3 million passenger
BEVs and FCEVs, and 500,000 light commercial
BEVs and FCEVs by 2028
• Production target: 2 million EVs by 2030
National ICE phase-out commitments
Prohibits the sale or registration of fossil-fuel
vehicles by 2040
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehi-
cles (LDV)
Current EU CO₂ efficiency standards:• Passenger cars: 95 g/km (2021) • Light commercial: 147 g/km (2020)
Future standards (2030):
• Passenger cars: 59 g/km • Light commercial: 101 g/km
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
Targets for average CO₂ emissions from new heavy-duty vehicles:• In 2025, 15% lower than in 2019 • In 2030, at least 30% lower than in 2019
Pricing instruments • Bonus-malus system based on CO₂ and weight
• CO₂-based component in the tax on business vehicles (annual)
• Carbon tax on fossil fuels not covered by the EU-ETS at EUR 44.6/t CO₂ in 2021
• Inclusion of domestic aviation in EU-ETS, inclusion of maritime proposed for 2023
• Participation in the first phase of CORSIA
Mandatory vehicle labelling• National implementation of the EU Car Labelling Directive 1999/94/EC
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• France 2030 investment plan: EUR 2.5 billion support for the production of
2 million EVs and 300 million for charging infrastructure
• Conversion premium for scrapping of high-emission ICEs in combination with EV purchase
• Mandatory requirement for charging infrastructure in certain car parks
Source: French national sources
~6,290 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
6.4 billion EUR
Source: IMF 2022. EU Parliament
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
The EU's 2021 Renewable Energy Directive II (REDII)
caps the use of 'high-risk indirect land use change
(ILUC) biofuels' at 2019 levels until 2023 and requires a
phase-out of these by 2030. REDII also sets a GHG
emission savings threshold for biofuels to count
towards the target of 65% for transport biofuels
starting in 2021.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Development of High Speed Railway Lines
• Expansion of exclusive-lane public transport systems
• 40% increase in transport investments in public and shared transport
• Obligation to investigate the feasibility of low-emission zones
• Half of the cost of the public-transit pass borne by employers
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• VitalNodes Initiative for efficient, sustainable freight delivery across
the TEN-T urban nodes
• GHG information scheme obligation for freight
transport service providers
• Financial support scheme for combined transport service operators
National-level measures to support new mobility services
• Promotion of car sharing, on-demand services, and the provision of
car-sharing vehicles
• Provision of improved multimodal information
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• Bicycle Plan, with fund to support local projects
• Bicycle milage allowance scheme (voluntary)
• Tax reductions for companies providing employees bicycles
• Obligation to create secure bicycle parking
Mobility
€ MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS GERMANY
EV
TARGETS
GERMANY
85
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: ITF / OECDSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Germany is the most populous country in Europe. The country lies on
the Baltic and North Seas, and has a well-established network of
navigable waterways. Despite its comparatively small size, the
country has the seventh-largest railway network and the twentieth-
largest waterway system in the world. Nevertheless, road transport
is by far the most important mode for passengers and freight. High
levels of local congestion and air pollution are an issue, particularly in
urban centres.
Germany has set an absolute target for domestic transport-sector
emissions in 2030 of 85 Mt CO₂ and aims to be carbon neutral by
2045. While Germany has failed to achieve its target of putting one
million electric cars on the road by 2020, it has set new targets for
2030 and aims to increase its share of rail freight. The country has
also implemented a number of measures to enhance energy
efficiency and reduce the carbon content of fuels.
• AT LEAST 55% REDUC-
TION IN GHG EMISSIONS
IN 2030 COMPARED
TO 1990
• ECONOMY-WIDE NET-
ZERO TARGET BY 2045
• 15 MILLION ELECTRIC PASSEN-
GER CARS BY 2030
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ITF / OECD
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
3.4%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
4.3%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
5.2%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
83 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
1.1%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
-5.3% (2020–2050)
238.25 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
44.9 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
1,108.5 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
688.2 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
499.7 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
64.4 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
84.3% (2050)
77.5% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
52
59 61
544 567 573
51
53 54
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
1.61 11.4
3
4
5
5
84
83
7
7
24
26
64
62
10
11
2.6
60
3 7.4
3.3
61
35.7
Source: World Development Indicators, Ministry of Transport
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019
2-/3-wheeler
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
** does not include all transport modes
Source: Ministry of Transport
* does not include all transport modes TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 8687
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
164.79 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.84
2.0 1.98
1.76
1.92%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
645.40 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Germany’s total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion decreased by 33% between 1990
and 2019. Emissions in the transport sector increased through 1999, decreased until
2009, and have been slowly growing since then. Today, they are only 2% below 1990
levels. In 2020, emissions from transport dropped by 11%. Given current trends, transport
sector emissions are projected to decrease by 8% by 2030 and 20% by 2050, relative
to 2020 levels. Road vehicles are responsible for 95% of the emissions released in
Germany's transport sector. The next highest emitter is rail, representing just over
3% of emissions, most of which is from electricity use.
7.75
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
25.3%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-11.6%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
-2.1%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+50%
0%
- 50%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
50
100
150
200
250
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 8687
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21, BMWK
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 2030: 65%
• 2050: 100%
• 98 GW PV by 2030
• 67–71 GW wind by 2030
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
152.13
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
129.59
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Germany adopted a hydrogen strategy in 2020 that
includes 9 billion euros of funding.
• Germany has targeted for 5 GW of green generation
capacity by 2030 (plus related onshore and offshore power
generation) and an additional 5 GW by 2035 or 2040.
Battery reuse and recyclingBattery use and recycling in Germany are governed by the EU Battery
regulation.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
-200000 20000400006000080000100000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-2020 40 60 80 1000
Source: Government of Germany)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Coal is still the largest fuel source for power generation in
Germany, but the share declined from almost 50% in 2013 to
around 25% in 2020. Germany has a renewable energy law
(EEG) that regulates access for renewables and provides
incentives. The law used to set fixed feed-in tariffs for indi
vidual technologies over a 20-year period. In 2017 an auction
system was rolled out for solar, wind, and biomass. Small-scale
rooftop PV installations still receive a fixed feed-in tariff. The
2021 revision of the law enhanced incentives for renewables
in rented properties and for autoconsumption installations.
7. 2 %
92.8%
1.9
-0.4
24.8
-16.9
0
0.2
82.9
72.9
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
2.80%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
42,000 *
SLOW CHARGE
9,200 *
FAST CHARGE
26%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+2,405%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
1,322,760
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0 300 600 900 1200 1500
49
4
1
0
0
1,322 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 88IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Germany experienced a 4.6% contraction of its econ-
omy in 2020 but growth resumed in 2021. The number
of passengers using public transport by railways,
trams, and buses decreased by 30% in 2020 relative to
pre-pandemic levels and another 4% in 2021. Long
distance bus transport was most heavily affected and
decreased by 34% in 2020 and 53% in 2021 relative to
2019. Air transport has slightly increased in 2021, but
was still 67.6% below pre- pandemic levels. Freight
activity declined by 3.7% in 2020. Overall, transport
emissions declined by 10% in 2020.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to at least a 55% reduction in GHG
emissions in 2030 relative to 1990 levels

Transport related NDC targets
• See the EU's: CO₂ emission targets
for road transport
• 15 million BEVS by 2030
Transport related NDC measures
Inclusion of aviation in the EU ETS; process for the
inclusion of shipping also far advanced
Future targets at national level
• The climate law sets an absolute target of
85 Mt CO₂ for 2030
• Increase of rail freight in total freight to 25% by 2030
• GHG quota (national implementation of EU
Renewable Energy Directive) requiring a 25%
reduction in transport until 2030
National EV deployment targets
• 15 million fully electric passenger cars on the road
by 2030 (internal goal of government coalition)
• 50% share of electric urban buses by 2030
• 50,000 EV charging stations (20,000 of which
are fast charging) by 2025
• 1 million EV charging stations by 2030
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
Current EU CO₂ efficiency standards:• Passenger cars: 95 g/km (2021)
• Light commercial: 147 g/km (2020)
Future standards (2030):• Passenger cars: 59 g/km
• Light commercial: 101 g/km
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
Targets for average CO₂ emissions from new heavy-duty vehicles:• In 2025, 15% lower than in 2019
• In 2030, at least 30% lower than in 2019
Pricing instruments • CO₂ pricing system for transport fossil fuels (Fuel Trade Emission Act)
• Circulation tax partly based on CO₂
• VAT discount for public transport
• Inclusion of domestic aviation in the EU ETS; inclusion of maritime
proposed for 2023
• Participation in the first-phase of CORSIA
Mandatory vehicle labelling• National implementation of the EU Car Labelling Directive 1999/94/EC
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Purchase incentive for EVs were reduced by 1,500–2,000 EUR in 2023
(from previsouly 9,000 EUR).
• Differentiated plates for EVs, allowing for perks such as preferential parking
• Investment subsidy programmes for charging infrastructure
• Direct investment in 1,000 public fast-charging points
• Income tax rebates for electric company cars
• Tax exemption for charging at the workplace
Source: German national sources
~902 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
0.9 billion EUR
Source: IMF 2022, Destatis
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
The EU's 2021 Renewable Energy Directive II (REDII)
caps the use of 'high-risk indirect land use change
(ILUC) biofuels' at 2019 levels until 2023 and requires
a phase-out of these by 2030. REDII also sets a GHG
emission savings threshold for biofuels to count
towards the target of 65% for transport biofuels
starting in 2021.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Enhanced efficiency of rail infrastructure based on a unified rail timetable
• VAT reduction for public transport
• Funding program for pilot projects to strengthen public transport
• Tax exemption for public transport subsidies provided by employers
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Subsidies for the reactivation of old rail tracks and company rail sidings
• Funding for the improvement of inland waterways
• Funding for combined transport infrastructure
National-level measures to support new mobility services
• Legal framework for new mobility services
• Law on automated driving
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• Revised National Cycling Plan 2022
• Support for local cycle paths and parking
• Tax exemption for bicycles provided by employers
Mobility
€ MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS INDIA
INDIA
89
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
2015201520182017
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2020
Source: ITF / OECDSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
With 1.38 bn inhabitants in 2020, India is the second-most populated
country in the world. The country's road network is the second largest
in the world after the US and it has the fourth-largest rail network
globally. The total number of road vehicles grew at an average of 10%
per year between 2005 and 2012 and continues to grow strongly,
which, together with increasing urbanisation, has led to high levels of
traffic congestion and air pollution.
Despite the goal to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 and an
increase in the economy-wide target in its updated NDC, India still has
no overall emissions or energy targets for the transport sector. India
has measures in place to support public transport and low-carbon
freight, as well as policies to enhance the energy and carbon
efficiency of vehicles, including a fuel efficiency standard for heavy-
duty vehicles in place since April 2018.
• REDUCE GDP EMISSIONS
INTENSITY BY 45% IN 2030
RELATIVE TO 2005 LEVELS
• ACHIEVE ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET BY 2070
• 30% SHARE OF ELECTRIC
LDVS IN VEHICLE SALES BY
2030
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ATO
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
** does not include all transport modes
Source: ATO
* does not include all transport modes
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
All other
transport
modes
2020
6.77%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
6.30%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
5.45%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
1.38 billion people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
17.8%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
19.6% (2020–2050)
464.15 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
27.9 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
23,759.9 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2018)
205.1 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2019)
3,062.8 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2017)
493.2 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
52.8% (2050)
34.9% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0
5 7.9
42.1
33.7
66.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
7
9
26 32
118
150
Source: IMF, UNSTATS, ILO
FemaleMale
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
[trillion pkm]
[trillion tkm][NO DATA]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] 25
20
15
10
5
0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0 TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 9091
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
325.38 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
0.35
0.21 0.24
0.21
6.78%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
2,277.63 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
India's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion grew by 330% between 1990 and
2019. Transport-sector emissions grew 375% over the same period and represent an
uncharacteristically low share – 14%. Among other reasons, the low share is due to the
high carbon intensity of India's power generation. With 1.6 t CO₂ for total emissions and
0.2 t CO₂ for the transport sector, India's per capita emissions are the lowest in the G20.
Nevertheless, transport-sector emissions could increase 65% by 2030 and 197% by
2050, relative to 2020 levels. Road transport is the main contributor to sector
emissions, followed by rail transport. The nearly 7% of sector emissions from rail
is one of the highest shares in the G20.
1.65
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
14.2%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
11.9%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
374.5%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+1,000%
0%
- 1,000%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 9091
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA, 2021
Source: IEA
Source: REN21, NDC
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
0.06%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 50% share of renewables by 2030
910 *
SLOW CHARGE
32 *
FAST CHARGE
0.38%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+424.8%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
23,091
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
100.24
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
91.84
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• India launched a National Hydrogen Mission in August 2021.
• Its target is to have 30 GW of electrolysis capacity by 2030
with related renewable power generation capacity,
producing 5 million tonnes of green hydrogen per year.
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
Battery reuse and recycling
• In 2020, draft regulations were published under the title 'Battery Waste
Management Rules'. They aim to ensure accountability and include
targets for more producer responsibility.
• A proposed 'Battery Swapping Policy' would lay the groundwork for
unique battery codes, but only for the advanced chemistry batteries
falling under the policy. It would also mandate the development of
a re-use and recycling ecosystem.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
0-5020050 100 150
Source: UN PAGE, Niti Aayog
* incomplete data. Under FAME II
about 200,000 electric 2&3
wheelers supported.
Source: Ministry of New & Renewable Energy India,
Ministry of Power India
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
[1,000 vehicles]
Coal is still the dominant fuel source for power generation in
India, accounting for around 75% of total generation. A wide
range of mechanisms support renewable energy in India.
Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) for distributors
mandate minimum quantities of renewables.
Since 2010, reverse auctions have been used to procure solar
PV and solar thermal capacity; since 2017, these auctions
have also been used for wind energy. Additional programmes
support rooftop solar solutions and solar agricultural pumps
through grant schemes. The solar cities programme aims to
convert one city per state to run completely on solar power.
34.7
-0.2
24.9
- 47.4
-7. 5
0
196.5
163.4
2015
2021
4
23[NO DATA] [NO DATA]
1.9%
98.1% AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 92IMPLEMENTATION
Energy
Source: OECD
India experienced a 6.6% contraction of its economy in
2020. Growth resumed in 2021 at a rate 140% higher
than seen before the pandemic. During lockdowns all
public transport came to a halt and after lockdowns
were lifted public transport ridership fell by as high as
90%. The effects of lockdowns have also severely
affected the constuction of public transport
infrastructure, delaying many projects. However,
emissions declined only by 9% in 2020, whereas they
increased by 3% in 2019.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
• Committed to reducing the emissions intensity of
GDP by 45% in 2030 relative to 2005 levels
• Economy-wide net-zero target by 2070

Transport related NDC targets
• Increase the share of railways from 36% to 45%
• Signed COP26 ZEV declaration for new car and van
• sales by 2040 (this also includes 2/3 wheelers)
Transport related NDC measures
• Promotion of hybrid and electric vehicles
• National policy on biofuels
• Passenger car fuel-efficiency standards
• Promote coastal and inland waterway shipping
• Construction of metro lines, urban transport,
and Mass rapid transport projects
Future targets at national level
• 45% mode share for rail freight until 2030
• Double the share of freight transported by coastal
shipping and inland waterways
• 7,987 km of high-speed rail (in stages up to 2051)
National EV deployment targets
• 30% share of EVs in passenger LDV sales
by 2030
• 2,877 charging points in 25 states and 1,576
charging points across 9 expressways and
16 highways
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Expansion of mass-transit and urban transport projects (incl. metro) under the
National Urban Renewal Mission
• Upgrade of rail track quality to enhance speed and capacity
• Improved attractiveness through cleaner trains
• First high-speed rail line under construction; others planned for the long term
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Upgrade of rail track quality to enhance speed and capacity
• Establishment of the Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited (DFCCIL) to establish dedicated rail freight corridors
• Licensing relaxation for coastal shipping trade (Cabotage)
• Discounts on port charges to vessels carrying costal cargo
• Port improvement projects
• Logistics Efficiency Enhancement Programme (LEEP)
• Programme to develop multi-modal logistics parks
• Restrictions for road use and access to urban areas for trucks
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
National Bicycle Sharing Scheme incl. various guidelines and toolkits
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
CO₂ efficiency standards for 2022:
• Passenger cars: 113 g/km
• Light commercial vehicles since 2019
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
• Fuel efficiency standards for HDV > 12t since 1 April 2018
• Starting in 2021, on average 10.4% increase in efficiency required
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption-based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingBEE Fuel Savings Guide label
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• FAME programme (includes several components, such as demand incentives and pilot projects); phase 2 was extended to 31 March 2024 with increased subsidy rates
• Reduced VAT rate for EVs (5% instead of 28%)
• Demand aggregation through a state-owned service company, aiming to procure 300,000 electric three-wheelers and at least 5,500 electric buses
• Subsidies for charging infrastructure through the FAME programme
• Guidelines for charging infrastructure
• Policy on battery swapping currently under consultation
• Exemption from permits for carrying passengers or goods via electric vehicles
Source: Indian national sources
~7,039 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
586.597 billion INR
Source: IMF 2022, UITP 2020
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
Biofuels are to be derived only from non-feed stock
that is grown on degraded soils or wastelands not
otherwise suited for agriculture, so as to avoid a
possible conflict between fuel and food security.
No biofuels may be produced from sugarcane or
sugarcane juice.
Mobility MOBILITY
URBANISATION
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS NDC
INDONESIA
EV
TARGETS
INDONESIA
93
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
2015201520192019
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Indonesia, an archipelago with more than 17,000 islands, relies heavily
on inter-island transport links. While the larger islands of Java, Suma-
tra, and Sulawesi have extensive road-dominated transport systems,
many of the smaller, less developed islands rely on incomplete, frag-
mented, and poorly maintained road networks for internal travel and
underdeveloped infrastructure for inter-island shipping. Java and
Sumatra both have rail networks, but they offer limited freight trans-
port. The air sector is evolving rapidly, driven by discount airlines.
Indonesia does not have CO₂ targets for the transport sector, but
some targets for mode share, rail infrastructure, and biofuel share
exist. Additionally, Indonesia aims to develop an electric automotive
industry and has set EV production and EV stock targets for 2030. In
October 2021, a carbon tax was approved, but implementation has
been postponed twice so far. Measures implemented to date concen-
trate on the expansion of rail infrastructure and some incentives for
electric vehicles and biofuels.
• UNCONDITIONAL EMISSION
REDUCTION TARGET: 31.89%
• 29% UNCONDITIONAL, 41%
CONDITIONAL REDUCTION IN
GHG EMISSIONS IN 2030
COMPARED WITH BAU
•
NET-ZERO BY 2060 OR SOONER
• 600,000 CARS
• 2.45 MILLION TWO/THREE
WHEELER EVs BY 2030
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ATO
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
Rail, other
Aviation
All other
transport
modes
2020
2.49%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
3.67%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
4.21%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
274 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
3.5%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
16.7% (2020–2050)
145.68 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
29.6 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
29.2 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
485 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
0.98 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
155 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
72.8% (2050)
56.6% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0,0000,0020,0040,0060,0080,010
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 8070
23
26
17
48
64 55
389
429
394
Source: World Development Indicators, Statistics Indonesia
FemaleMale
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
[billion tkm]
[billion pkm]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
0
200
400
600
800
1000[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD, AJTP
** does not include all transport modes
Source: World Development Indicators, ATO, ITF / OECD
* does not include all transport modes TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 9495
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
149.67 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
0.63
0.51 0.55
0.46
1.7%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
571.11 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Indonesia's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion grew by 336% between 1990 and
2019. Transport-sector emissions grew 365% over the same period, but dropped by over
15% in 2020. Per capita emissions, both total and in the transport sector, are among the
lowest within the G20. Given current trends, transport sector emissions are projected
to decrease by 22% by 2030 and 71% by 2050, relative to 2020 levels. Due to the
geography of Indonesia, rail plays a very limited role. Road transport dominates sector
emissions, although navigation and air transport do play an important role in connecting
the country's islands.
2.09
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
26.2%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
24.5%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
364.8%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+500%
0%
- 500%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
20
40
60
80
140
120
100
180
160
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 9495
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 2025: 23%
• 2030: 48%
• 12.6 GW geothermal by 2025
• 2 GW hydro by 2025
• 100 MW wind by 2025
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• A hydrogen roadmap by the Ministry of Energy is in pre-
paration.
• It targets green hydrogen as an alternative energy for
the transportation, industrial, and household sectors
in the future.
Battery reuse and recycling
• Indonesia's Battery Industrial Strategy, adopted in 2019, envisages a
local production of 140 GWh of batteries by 2030, and specifies that
batteries must be recycled by licensed companies.
• The strategy also enables the national government and regional
administrations to provide fiscal and non-fiscal incentives for battery
recycling.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
-50000500010000150002000025000300003500040000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-51510520 25 30 35 400
Source: AHK IDN
Source: Green Hydrogen Organisation
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
117
116
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Coal is the dominant fuel source for power generation in
Indonesia, accounting for over 60% of total generation, and
the share is increasing. Indonesia is using a feed-in tariﬀ
regime to support renewable energy. The regulation covers all
renewable energy types and sets a price based on
negotiations between independent power producers and the
national electricity company PLN. Although PPAs were signed,
installations remain limited. A draft bill aimed at promoting
renewables is currently under discussion. In addition to
incentives for hydro, wind, solar, and geothermal, it would also
provide incentives for 'new energy', including coal bed
methane, coal liquefaction, and coal gasification.
11.8%
88.2%
3 7.4
0.1
23.4
-0.5
-4.4
-0.1
11.1
35.2
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
54 *
SLOW CHARGE
130 *
FAST CHARGE
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
[NO DATA]
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
[NO DATA]
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA]
67.7062.88
[NO DATA]
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN NEW SALES (2021)
1,900
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021) AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 96IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Indonesia experienced a 2.1% contraction of its
economy in 2020. Growth resumed in 2021, but did
not return to pre-pandemic levels. In Jakarta, more
people took up cycling during the pandemic. How-
ever, it is unclear if this trend will continue in the
absence of secure bike lanes. Overall, transport sector
emissions declined by 26% in 2020, the highest value
in the G20.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
• 29% unconditional, 41% conditional reduction in GHG
emissions in 2030 compared with BAU
• unconditional emission reduction target: 31.89%
• net zero by 2060 or sooner

Future targets at national level
• 7–9% mode share by rail for passengers by 2030
• 11–13% mode share by rail for freight by 2030
• 712 km of high-speed rail
• 14% biofuel share in transport energy demand by 2025

National EV deployment targets
Vehicle stock targets:
• 2 million passenger EVs by 2030
• 13 million electric motorcycles by 2030
Production targets:
• LCEVs: 20% of annual vehicle production by 2025
and 30% in 2035
• Electric two-wheelers: 7,700,000 units in 2025
• Charging infrastructure:
• 30,000 charging stations by 2030
• 67,000 battery swapping stations by 2030

National ICE phase-out commitments
Only sell electric motorcycles by 2040 and only sell
electric cars by 2050
Annual EV production targets for 2030
600,000 four-wheeled and 2.45 million
two/three wheeled EVs
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments • CO₂-based taxes on luxury vehicles
• In October 2021 a carbon tax was approved and set to start in April 2022,
but was delayed due to the economic impact of high energy prices
Mandatory vehicle labellingNo mandatory labelling
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Reduced luxury tax (applicable at sale) for hybrid vehicles; full waiver of luxury tax for BEVS, PHEVS and FCEVS
• Export restrictions and domestic production requirements
Source: Indonesian national services
~6.557 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
109,278.6 billion IDR
Source: IMF 2022, CNA 2020
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
Indonesia has no specific regulations for biofuel
sustainability. However, there are several certification
schemes available for biodiesel feedstocks and palm
plantations. A presidential regulation mandates that
all companies and smallholder growers adopt ISPO
(Indonesia Sustainable Palm Oil) certification by 2025.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Construction of railways
• Enhancement of mass road transport
• Investment in long-distance ferry services
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
No measures at national level
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
National non-motorised transport vision and guidelines for city governments
Mobility MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS ITALY
EV
TARGETS
ITALY
97
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: ITF / OECDSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Italy's population is distributed fairly evenly throughout the country,
with some coastal and urban high-density areas. The country has
well-developed road and railway systems. Both transport demand
and the importance of road transport have increased since 1990. After
peaking in 2007, transport sector emissions have been on the decline,
falling more than 22% between 2007 and 2019 mainly due to the
economic crisis in combination with a greater penetration of energy-
efficient vehicles. Atypically for Europe, Italy has a very large fleet of
motorbikes and mopeds (117 vehicles per 1000 inhabitants in 2020).
Italy does not have specific transport-related carbon emission targets,
but it has goals for electric vehicles and related infrastructure. It has
implemented all EU directives at the national level, but has limited
additional measures to supporting modal shifts and vehicle efficiency.
• ACHIEVE AT LEAST A 55%
REDUCTION IN GHG EMIS-
SIONS IN 2030 RELATIVE
TO 1990
• MEET ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET BY
2050
ELECTRIC VEHICLE FLEET
NUMBERING 6 MILLION BY 2030
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ITF / OECD
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
1.85%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
5.03%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
4.91%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
60 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
0.8%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
-12.2% (2020–2050)
200.03 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
47.3 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
1,005.4 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
871.7 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
160.7 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
42.2 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
81.1% (2050)
71.0% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
01020304050607080
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 8070
79
86
87
615
662 667
108
115
118
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
0.8110.7
4
4
73
73
6
4
4
11
10
6
15
13
84
86
5.1
71.4
23.5
5.4
71.6
23.0
Source: World Development Indicators, I.Stat
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019
2-/3-wheeler
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD, Eurostat
** does not include all transport modes
Source: ITF / OECD, Eurostat, Statista
* does not include all transport modes
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty
vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments • CO₂-based taxes on luxury vehicles
• In October 2021 a carbon tax was approved and set to start in April 2022,
but was delayed due to the economic impact of high energy prices
Mandatory vehicle labellingNo mandatory labelling
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Reduced luxury tax (applicable at sale) for hybrid vehicles; full waiver of luxury tax for BEVS, PHEVS and FCEVS
• Export restrictions and domestic production requirements
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Construction of railways
• Enhancement of mass road transport
• Investment in long-distance ferry services
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
No measures at national level
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
National non-motorised transport vision and guidelines for city governments TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 9899
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
104.10 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.73
1.75 1.74
1.40
0.92%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
309.31 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Italy's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion decreased by 21% between 1990 and
2019 and per capita emissions are just above the world average. Transport emissions
have increased by 4% over the same period. After peaking in 2007, they decreased until
2013, increased in 2014 and have been declining since, with a 20% drop in 2020 due to
the pandemic. At 34%, the share of transport sector emissions is above the world and
G20 averages. Under a business-as-usual scenario, sector emissions are projected to
decrease by 4% up to 2030 and then remain relatively stable until 2050. At 2.1%,
waterborne navigation has the third-highest share in total transport emissions within
the G20 countries.
5.19
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
33%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-6.2%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+100%
0%
-50%
- 100%
+50%
4.2%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+50%
0%
- 50%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
20
40
60
80
140
120
100
160
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 9899
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 55% by 2030
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
172.41
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
155.51
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Italy's hydrogen strategy includes preliminary guidelines.
• Italy targets of 2% hydrogen by 2030 and 20% by 2050 in
its national energy consumption.
• Its goal is to install up to 5 GW of green generation capacity
by 2030.
• The initial priorities for hydrogen use are public transport,
especially long-distance, freight, and non-electrified rail.
Battery reuse and recyclingBattery use and recycling in Italy are governed by the EU Battery
regulation.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
300000
600000
900000
1200000
1500000
-20000-100000100002000030000400005000060000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-20 -102010 30 40 50 600
Source: Watson Farley & Williams (2021)
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Non-renewable electricity in Italy is mainly generated using
natural gas, with a small share coming from coal and oil.
Electricity from renewable sources is mostly promoted
through a combination of premium tariffs, feed-in tariffs,
and tender schemes. Tax regulation mechanisms are also
in place for investment in RES-E plants. Interested parties
can make use of net metering.
5.5%
94.5%
5.3
0.3
9.5
-18.1
-0.1
0
50.3
46.2
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
0.62%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
20,000 *
SLOW CHARGE
2,200 *
FAST CHARGE
9.5%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+2,983%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
240.607
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0 50 100 150 200 250
6
10
2
1
0
230 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 100IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Italy experienced an 9% contraction of its economy in
2020, the third largest within the analysed countries.
Growth resumed in 2021 at 6.6%, substantially higher
than the 0.5% growth seen before the pandemic.
Emissions from Italy's transport sector decreased by
16% in 2020. Data indicates that there was a shift from
public transport to driving, though walking levels
remained high throughout the first quarter of 2022,
almost doubling from those of pre-pandemic levels.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to at least a 55% reduction in GHG
emissions in 2030 relative to 1990 levels
Transport related NDC targets
See the EU's: CO₂ emission targets for road
transport (see emission standards)
Transport related NDC measures
Inclusion of aviation in the EU ETS
National EV deployment targets
• Increase of electric vehicle fleet
to 6 million by 2030
• 21,400 fast- and ultra-fast-charging
stations by the end of 2025
• Mandatory public purchase of 30% share of
alternative fuel vehicles by 2022, 50% by 2025,
and 85% by 2030 across all modes (proposed
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
Current EU CO₂ efficiency standards:• Passenger cars: 95 g/km (2021)
• Light commercial: 147 g/km (2020)
Future standards (2030):• Passenger cars: 59 g/km
• Light commercial: 101 g/km
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
Targets for average CO₂ emissions from new heavy-duty vehicles:• In 2025, 15% lower than in 2019
• In 2030, at least 30% lower than in 2019
Pricing instruments • Malus system with extra purchase taxes for vehicles with high CO₂ emissions
• Inclusion of domestic aviation in EU-ETS, inclusion of maritime proposed for 2023
• Participation in first phase of CORSIA
Mandatory vehicle labelling• National implementation of the EU Car Labelling Directive 1999/94/EC
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Purchase subsidies for EVs extended to 2026, incl. vans and trucks up to 12t
• Conversion premium for scrapping high-emission ICE in combination with
EV purchase
• Subsidies for the conversion of vehicles to electric or hybrid, incl. buses and
goods vehicles
• Fund for the exchange of 3,000 diesel buses with EVs
• Public administration required to purchase at least 50% EVs
• Change in public procurement regulation requiring the consideration of effects on energy use and the environment
• Regulation prohibiting the purchase of inefficient buses
• Investment in charging infrastructure
Source: Italian national sources
~5.391 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
5.5 billion EUR
Source: IMF 2022, Google community mobility reports, Apple
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
The EU's 2021 Renewable Energy Directive II (REDII)
caps the use of 'high-risk indirect land use change
(ILUC) biofuels' at 2019 levels until 2023 and requires
a phase-out of these by 2030. REDII also sets a GHG
emission savings threshold for biofuels to count
towards the target of 65% for transport biofuels
starting in 2021.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Programme for the rejuvenation of public transport
• Expansion of rail infrastructure
• National guidelines for the development of sustainable urban mobility
plans (SUMPs)
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• No specific measures
National-level measures to support new mobility services
• No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• First national cycling strategy under development
• Fund for the extension of cycling infrastructure
• The 2019 programme Experimental Good Mobility provides subsidies for
electric cargo bikes and collective cargo bike use
Mobility
€ MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS NDC
JAPAN
EV
TARGETS
JAPAN
101
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: ITF / OECDSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Japan is composed of four main islands and 6,848 smaller islands.
Despite its comparatively small size, the country has the eleventh-
largest railway network and the sixth-largest road network globally.
Since the mid-1990s, passenger transport volumes and modal shares
have remained almost constant. Motorisation rates continue to grow,
but at a slow pace. Air traffic accounts for a small share. The growth
in rail-based rail freight traffic has barely increased and is relatively
small, while the share of rail passenger transport remains high.
Japan defines the contribution of each sector in its NDC and has
targeted GHG reductions in transport of 35% below 2013 levels by
2030. Economy-wide, the country plans to be carbon neutral by 2050.
Japan aims to have all LDVs sold be electric by 2035, with a range of
intermediate targets for 2030. The country also has plans to improve
the fuel efficiency of trucks, increase the share of bicycles in
commuting and further expand the high-speed rail system.
• ACHIEVE A 46% REDUC-
TION IN GHG EMISSIONS
IN 2030 RELATIVE TO
2013
• ACHIEVE ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET BY
2050
• 20–30% SHARE OF BEVS AND
PHEVS, 30–40% SHARE OF
HEVS, AND A 3% SHARE OF
FCEVS IN PASSENGER LDV
SALES BY 2030
• EV RANGE TARGET OF
1000 KM BY 2030
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ATO
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
4.03%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
6.81%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
7.31%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
126 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
1.6%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
-17.1% (2020–2050)
345.23 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
48.7 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
1,344.8 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
653 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
242.8 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
115.9 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
94.7% (2050)
91.8% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
116
115 115
477 488 491
42 43 43
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
0.2
7
7
25
25
62
63
5
5
93.7
3.78
87
88
Source: World Development Indicators, Statistics Bureau of Japan
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019
2-/3-wheeler
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD,
** does not include all transport modes
Source: World Development Indicators, ATO, ITF / OECD
* does not include all transport modes
14.8
24.4
23.6
60.8
61.5
14.9
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
Current EU CO₂ efficiency standards:
• Passenger cars: 95 g/km (2021)
• Light commercial: 147 g/km (2020)
Future standards (2030):
• Passenger cars: 59 g/km
• Light commercial: 101 g/km
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
Targets for average CO₂ emissions from new heavy-duty vehicles:• In 2025, 15% lower than in 2019
• In 2030, at least 30% lower than in 2019
Pricing instruments • Malus system with extra purchase taxes for vehicles with high CO₂ emissions
• Inclusion of domestic aviation in EU-ETS, inclusion of maritime proposed for 2023
• Participation in first phase of CORSIA
Mandatory vehicle labelling• National implementation of the EU Car Labelling Directive 1999/94/EC
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Purchase subsidies for EVs extended to 2026, incl. vans and trucks up to 12t
• Conversion premium for scrapping high-emission ICE in combination with
EV purchase
• Subsidies for the conversion of vehicles to electric or hybrid, incl. buses and
goods vehicles
• Fund for the exchange of 3,000 diesel buses with EVs
• Public administration required to purchase at least 50% EVs
• Change in public procurement regulation requiring the consideration of effects on energy use and the environment
• Regulation prohibiting the purchase of inefficient buses
• Investment in charging infrastructure
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Programme for the rejuvenation of public transport
• Expansion of rail infrastructure
• National guidelines for the development of sustainable urban mobility
plans (SUMPs)
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• No specific measures
National-level measures to support new mobility services
• No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• First national cycling strategy under development
• Fund for the extension of cycling infrastructure
• The 2019 programme Experimental Good Mobility provides subsidies for
electric cargo bikes and collective cargo bike use TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 102103
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
209.63 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.54
1.74 1.66
1.51
3.12%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
1,048.32 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Japan's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion decreased by 0.3% between 1990 and
2019, with transport sector emissions decreasing by 5% over the same period. After
peaking around 2000, emissions in the transport sector have decreased fairly constantly,
supported by a variety of measures to enhance vehicle efficiency, though they dropped
by 10% in 2020 due to the pandemic. Under a business-as-usual scenario, sector
emissions are projected to decrease by 13% by 2030 and 30% by 2050 relative to 2020
levels. At 5.1%, waterborne navigation has the highest share in the G20.
8.33
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
20%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-9%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+50%
0%
-25%
- 50%
+25%
-4.9%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+50%
0%
- 50%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
50
100
150
200
300
250
350
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 102103
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 36–38% by 2030
• 1.5 GW ocean power by 2030
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Japan adopted its Basic hydrogen Strategy in 2017.
• Japan’s goal is to produce 3 million tonnes of hydrogen by
2030 and 20 million tonnes by 2050.
• There are also targets of 200,000 FCVs by 2025 and
800,000 by 2030, along with 320 fueling stations by 2025
and 900 by 2030.
Battery reuse and recycling• All manufacturers and importers of rechargeable batteries and equipment containing rechargeable batteries are required to implement a system to recover them.
• A nonprofit organization (JBRC – Japan Portable Battery Recycling Center) manages the collection of batteries, including from hybrid vehicles, which are purchased for recycling.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
3000000
-20000020000400006000080000100000120000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-2060402080 100 1200
Source: ACS Energy Letters (2022); ABRI (2014)Source: IEA (2019); Energytracker (2022); CSIS (2021)
114
116
118
120
122
124
126
128
130
136
134
132
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Non-renewable electricity in Japan is mostly generated using
natural gas (38%), coal (3%), and oil (5%). Nuclear power
generation has resumed after the shutdown of plants
following Fukushima, but it is still below 4%. Japan has
operated a feed-in tariff (FIT) since 2012 that varies by
technology. Guaranteed price levels have decreased over
time. In April 2017 Japan introduced a reverse auction system
and by late 2020 had conducted five PV and two biomass
auctions. The size of solar PV systems eligible for the FIT
decreased continuously between 2017 and 2020. By 2020,
only projects under 250 kW were still eligible. Offshore wind
auctions are planned.
1.2%
98.8%
0.4
3.0
16.5
-8.5
0
0
115.9
100.2
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
21,000 *
SLOW CHARGE
8,000 *
FAST CHARGE
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
95.78115.78
0.53%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
1.0%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+153.1%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
357,657
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0 50100150200250300350
134
11
7
0
0
347 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 104IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
In Japan, the already ongoing recession was
exacerbated in 2020 by the pandemic, leading
to an economic contraction of 4.5%. Growth resumed
haltingly in 2021, amounting to only 1.6%. Emissions
from Japan's transport sector decreased by 11% in
2020. Japan has seen a clear move from public
transport to cars and walking. Car use has been up
since the beginning of the pandemic, with a few
exceptions during lockdowns, and is still increasing.
Based on Google data, public transport ridership was
still below pre-pandemic levels in August 2022.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
46% reduction in GHG emissions by 2030 relative
to 2013 levels

Transport related NDC targets
Transport sector emissions 35% below 2013 levels
(146 Mt CO₂) by 2030
Future targets at national level
• 420 km of high-speed rail by 2027 and an
additional 540 km by 2046
• Enhance the fuel efficiency by approximately
13.4% for trucks and other heavy vehicles and by
approximately 14.3% for buses by 2025 based on
the fuel-efficiency standards from 2015
• Increase the use of bicycles in commuting to
18.2% by 2025 versus 15.2% in 2015
National EV deployment targets
• 20–30% share of BEVs and PHEVs, 30–40% share
of HEVs, and 3% share of FCEVs in passenger LDV
sales by 2030
• EV range target of 1000 km by 2030
• 150,000 EV charging points (including 30,000 fast
chargers) and 1,000 hydrogen refuelling stations
by 2030
National ICE phase-out commitments
100% electrified vehicles in passenger LDV sales
by 2035
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
2030 fuel-efficiency standards: • Passenger cars: 73.5 g/km
2022 fuel-efficiency standards:• Light commercial: 135 g/km
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)Enacted in 2019 to come into force by 2025, with fuel economy improvements
of 3.7% to 18.3% depending on the type of vehicle against a 2015 baseline
using a 'well-to-wheel' approach (incl. electricity)
Pricing instruments • Fuel efficiency-based environmental performance tax on new vehicles
• Carbon tax
• Benefits for more efficient vehicles for the annual automobile tax
Mandatory vehicle labellingFuel Efficiency Labelling System based on the 'top runner' standard
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Hybrids, plug-in hybrid electric, electric, fuel-cell vehicles qualify for
breaks exempt from automobile tax, weight tax, and environmental
performance tax
• Range-based subsidies, doubled in 2021
• Subsidies for charging and hydrogen-fueling infrastructure
Source: Japanese national sources
~1,059 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
153.5 billion YEN
Source: IMF 2022, Google community mobility reports, Apple
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
The GOJ established an environmental sustainability
standard for biofuels in 2010 that required that
bioethanol not compete with the food supply, and
that biofuels reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
by at least 55%from gasoline emissions, based on a
life-cycle assessment (LCA). The act is currently under
revision.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport • Low Carbon City Act (Eco-City Act) requires local governments to develop low-carbon development plans and promote the use of public transportation,

incl. national support for the formulation of these plans
• Expansion of public transport network
• Acceleration of digitalisation using integrated circuit cards
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Construction of terminals for combined transport
• Better distribution system efficiency through improved truck transport and improved port terminal facilities
• Measures supported by the Act on Advancement of Integration and Streamlining of Distribution Business
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
No measures at national level
Mobility
¥ MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS NDC
MEXICO
EV
TARGETS
MEXICO
105
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
2015201520192019
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: RAILISA STAT UICSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Most of the population of Mexico lives in the centre of the country,
with approximately a quarter of inhabitants living in and around
Mexico City. Large parts of the country, particularly in the south, are
mountainous and hard to access. Railways only connect major
centres, and buses are the main mode of passenger transport
between cities. Mexico has the third-largest number of airports
globally. The majority of transport is by road. The focus on road
transport is less pronounced in freight. Mexico faces a particular
challenge when it comes to its vehicle fleet, which is largely
composed of old, inefficient vehicles from the US.
Mexico has no national or international GHG emission targets for the
transport sector, but it has set goals for the sales of electric vehicles,
including 100% of new vehicles sold being electric by 2050. Existing
policy measures focus on expanding public transport infrastructure
and vehicle efficiency, and there is limited support for low-carbon
vehicles and fuels.
• ACHIEVE A 22% REDUC-
TION IN GHG EMISSIONS
AND A 51% REDUCTION
IN BLACK CARBON BY
2030
• NO NET-ZERO TARGET
• 5% OF NEW VEHICLE SALES
TO BE EVS BY 2030
• 50% OF NEW VEHICLE SALES
TO BE EVS BY 2040
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ATO
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
Road, car
Rail, other
Road, bus
All other
transport
modes
2020
1.83%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
7.69%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
5.50%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
129 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
1.7%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
14.1% (2020–2050)
66.33 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
29.4 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
537.3 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
398.6 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
348.8 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
104.1 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
88.2% (2050)
80.7% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 8070
83
87
83
256
272
22
32
38
100
100
Source: World Development Indicators, UNSTATS, ILO
FemaleMale
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
[billion tkm]
[billion pkm]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
** does not include all transport modes
Source: ITF / OECD
* does not include all transport modes
221
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
2030 fuel-efficiency standards:
• Passenger cars: 73.5 g/km
2022 fuel-efficiency standards:
• Light commercial: 135 g/km
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)Enacted in 2019 to come into force by 2025, with fuel economy improvements
of 3.7% to 18.3% depending on the type of vehicle against a 2015 baseline
using a 'well-to-wheel' approach (incl. electricity)
Pricing instruments • Fuel efficiency-based environmental performance tax on new vehicles
• Carbon tax
• Benefits for more efficient vehicles for the annual automobile tax
Mandatory vehicle labellingFuel Efficiency Labelling System based on the 'top runner' standard
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Hybrids, plug-in hybrid electric, electric, fuel-cell vehicles qualify for
breaks exempt from automobile tax, weight tax, and environmental
performance tax
• Range-based subsidies, doubled in 2021
• Subsidies for charging and hydrogen-fueling infrastructure
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport • Low Carbon City Act (Eco-City Act) requires local governments to develop low-carbon development plans and promote the use of public transportation,

incl. national support for the formulation of these plans
• Expansion of public transport network
• Acceleration of digitalisation using integrated circuit cards
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Construction of terminals for combined transport
• Better distribution system efficiency through improved truck transport and improved port terminal facilities
• Measures supported by the Act on Advancement of Integration and Streamlining of Distribution Business
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
No measures at national level TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 106107
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
150.68 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.11
1.24 1.18
0.83
1.26%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
423.31 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Mexico's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion increased by 65% between 1990 and
2019. Over the same period, transport-sector emissions increased by 143%, though in
2020 it dropped by 29% due to the pandemic. Today, transport is responsible for 37% of
total emissions in Mexico. Emissions from the sector are projected to remain largely
stable up to 2030 under business-as-usual and then decline to 7% below 2020 levels by
2050. Road is responsible for 97% of transport-emissions, while emissions from rail and
domestic navigation are minor by comparison.
3.28
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
35.6%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-4.3%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+50%
0%
-25%
- 50%
+25%
79.4%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+100%
0%
- 100%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
20
40
60
80
140
120
100
180
160
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 106107
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21, NC6
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 2024: 35%
• 3035: 40%
• 2050: 50%
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Studies are ongoing and focus on market potential
• Mexico is implementing priority projects
Battery reuse and recycling
• Producers, importers, and distributors of batteries must formulate
management plans for the prevention of waste and for recycling,
including the reduction of recycling costs.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
1600000
-60000-40000-20000020000400006000080000100000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-60200-2040 60 80 100-40
Source: SEMARNATSource: IEA (2021)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Natural gas has largely replaced oil as the main fuel source
for power generation in Mexico. The country's energy
sustainability goals are to be met with a quota system
based on clean-energy certificates (CEC). These efforts are
supported by the country's Energy Reform bill, which started
liberalizing the energy market in 2013–2014. Retail suppliers
are required to have a given share of their electricity from
clean sources. In practice, they must buy CECs to
demonstrate that they have complied with the quotas. This
obligation is set on an annual base, and increases every
year. The quota for 2022 is 13.9%. Three rounds of renewable
energy auctions were held, but then halted. Energy reforms
currently under discussion could reverse incentives and
encouragechanges in dispatch regulation.
100%
94.3
-1.4
3 7.4
-7.0
-59.5
-0.6
0
2 7. 2
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
1,200 *
SLOW CHARGE
92 *
FAST CHARGE
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
89.2493.73
0.06%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
0.50%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+4,555.9%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
11,500
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
0
0
0
0
12 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 108IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
In Mexico, the already ongoing recession was exacer-
bated in 2020 by the pandemic, leading to an eco-
nomic contraction of 8.2%. Growth resumed in 2021
with 4.8%. In Mexico, emissions from the transport
sector decreased by 24% in 2020, the second highest
drop in the G20. Overall mobility in 2020 remained
well below pre-pandemic levels for all transport
modes. In 2021 mobility by car and walking started to
recover and rose substantially above levels before the
pandemic. Public transport only managed to recover
previous levels in late 2021.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to a 22% reduction in GHG emissions and
a 51% reduction in black carbon by 2030; with
international support, committed to a 36% reduction in
GHG emissions and a 70% reduction in black carbon by
2030, all compared with the BAU scenario
Transport related NDC measures
• Urban planning for efficient public transport systems
• Encouraging alternative transport systems
• Development of a National Electric Mobility Strategy
• Strengthening vehicle regulations

National EV deployment targets
• 5% of new vehicle sales to be EVs by 2030
• 50% of new vehicle sales to be EVs by 2040
National ICE phase-out commitments
100% of new vehicle sales to be EVs by 2050
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
Currently applicable standards:• Passenger cars: 145 g/km (2018)
• Light commercial: 196 g/km (2018)
Fuel economy targets 2025:• Passenger cars: 35% below 2016 levels
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
No standards
Pricing instruments • Carbon tax on fossil fuels (except natural gas) of USD 3.5 per t CO₂
• Mexican-origin CERs to be used to meet 20% of the carbon tax obligation
• 2022 gasoline and diesel exemptions to the carbon tax
Mandatory vehicle labellingNo mandatory labelling
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
Government-led electric taxi programmes in Mexico City and Aguascalientes
Programme to develop charging infrastructure in several large cities.
Source: Mexican national sources
~16.551 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
330,2 billion MXN
Source: IMF 2022, Google community mobility reports, Apple
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
No measures to ensure the sustainability of biofuels
could be identified.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
Expansion of passenger rail infrastructure
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
No measures at national level
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
No measures at national level
Mobility
Mex$ MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS 109
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
Currently applicable standards:
• Passenger cars: 145 g/km (2018)
• Light commercial: 196 g/km (2018)
Fuel economy targets 2025:
• Passenger cars: 35% below 2016 levels
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty
vehicles (HDV)
No standards
Pricing instruments • Carbon tax on fossil fuels (except natural gas) of USD 3.5 per t CO₂
• Mexican-origin CERs to be used to meet 20% of the carbon tax obligation
• 2022 gasoline and diesel exemptions to the carbon tax
Mandatory vehicle labellingNo mandatory labelling
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
Government-led electric taxi programmes in Mexico City and Aguascalientes
Programme to develop charging infrastructure in several large cities.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
Expansion of passenger rail infrastructure
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
No measures at national level
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
No measures at national level
NDC
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
EV
TARGETS
RUSSIAN
FEDERATION
[No Data] Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines, which include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share in total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Russia is the world's largest country by area. Its population is heavily
concentrated to the west of the Urals. The transport infrastructure is
densest in the European part of Russia, while some parts of Siberia
and the Far East lack good transport access. The majority of roads in
Russia are not suitable for heavy vehicles: less than 30% of federal
and regional roads are designed to handle standard modern axle
loads of 10 tonnes or more. As a result, the road transport share is
relatively low, with the majority of freight being transported by rail.
Buses, including in particular private minibuses, are the main mode of
transport, with rail capturing most of the remaining share.
Russia does not have a specific GHG emission target for the transport
sector, but it aims to increase the number of rail passengers by 33%
and achieve a 10% share of EVs by 2030. Measures to promote modal
shift and efficiency are very limited.
•
REDUCE EMISSIONS BY
UP TO 70% BY 2030
RELATIVE TO 1990 LEVELS
• ACHIEVE ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET NO
LATER THAN 2060
• LOCAL MANUFACTURING
OF AT LEAST 25,000 EVS
BY 2024
• 10% EV SHARE OF TOTAL
VEHICLE MANUFACTURING
BY 2030
= 100 Inhabitants
= 100 Motor vehicles
Passenger
Cars
Motor-
cycles
Goods
vehicles
2015
2020
3.08%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
7.70%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
[No Data]
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
144 mio people
POPULATION CURRENT (2020)
1.9%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
-8.6% (2020–2050)
8.8 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
38.95 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
634,500 mio
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
[No Data]
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
2,950,400 mio
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
107 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
83.3% (2050)
74.8% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
0.20.10.10.2
2988
3288
25
20
43
51
3
3
9
9
Source: World Development Indicators, UNSTATS
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants][NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019
2-/3-wheeler
Source: Federal State Statistics Service Russia
** Does not include pipeline transport
Source: Federal State Statistics Service Russia
* Does not include private car transport nor non-
motorized transport modes
Russland[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 110111
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* Projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
292.94 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
2.26
1.94 2.03
1.85
4.89%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
1,640.33 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion in Russia decreased by 24% between 1990 and
2019. Transport-sector emissions only decreased by 16% over the same period. The share
of transport emissions in total emissions is low compared with the G20 and global
averages. Transport-sector emissions arise mostly from pipeline operations, representing
a quarter of its emissions in 2019. At around 55%, road transport has the lowest share in
total sector emissions in the G20.
11.38
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
13.1%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
7%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+50%
0%
-25%
- 50%
+25%
-16.1%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2020)
+50%
0%
- 50%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Water-borne navigation
Total national emissions
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 110111
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 4.5% by 2024 (excl. large hydro)
• 20% by 2024 (including large hydro)
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US Cents/Litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US Cents/Litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Russia adopted its energy strategy in 2020 aiming to
export 0.2 million tonnes of hydrogen by 2024 and 2 million
tonnes by 2030.
• Focus is on local production using natural gas, but also
renewables and nuclear power.
• Russia’s hydrogen roadmap until 2024 outlines high-priority
pilot projects, including a hydrogen-run rail transport
prototype.
Battery reuse and recycling• There is no regulation or policy in place that requires or promotes
the re-use and recycling of batteries.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG)
Natural gas
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
3000000
3500000
4000000
-300000-200000-1000000100000200000300000400000500000600000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-300-200-100200100 300 400 500 6000
Source: IEA, Baker McKenzie (2021)
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
indexation - index (2000 = 100)
Natural gas is the dominant fuel source for power generation
in Russia, providing over 42% of power. Nuclear and
increasingly hydro provide the majority of the remaining
generation at almost equal shares. The main support
mechanism for renewable energy is a capacity auction system
that guarantees capacity payments over 15 years. Various
other measures were adopted in 2009 to promote
renewables, including a 5% renewables quota for power loss
compensation, and coverage of grid connection costs. In 2021,
Russia introduced net metering for solar and other renewable
power under 15 kW.
0.6%
99.4%
512.1
0
0.8
-9 7.6
-238.6
0
0
204.7
64.1667.91
Source: IEA, 2021
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
[NO DATA]
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
[NO DATA]
SLOW CHARGE
[NO DATA]
FAST CHARGE
[NO DATA]
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
[NO DATA]
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
[NO DATA]
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 112IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Russia experienced a 4.6% contraction of its economy
in 2020 but growth resumed in 2021. In Russia,
emissions from the transport sector decreased by 6%
in 2020. However, the reduction in mobility was less
pronounced than in many other countries. Public
transport ridership only fell by around 50% in March
2020 compared with pre-pandemic levels, but it had
recovered by August. After another lockdown, public
transport ridership began to fall again in October,
reaching almost 30% in January 2021. Since May 2021,
ridership has normalised, although driving and walking
have remained above pre-pandemic levels.
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards LDV
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards HDV
No standard
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption-based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingNo mandatory labelling
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
The national strategy for automotive development, adopted in March 2018, aims at supporting domestic vehicle production, including electric vehicles.
The 'Concept for the production and use of electric vehicles until 2030', adopted in 2021, envisages incentives for the local production of EVs and for consumer stimulus, including financial and non-financial incentives. Import
taxes for EVs were suspended on 31 December 2021.
Source: Russian national sources
~10,663 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
627.20 billion RUB
Source: IMF 2022, Google, Apple
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
No focus on supporting biofuels, and hence no
measures to ensure sustainability.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Expansion of passenger rail infrastructure
• Expansion of public transport infrastructure and services
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Digital platform Freight Transportation (in test mode)
• Expansion of freight rail infrastructure
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorized transport
No measures at national level
Mobility
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets • Reduction of up to 70% by 2030
relative to 1990 levels
Future targets at national level • 33% increase in rail passengers between 2008
and 2030
National EV deployment targets • 9,400 charging stations by 2024
(of which 2,900 fast charging)
• Local manufacturing of at least 25,000 EVs by 2024
• 72,000 charging stations by 2030
• 10% EV share of total vehicle manufacturing by 2030 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETSNDC
SOUTH AFRICA
EV
TARGETS
SOUTH AFRICA
113
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
2015201520192019
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
South Africa’s transport sector is dominated by road travel, but the coun-
try has good port and rail infrastructure and a growing airline industry.
The country is the most urbanised in Africa, with over two-thirds of the
population living in urban areas. Domestic travel patterns are character-
ised by large distances between places of residence and employment.
A large share of passenger transport takes place on foot or by bicycle.
Some major metropolitan areas are adopting Bus Rapid Transport (BRT)
systems and the Metrorail system operates in four regions.
South Africa's Green Transport Strategy includes an objective to
reduce GHG emissions from the transport sector by 50–80% by 2050
relative to 1990 levels. It also contains mode shift targets for
passengers and freight and an interim target for vehicle efficiency by
2030. These targets were adopted before South Africa announced its
ambition to achieve a net-zero economy by 2050. Vehicles are taxed
at registration based on their CO₂ emissions, and a general CO₂ tax
was introduced in 2019.
•
KEEP ANNUAL GHG EMIS-
SIONS AT 398–510
MT CO₂e FROM 2021–2025
AND AT 350–420 MT CO₂e
FROM 2026–2030
• ACHIEVE NET-ZERO BY
2050
CONVERT 5% OF THE PUBLIC
AND NATIONAL VEHICLE FLEET
TO CLEANER ALTERNATIVE FUELS
AND EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGY BY
2025, WITH ANNUAL INCREASES
OF 2% THEREAFTER
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: NaTIS
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
Rail, other
Aviation
All other
transport
modes
2020
0.6%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
7.91%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
6.30%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
59 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
0.8%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
25% (2020–2050)
48.89 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
27.4 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
[No Data]
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
182.6 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
[No Data]
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
39.9 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
79.8% (2050)
67.4% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
51 51
127 128
6 6
38.9
38.4
61.1
61.6
Source: World Development Indicators, Statistics South Africa
FemaleMale
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
[billion tkm]
[billion pkm][NO DATA]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
0,000
0,002
0,004
0,006
0,008
0,010
0,000
0,002
0,004
0,006
0,008
0,010[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Südafrika
Energy/carbon emission
standards LDV
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards HDV
No standard
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption-based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingNo mandatory labelling
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
The national strategy for automotive development, adopted in March 2018,
aims at supporting domestic vehicle production, including electric vehicles.
The 'Concept for the production and use of electric vehicles until 2030',
adopted in 2021, envisages incentives for the local production of EVs and for
consumer stimulus, including financial and non-financial incentives. Import
taxes for EVs were suspended on 31 December 2021.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Expansion of passenger rail infrastructure
• Expansion of public transport infrastructure and services
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Digital platform Freight Transportation (in test mode)
• Expansion of freight rail infrastructure
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorized transport
No measures at national level TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 114115
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
56.93 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.04
1.04 0.97
0.80
1.31%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
441.12 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
South Africa's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion increased by 81% between 1990
and 2019. Transport-sector emissions increased by 70% over the same period, but
dropped by 16% in 2020 due to the pandemic. Emissions from the sector are projected
grow by 18% by 2030 and 53% by 2050, relative to 2020 levels. 4.6% of sector emissions
are from aviation and 4.8% from rail. Transport-sector emissions represent only 13% of
national emissions owing to the high carbon intensity of the power sector, which
dominates South Africa's emissions.
7.44
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
12.8%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
5.1%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+50%
0%
-25%
- 50%
+25%
66.9%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+100%
0%
- 100%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
10
20
30
40
70
60
50
80
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 114115
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 8% by 2030
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• South Africa adopted its Hydrogen Society Roadmap in 2021.
• The country aims to deploy close to 12 GW of electrolysis
capacity and produce about 500 kt of hydrogen annually
by 2030, with 40 GW capacity by 2040.
• In 2021 the president announced a Green Hydrogen Export
Economic Zone.
Battery reuse and recycling• There is no regulation or policy in place that requires or promotes the re-use and recycling of batteries.
• Voluntary efforts by industry associations aim to collect and recycle household and vehicle (lead-acid) batteries.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
800000
-3000 0 3000600090001200015000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-396312 150
Source: Department of Environment, Forestry and FisheriesSource: Department of Science and Innovation; CSIS (2022)
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
104
105
103
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Coal is the dominant fuel source for power generation in
South Africa, representing 88% of generation. Between 2009
and 2011, a feed-in tariff was the main policy mechanism for
promoting renewable energy. The tariff was replaced by a
competitive bidding process, known as REIPPP, in 2011. Since
2011, six reverse auctions were held for the construction of
renewable energy capacity. The sixth round is currently
ongoing. Additionally, since 2017, a changed registration
regulation has aimed to support medium-scale (1 – 100 MW)
private-sector embedded solar generation, i.e. capacity
connected to distribution networks, by easing licencing and
registration.
0.1%
99.9%
0.1
0.3
8.2
-2.3
0
0
13.2
10.9
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
140 *
SLOW CHARGE
160 *
FAST CHARGE
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
99.90100.35
0.03%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
0.09%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+521.4%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
1,740
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0
0
0
0
2 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 116IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
South Africa experienced a 6.4% contraction of its
economy in 2020 after already very low growth in
2019. Growth resumed in 2021 at 4.9%. In South Africa,
emissions from the transport sector decreased by 13%
in 2020. Mobility by car, public transport, and walking
fell by 80% below pre-pandemic levels in spring 2020,
but car travel recovered much faster. By October
driving was more or less back to normal, while public
transport ridership only recovered in spring 2022.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Annual GHG emissions in a range from
398–510 Mt CO₂e from 2021–2025 and in a range
from 350–420 Mt CO₂e from 2026–2030.
Transport related NDC measures
• Electric and hybrid vehicles
• Mode shift and enhanced public transport

Future targets at national level
• 50–80% reduction of transport emissions by 2050
relative to 1990 levels
• 20% reduction in the average vehicle energy
intensity of the road vehicle fleet by 2030 relative
to 2015 levels
• 30% shift of freight transport from road
to rail by 2050
• 20% shift of passenger transport from private
cars to public transport and eco-mobility transport
by 2050
National EV deployment targets
Convert 5% of the public and national vehicle fleet
to cleaner alternative fuels and efficient technology
by 2025, with annual increases of 2% thereafter
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments • Registration tax based on CO₂
• Carbon tax in place since 2019; The rate is planned to increase from the
current level of just under USD 10/t CO₂e to reach USD 20/t CO₂e by 2026,
USD 30/t CO₂e by 2030, and USD 120/t CO₂e beyond 2050
Mandatory vehicle labellingSouth African Fuel Economy Label
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• No measures at national level yet
• Proposed measures include tax reductions and elimination of duties on EV components. Additionally, some support is provided for local EV development.
Source: South African national sources
~1,847 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
32.98 billion ZAR
Source: IMF 2022, Google community mobility reports, Apple
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
The Biofuels Feedstock Protocol prohibits the use of
staple crops for biofuel production and aims to
support production of fuel crops on under-utilised
land. The Protocol also envisages the move to
advanced biofuel production as soon as possible.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
Implementation of BRT systems in major cities
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
Transnet Road-to-Rail programme
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
No measures at national level
Mobility
R MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETSNDC
SAUDI ARABIA
EV
TARGETS
SAUDI ARABIA
117
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
2017201720182018
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: RAILISA STAT UICSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Most of Saudi Arabia's population is concentrated in a wide band across
the middle of the peninsula. Saudi Arabia has good access to maritime
shipping, with extensive coastlines on the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.
Road transport is the most important mode of transport, and the coun-
try is rapidly motorising. The vehicle fleet is estimated to have grown
from around 4 million vehicles in 2005 to over 10 million by 2018.
The Kingdom aspires to achieve a net-zero economy by 2060. It does
not have specific GHG emission targets for the transport sector, but
its "Vision 2030" sets out qualitative objectives to increase public
transportation use and improve the efficiency of vehicles and rail-
ways. Saudi Arabia has started to expand public transport and rail
infrastructure, and has also implemented a fuel efficiency standard
for light-duty vehicles. The government is also investing in production
capacity for electric vehicles. Only a few additional measures have
been enacted to support a modal shift or low-carbon vehicles.
• REDUCE GHG EMISSIONS
BY 278 MT CO₂e BY 2030
RELATIVE TO 2019
LEVELS
• ACHIEVE ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET BY
2060
NO EV DEPLOYMENT
TARGETS OR OBJECTIVES
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
Rail, other
All other
transport
modes
2020
1.23%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
5.83%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
[No Data]
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
35 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
0.4%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
34.4% (2020–2050)
16.19 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
30.2 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
[No Data]
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
[No Data]
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
29.3 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
90.4% (2050)
84.3% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE0102030405060708090100
0102030405060708090100
7
139
Source: General Authority for Statistics
FemaleMale
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
[billion tkm]
[billion pkm]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
0
30
60
90
120
150
0,000
0,002
0,004
0,006
0,008
0,010[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA] 1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
* does not include all transport modes
Saudi Arabia
0
100
100
0
0
0
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: OICA
[No Data]
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)[NO DATA] [NO DATA]
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty
vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments • Registration tax based on CO₂
• Carbon tax in place since 2019; The rate is planned to increase from the
current level of just under USD 10/t CO₂e to reach USD 20/t CO₂e by 2026,
USD 30/t CO₂e by 2030, and USD 120/t CO₂e beyond 2050
Mandatory vehicle labellingSouth African Fuel Economy Label
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• No measures at national level yet
• Proposed measures include tax reductions and elimination of duties on EV components. Additionally, some support is provided for local EV development.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
Implementation of BRT systems in major cities
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
Transnet Road-to-Rail programme
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
No measures at national level TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 118119
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
136.68 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
2.48
4.63 3.99
3.52
1.48%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
498.15 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion in Saudi Arabia increased by 230% between
1990 and 2019. Emissions in the transport sector grew more slowly, with an increase of
177% over the same period. In 2015, transport-sector emissions peaked and have
declined steadily since then. Transport is responsible for just over 27% of total emissions,
but per capita sector emissions are almost three times as high as the G20 average.
Under a business-as-usual scenario, sector emissions are projected to decrease by 27%
up to 2030 and 29% by 2050 relative to 2020 levels. The emission profile in the transport
sector is unusual, with no reported emissions for rail, pipeline, or navigation. Road
transport generates 98% of sector emissions, despite the high emissions that are likely
from pipeline transport.
14.31
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
27.4%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-6.3%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+50%
0%
-25%
- 50%
+25%
176.7%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+200%
0%
- 200%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
20
40
60
80
140
120
160
100
180
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 118119
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21, IHS
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 40 – 50% by 2030
• 27.3 GW by 2023
• 58.7 GW by 2030
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Saudi Arabia is currently developing a hydrogen strategy.
• It has planned more than US$36 billion in investments
through 2030.
• Saudi Arabia has set clean hydrogen production targets of
2.9 million tons per year by 2030 and 4 million tonnes per
year by 2035.
• In a first demonstration, 40 tonnes of blue ammonia were
shipped to Japan in 2020.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
-400000-300000-200000-1000000100000200000300000400000500000600000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-400200100-1000-200300400 600500-300
Source: World Energy Council (2021); Zawya (2022); CSIS (2022)
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Saudi Arabia completely relies on natural gas and oil to
generate electricity. The National Renewable Energy Program
ran a number of tenders for projects. In 2021, the Saudi Green
Initiative investment programme was announced to support
the renewable targets for 2030. The initiative awarded seven
contracts for a combined capacity of 3.7 GW of solar.
0%
100%
516.3
0.2
1 7.7
- 47.6
-333.6
-0.05
0
94.7
13.054.0
Source: IEA, 2021
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
[NO DATA]
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
[NO DATA]
SLOW CHARGE
[NO DATA]
FAST CHARGE
[NO DATA]
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
[NO DATA]
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
[NO DATA]
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA]
Battery reuse and recycling
• There is no regulation or policy in place that requires or promotes
the re-use and recycling of batteries. AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 120IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Saudi Arabia experienced a 4.1% GDP decline in 2020
after very low growth in 2019. Growth resumed in 2021
with 3. 2%. In Saudi Arabia's transport emissions
decreased by only 2% in 2020. This is likely due to the
fact that after an initial drop in car use in March 2020,
driving returned to pre-pandemic levels by early May
2020 and has remained at normal levels since. Public
transport ridership decreased by up to 80% in the first
wave in April 2020 and recovered much more slowly,
reaching pre-pandemic levels only in March 2022.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to removing GHG emissions by
278 Mt CO₂e by 2030 relative to 2019 levels
Future targets at national level
Saudi Arabia does not have transport specific
national targets, although the Vision 2030 sets out
qualitative objectives to increase usage of public
transportation and improve efficiency of vehicles
and railways.
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehi-
cles (LDV)
Currently applicable standards:• Passenger cars: 142 g/km (2020)
• Light commercial: 186 g/km (2020)
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption-based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingFuel economy labelling requirements
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
No support measures for general uptake, but:• Investment in national EV production capacity
• Purchase of vehicles for the government fleet
Source: Saudi national sources
~5,244 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
5.2 billion SAR
Source: IMF 2022, Google community mobility reports, Apple
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
No mandates or support mechanisms are in place and
the use of biofuels is very limited. No sustainability
regulation in place.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Expansion of high-speed rail infrastructure
• Expansion of rail infrastructure
• Expansion of public transport in all major cities
• The NEOM smart city initiative
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Expansion of rail infrastructure
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
No measures at national level
Mobility
SR Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehi-
cles (LDV)
Currently applicable standards:
• Passenger cars: 142 g/km (2020)
• Light commercial: 186 g/km (2020)
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty
vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption-based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingFuel economy labelling requirements
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
No support measures for general uptake, but:• Investment in national EV production capacity
• Purchase of vehicles for the government fleet
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Expansion of high-speed rail infrastructure
• Expansion of rail infrastructure
• Expansion of public transport in all major cities
• The NEOM smart city initiative
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Expansion of rail infrastructure
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
No measures at national level
MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETSNDC
SOUTH KOREA
EV
TARGETS
SOUTH KOREA
121
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: ITF / OECDSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
South Korea is located on the southern half of the Korean Peninsula.
The population is primarily concentrated in lowland areas, where
urban density is quite high. With some 82% of the population living
in cities, subway transport captures an unusually large share of
passenger transport. South Korea boasts a well-developed railway
system, including a number of high-speed trains that have diverted
travel from air to rail (while inducing additional travel demand).

In contrast to its 2020 commitment, Korea does not provide dedicated
transport-sector targets for 2030 in its updated NDC. In line with its
net-zero commitment for 2050, Korea's updated NDC moved from a
reduction below the BAU target to a 40% reduction below 2018
levels. Plans and intermediate targets for each sector are currently
under development. The country has already set fuel-efficiency
targets for passengers and heavy-duty vehicles. Korea has measures
in nearly all relevant areas, with the exception of road pricing.
• ACHIEVE A 40% REDUC-
TION IN GHG EMISSIONS
IN 2030 COMPARED TO
2018
• ACHIEVE ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET BY
2050
• 1.13 MILLION BEVS & 200,000
FCEVS BY 2025
• 51% SHARE OF EVS IN NEW
VEHICLE SALES BY 2025 AND
83% BY 2030
• 40,000 FCEV URBAN BUSES &
30,000 FCEV TRUCKS BY 2040
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: Asian Transport
Outlook (ATO) 2022Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
1.75%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
8.11%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
[No Data]
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
52 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
0.7%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
-11.7% (2020–2050)
530.97 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
43.9 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
492.3 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
480.2 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
18 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
42.2 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
86.4% (2050)
81.4% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
01020304050607080
0 10 20 30 40 50 7060 80
66
69
69
309
361 370
38
40
40
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
0.2
3
3
12
18
60
24
59
20
67
41
86
59
Source: World Development Indicators, UNSTATS
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019
2-/3-wheeler
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD, ATO,
** does not include all transport modes
Source: ATO, ITF / OECD
* does not include all transport modes
Südkorea
15.1
13.9
5.7
70.9
72.7
21.6 TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 122123
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
107.94 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
2.43
1.95 2.09
1.94
1.75%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
587.20 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion in the Republic of Korea increased by 153%
between 1990 and 2019. Transport-sector emissions grew more slowly, registering a
143% increase over the same period, though they dropped 7% in 2020. Per capita sector
emissions are almost double the world average. Under a business-as-usual scenario,
sector emissions are projected to decrease by 15% through 2030 and then slowly decline
to 11% above 2020 levels by 2050. Road transport is by far the main contributor, with a
94% share, followed by rail with 4.4%, mostly from electricity use.
11.34
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
18.4%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
0.9%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+50%
0%
-25%
- 50%
+25%
143.4%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+200%
0%
- 200%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
60
40
20
80
100
120
160
140
180
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 122123
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 20% by 2030
• 35% by 2040
• 63.8 GW renewable generation capacity by 2030
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• Korea adopted a hydrogen strategy in 2019.
• In 2020, a hydrogen law was passed, stipulating research
and development subsidies, loans, and tax exemptions.
• The New Deal sets targets for the production of 6.2 million
FCEVs and 1200 fueling stations for 2040.
• Overseas investment for green hydrogen production is also
planned.
Battery reuse and recycling• Distributors are required to collect EV batteries. These are processed in
central collection centres operated by the Korea Environment Corporation.
• Producers must to consider recyclability in product design and actively promote recycling.
• Recycling under the Waste Control Act includes re-use for storage or in e-bicycles and the utilisation of raw materials contained in the batteries.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
1600000
-60000-300000300006000090000120000150000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-606030090 120 150-30
Source: Enviliance Asia (2021)Source: IEA (2020), CSIS (2021)
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[gCO₂ / kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
The main energy sources for power generation in South Korea
are coal (39%), nuclear power (27%), and natural gas (26%). In
2012, a Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) replaced a feed-in
tariff system to accelerate Korea’s renewable energy
deployment and create a competitive market environment for
the sector. The RPS programme requires the 13 largest power
companies to steadily increase the share of power generation
from renewables. By 2022, the mandatory supply rate under
the RPS system is 10% (versus 3.0% in 2015).
1.9%
98.1%
0
-0.27
12.6
-49.0
0
0.9
132.1
9 7. 3 8
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
[No Data]
SLOW CHARGE
[No Data]
FAST CHARGE
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
113.39131.87
[No Data]
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
[No Data]
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
[No Data]
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
19,300
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0 5 10 15 20
0
0
0
19
0
0 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 124IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Korea experienced only a moderate contraction of its
economy of 0.9% in 2020. Growth resumed in 2021 at
a rate 80% higher than before the pandemic. In Korea,
emissions from the transport sector decreased by only
5% in 2020, the third-lowest value after China, which
increased emissions during 2020, and Saudi Arabia.
According to data from Google and Apple, all travel
remained below pre-pandemic levels, including driving
cars and walking. Public transport has seen some
phases of recovery but overall remains lower than
before the pandemic.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
40% reduction in GHG emissions in 2030
relative to 2018 levels

Transport related NDC targets
Enhanced target for deployment of zero-emission
vehicles (target value not provided)
Transport related NDC measures
• Improvement of public transport services
• Enhancing operational efficiency of aircraft and ships
Future targets at national level
• Replacement of all diesel passenger locomotives
with a new bullet train by 2029
• Average fuel efficiency for vehicles of 35 km/l for
passenger vehicles by 2035
• Average fuel efficiency for heavy-duty vehicles
7.5 km/l by 2040
National EV deployment targets
• 1.13 million BEVs and 200,000 FCEVs by 2025
• 3 million FCEVs, including 2.9 million domestically
manufactured
• 51% share of EVs in new vehicle sales by 2025 and
83% by 2030
• 40,000 FCEVs in urban bus stock and 30,000 FCEVs
in truck stock by 2040
• 430,000 charging stations in residential apartments,
146,000 charging stations in commercial areas,
and 12,000 fast chargers along highways by 2025
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
Currently applicable standards:• Passenger cars: 97 g/km (2020)
• Light commercial: 181 g/km (2020)
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments Domestic aviation covered in the ETS
Mandatory vehicle labellingRational Energy Utilization Act
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Central purchase subsidies for EVs
• Reduced highway toll fees and public parking fees
• Priority in public procurement
• Investment subsidies for charging infrastructure
Source: Korean national sources
~879 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
1,256 billion KRW
Source: IMF 2022, Google community mobility reports, Apple
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
No measures to ensure the sustainability
of biofuels could be identified.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Support provided by the Act on the Promotion of Smart City Development
and Industry
• Act on the support and promotion of utilisation of mass transit
• Nation-wide unified fare-collection system
• Integrated railway and public transportation information system (planned)
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Transportation transition support project subsidies under the
Sustainable Transportation Logistics Development Act
• Digital Logistics Complex Development Project
National-level measures to
support new mobility services
Autonomous vehicles have temporary operating permission to use
BRT lines for testing and research purposes
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• Korean Bicycle Master Plan
• Master plan for a national bike network
• Incentives via 'carbon points' or the reimbursement of public transport expenses for those who walk or bike at the local level
Mobility Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
Currently applicable standards:
• Passenger cars: 97 g/km (2020)
• Light commercial: 181 g/km (2020)
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty
vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments Domestic aviation covered in the ETS
Mandatory vehicle labellingRational Energy Utilization Act
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Central purchase subsidies for EVs
• Reduced highway toll fees and public parking fees
• Priority in public procurement
• Investment subsidies for charging infrastructure
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• Support provided by the Act on the Promotion of Smart City Development
and Industry
• Act on the support and promotion of utilisation of mass transit
• Nation-wide unified fare-collection system
• Integrated railway and public transportation information system (planned)
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Transportation transition support project subsidies under the
Sustainable Transportation Logistics Development Act
• Digital Logistics Complex Development Project
National-level measures to support new mobility services
Autonomous vehicles have temporary operating permission to use
BRT lines for testing and research purposes
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• Korean Bicycle Master Plan
• Master plan for a national bike network
• Incentives via 'carbon points' or the reimbursement of public transport expenses for those who walk or bike at the local level
MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETSNDC
TURKEY
EV
TARGETS
TURKEY
125
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: ITF / OECDSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
Turkey is located between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
The most densely populated area is found around the Bosphorus.
The majority of transport is road-based, with diesel playing a major
role and LPG having an uncharacteristically high share in sector fuel
use. International aviation plays an important role in the tourism
sector, but domestic aviation has also seen substantial growth.
Turkey's Climate Change Action Plan for 2011–2023 sets quantitative
targets for increasing the share of rail and navigation in passenger
and freight transport and outlines qualitative ambitions for 2030.
These were set before Turkey announced its commitment to achiev-
ing a net-zero economy by 2053. Electrification targets concentrate on
new truck and bus sales, with the goal of 100% sales by 2040. The
measures implemented so far focus predominantly on achieving this
modal shift; only a few measures are in place to encourage vehicle
efficiency. Some tax incentives exist for electric vehicles, and the
government actively supports EV manufacturing.
• ACHIEVE A 21% REDUC-
TION IN GHG EMISSIONS
BY 2030 RELATIVE TO
BAU
• ACHIEVE ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET BY
2053
30% OF ZEVS IN NEW
TRUCK AND BUS SALES
BY 2030
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: ITF / OECD
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
1.91%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
7.90%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
5.44%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
84 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
1.1%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
13.9% (2020–2050)
109.58 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
31.3 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
353.9 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
237.9 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2019)
289.1 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
64.2 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
86.0% (2050)
76.1% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
52
56 56
135
151 150
31
32 32
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
2.31.01.1
2
67
30
68
284
5
92
95
Source: World Development Indicators, TURKSTAT, ILO
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019
2-/3-wheeler
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
** does not include all transport modes
Source: ITF / OECD, UNECE
* does not include all transport modes
Türkei
5.9
60.3
44.7
33.8
49.6
5.7 TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 126127
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
84.32 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.17
0.93 1.01
0.94
1.09%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
366.42 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Turkey's total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion increased by 185% between 1990 and
2019, but per capita emissions are still below that of the G20 and just over the global
average. Transport-sector emissions increased by 200% over the same period and are
projected to grow a further 24% by 2030. Afterward, they are expected to decrease,
falling to 8% above 2020 levels by 2050. Road transport represents 87% of transport
emissions. Rail is responsible for 5.8% of sector emissions, mostly from electricity use,
followed by aviation at 4.6%.
4.34
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
22.8%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
14.9%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+50%
0%
-25%
- 50%
+25%
200.1%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+250%
0%
- 250%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
60
40
20
80
100
120
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 126127
Fuel supply and use
Source: REN21
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 30% by 2023
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
The role of hydrogen
• Turkey does not yet have a hydrogen strategy in place, but
it is currently under development.
• The draft strategy focuses on hydrogen production from
renewable energy and coal.
• A number of technical initiatives and commercial studies
are ongoing, mainly driven by the private sector.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
-10000-5000050001000015000200002500030000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-10105015 20 25 30-5
Source: EnergyNews (2022), SWP (2022)
[ Million TJ]
Source: IEA
CO₂ intensity of power
76
78
80
82
84
86
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[g CO₂ /kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Non-renewable electricity in Turkey is mostly generated using
coal and natural gas. In Turkey, renewable electricity produc-
tion is mainly promoted through a guaranteed feed-in tariff
set by the Turkish Renewable Energy Resources Support
Mechanism (YEKDEM). The feed-in tariff is limited to 10 years
and is scheduled to expire at the end of 2022; a follow-up
system is under discussion. The system also includes purchase
guarantees, connection and dispatch priorities, lower license
fees, license exemptions in exceptional circumstances and
various practical conveniences in project preparation and land
acquisition. Since 2016, the right to develop 'Renewable Energy
Resource Areas' (YEKA) is granted through reverse auctions.
0.6%
99.4%
3.2
-0.2
13.9
-5.3
0
-0.1
29.4
25.6
127.46145.01
Source: IEA, 2021
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
[NO DATA]
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
[NO DATA]
SLOW CHARGE
[NO DATA]
FAST CHARGE
[NO DATA]
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
[NO DATA]
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
[NO DATA]
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021[NO DATA] [NO DATA] [NO DATA]
Battery reuse and recycling
• There is no regulation or policy in place that requires or promotes
the re-use and recycling of batteries. AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 128IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
Turkey already experienced low growth in 2019 with
0.9% and achieved higher growth in 2020 than 2019 at
1.8%. This picked up further in 2021 (+11%). Despite this,
emissions from the transport sector decreased by 9%
in 2020. Public transport ridership dropped by around
70% below pre-pandemic levels in spring 2020. Since
July 2021, public transport ridership has been 20–40%
above pre-pandemic levels. Car driving only saw a
very short reduction in the first wave, and has been
up to 100% above pre-pandemic levels in 2020 and up
to 200% in 2021.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
21% reduction in GHG emissions in 2030
compared with BAU
Transport related NDC measures
A range of planned measures, including:
• Mode shift from road to rail and maritime
• Promotion of alternative fuels and clean vehicles
• Investment in rail infrastructure
• Replacement of old vehicles
• Reduction of fuel consumption measures

Future targets at national level
The Climate Change Action Plan for 2011–2023 has
set the following targets:
• An increase in the share of rail freight
from 5% (2009)
• to 15% and in the share of passenger transport
from 2% (2009) to 10% by 2023
• A decrease in the share of highways in freight
transport from 80% of tonne-kilometres in 2009
to below 60%, and in passenger transport from
90% of passenger-kilometres in 2009 to 72%
National EV deployment targets
30% of ZEVs in new truck and bus sales by 2030

National ICE phase-out commitments
100% of ZEVs in new truck and bus sales by 2040
Energy
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingEnergy Label similar to EU regulation
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Tax incentives for electric vehicles, incl. exemption from the new vehicle
registration tax (SCT)
• Support to EV car manufacturing
Source: Turkish national sources
~319 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
5.9 billion TRY
Source: IMF 2022, Google, Apple
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
No measures to ensure sustainability
of biofuels were found.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
2012 EE Strategy and Climate Change Action Plan to develop efficient
transport systems and to increase the share of maritime and rail transport
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
2012 EE Strategy and Climate Change Action Plan to develop efficient transport systems and to increase the share of maritime and rail transport
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
Climate Change Action Plan to develop and improve bicycle and
pedestrian transport
Mobility MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS NDC
UNITED KINGDOM
EV
TARGETS
UNITED
KINGDOM
129
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: ITF / OECDSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
In the UK a large share of the population lives in and around London,
but significant urban clusters are also located in central Britain, the
Scottish lowlands, southern Wales, and the east of Northern Ireland.
The UK is connected to mainland Europe via the Channel Tunnel, and
also lies along important sea lanes. Road transport is the most
important mode of passenger and freight transport.
The UK has a national target to reduce GHG emissions from transport
by 34–45% below 2019 levels by 2030 and achieve net-zero emissions
in the sector by 2050, in line with its target to become a net-zero
economy by 2050. The country has set additional targets for 2030 for
sustainable aviation fuels and aims to end the sales of new petrol
and diesel cars and vans by that year, followed by other vehicle
categories over the next decade.
• ACHIEVE AT LEAST A 68%
REDUCTION IN GHG EMIS-
SIONS BY 2030 RELATIVE
TO 1990 LEVELS
• ACHIEVE ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET BY
2050
• 30% OF ZEVS IN NEW TRUCK
AND BUS SALES BY 2030
• 300,000 PUBLIC CHARGING
STATIONS BY 2030
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: UK Statistical Data
Passenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
2.28%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
4.92%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
4.86%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
67 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
0.9%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
6.9% (2020–2050)
277.83 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
39.8 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
865.2 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
562.8 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2020)
186.6 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2019)
56.3 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
90.2% (2050)
83.9% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
65
70 71
465 474 477
19
19 19
2
015
2019
2
015
2019
1.01.01.01.0
9
10
84
85
5
4
93.7
3.78
87
88
Source: Office for National Statistics, UK Statistical Data
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019
2-/3-wheeler
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD,
** does not include all transport modes
Source: World Development Indicators, ATO, ITF / OECD
* does not include all transport modes
Großbritannien
0.5
66.0
61.2
33.5
38.4
0.5
Energy/carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
No standard
Energy/carbon emission
standards for heavy duty
vehicles (HDV)
No standard
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingEnergy Label similar to EU regulation
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Tax incentives for electric vehicles, incl. exemption from the new vehicle
registration tax (SCT)
• Support to EV car manufacturing
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
2012 EE Strategy and Climate Change Action Plan to develop efficient transport systems and to increase the share of maritime and rail transport
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
2012 EE Strategy and Climate Change Action Plan to develop efficient transport systems and to increase the share of maritime and rail transport
National-level measures to support new mobility services
No measures at national level
National measures to support non-motorised transport
Climate Change Action Plan to develop and improve bicycle and
pedestrian transport TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 130131
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
209.63 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
1.64
1.85 1.79
1.42
1.01%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
339.25 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion in the UK decreased by 38% between 1990
and 2019. Emissions in the transport sector increased by 1% over the same period, but
dropped just over 20% in 2020. As a result, the transport sector was responsible for over
35% of total emissions in 2019. Emissions from the sector increased between 1990 and
2007 and started declining afterwards. Between 2013 and 2017 transport emissions rose
and then decreased again. Under a business-as-usual scenario, sector emissions are
projected to decrease another 6% by 2030 and then increase again around 27% above
2020 levels by 2050.
5.05
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
35.3%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-13.9%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+50%
0%
-25%
- 50%
+25%
-4.9%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+50%
0%
- 50%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
20
40
60
80
160
180
140
120
100
200
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 130131
Fuel supply and use
Source: IEA
Source: REN21
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 40 GW of offshore wind by 2030
• 1 GW of utility-scale solar by 2030
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
CO₂ intensity of power
The role of hydrogen
• The UK released a hydrogen strategy in 2021.
• The UK aims to introduce 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen
production by 2030.
• In 2022, the Hydrogen Investor Roadmap was released
with £240 million in funding up to 2025.
• Up to 2030, the focus will be on buses; afterwards, it will
be on increasing hydrogen use in HDVs, shipping, and
aviation.
Battery reuse and recycling• Producers required to collect / take back and recycle batteries and
accumulators (including those used in electric vehicles)
• Batteries may not be incinerated or dumped in landfill sites
• Approval is required for the collection, treatment, recycling, and export of batteries
• Batery producers must pay for collection, treatment, recycling, and disposal
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
1600000
-40000-30000-20000-1000001000020000300004000050000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-4030-3020-2010-1040 500
Source: UK Government Source: UK Government (2021, 2022), Ricardo
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[ Million TJ]
[g CO₂ /kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
Non-renewable electricity generation in the UK is mostly
generated using natural gas and nuclear. Renewable
electricity sources are supported mainly through the
'Contracts for Difference' scheme. The latest auction round,
in December 2021, aimed to secure 12 GW of capacity, more
than the three previous rounds combined. Previous
schemes, such as the Renewables Obligation scheme and
the feed-in tariff, were closed in 2017 and 2019, respectively.
Since 2020, small-scale generation has been supported
through a smart export guarantee regime, enabling market
access for small producers.
5.2%
94.8%
48.1
0
22.0
-16.4
-38.0
-0.5
3 7.1
40.2
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
29,000 *
SLOW CHARGE
7,700 *
FAST CHARGE
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
154.44151.87
2.3%
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
19%
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS
IN NEW SALES (2021)
+1,338.2%
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
781,100
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0100200300400500600700800
49
29
5
1
0
750 AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 132IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
The UK experienced a 9.3% contraction of its economy
in 2020 but growth resumed in 2021 at 7.4%. Some of
this effect may also be due to the UK leaving the EU.
National rail and the London tube saw ridership
decreases of up to 95% by May 2020. Ridership recov-
ered to around 40% of pre-pandemic levels by the end
of 2020, before dropping again. Over 2021 and early
2022 ridership recovered slowly. Overall, emissions
from the transport sector decreased by 23% in 2020,
the third-highest value in the G20.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to reduce economy-wide GHG emissions
by at least 68% by 2030, relative to 1990s levels

Future targets at national level
• 34–45% reduction in transport emissions by 2030
relative to 2019 levels
• Make 10% of aviation fuels sustainable by 2030
• Net-zero emissions in transport by 2050

National EV deployment targets
• 30% of ZEVs in new truck and bus sales by 2030
• 300,000 public charging stations by 2030

National ICE phase-out commitments
• End the sale of new petrol and diesel cars and
vans by 2030
• All new cars and vans must be zero emission
at the tailpipe starting in 2035
• 100% of ZEVs in new truck and bus sales by 2040
• 100% zero-emission road vehicles by 2040, from
motorcycles to buses and HGVs (under discussion)
• 100% zero-emission HDVs by 2035 (<26t) and
2040 (>26t) (under discussion)
• Deliver a net-zero rail network by 2050, with the
ambition to remove all diesel-only trains by 2040
Energy
Energy / carbon emission
standards for light duty vehicles (LDV)
Current EU CO₂ efficiency standards:• Passenger cars: 95 g/km (2021) • Light commercial: 147 g/km (2020)
Future standards (2030):• Passenger cars: 59 g/km • Light commercial: 101 g/km
Energy / carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
• The UK transitioned EU regulation to UK law
Targets for average CO₂ emissions from new heavy duty-vehicles:• In 2025, 15% lower than in 2019 • In 2030, at least 30% lower than in 2019
Pricing instruments • First-year special registration tax based on CO₂
• Company car taxation based on CO₂
• Circulation tax based on CO₂
• Vehicle Excise Duty based on CO₂
Mandatory vehicle labellingNational implementation of the EU Car Labelling Directive 1999/94/EC
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• CO₂/km, size, and range-based purchase subsidy scheme for passenger vehicles
• Purchase subsidies for all-electric and hydrogen buses
• Automotive Transformation Fund: 500 GBP to support EVs
• Consultations in progress to move to ZEV mandates by 2024
• Reduced taxation for company cars
• Support for charging infrastructure deployment, including for residential charging
• Proposed legislation would require charging infrastructure for new buildings and renovations
Source: UK national sources
~4,136 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL-SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
3.73 billion GBP
Source: IMF 2022, Google community mobility reports, Apple
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
Renewable fuels must meet an emissions-saving
threshold that depends on the fuel type and when
the production installations were built. Biofuels from
feedstocks from forest biomass and residues and
wastes from agriculture have additional criteria
regarding the type of land allowed for feedstock.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• National Bus Strategy, to improve bus services and mode integration
• Improvement of rail connectivity with other modes
• Integration of GHG emission reduction for transport investment allocation
• Clean air zone framework to support local low-emission zone implementation
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Expansion and upgrade of freight rail infrastructure
• Grants for intermodal hubs
• Mode shift revenue support scheme
• Funding for developing and piloting new solutions for urban freight
• 40% increase in transport investments in public and shared transport
National-level measures to support new mobility services
• Guidance for local governments on how to promote shared car ownership
• Mobility as a service code of practice (planned)
• 'Commute Zero' programme (planned)
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• Cycling and walking plan for England (2020) and investment strategy
• Employee benefit scheme for bicycles and safety equipment
• Subsidies for electric cargo bikes
• National funding for cycling infrastructure
Mobility
£ MOBILITY
URBANISATION
NDC
POPULATION
EV
TARGETS NDC
UNITED STATES
EV
TARGETS
UNITED STATES
133
Rail infrastructure
Due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions data from 2020 might show a misleading declining trend. We therefore show 2019 data, unless we show timelines that include 2020.
2015
High-speed rail
Other electric rail
Non electric rail
Share of total rail lines [%]
2018 2019
Source: RAILISA STAT UICSource: World Urbanisation Prospects 2018
$
The US features large urban clusters on its western and eastern
seaboards, while inland areas are less densely populated. The large
distances between cities make air travel an increasingly important
mode of transport, accounting for 15% of passenger transport volume
in 2019. Mass transit and rail travel play a minor role in passenger
transport, with a share below 1%, the lowest in the G20. However, rail
plays an important role in freight, accounting for just over 40% of
freight volume in 2017.
In the long term, the US aims to reduce GHG emissions from aviation
to or below 2019 levels by 2030 and to set a related sustainable
aviation fuel target. Half of LDV sales are to be electric by 2030 and
the government aims to replace its complete fleet with electric
vehicles by 2035. Tax incentives to support the electrification targets
are strongly enhanced in the new 'Inflation Reduction Act'.
• ACHIEVE A GHG EMISSION
REDUCTION OF 50–52%
BY 2030 RELATIVE TO
2005 LEVELS
• ACHIEVE ECONOMY-WIDE
NET-ZERO TARGET BY
2050
• 50% LDVS IN NEW SALES
BY 2030
• 100% SHARE OF ZEVS IN
GOVERNMENT PROCUREMENTS
BY 2035, INCLUDING 100%
ZEVS IN LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLE
ACQUISITIONS BY 2027
= 100 inhabitants
= 100 motor vehicles
Source: Bureau of Transportation
Statistics, ITF / OECDPassenger
cars
Motor-
cycles
Freight
vehicles
2015
2020
15.81%
SHARE IN
GLOBAL GDP
(2020)
4.20%
TRANSPORT
SECTOR SHARE
GDP (2020)
4.69%
EMPLOYMENT
IN TRANSPORT
(2019)
329 million people
CURRENT POPULATION (2020)
4.2%
SHARE OF GLOBAL
POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED POPULATION GROWTH:
11.7% (2020–2050)
36.02 people/km²
POPULATION DENSITY (2020)
60 people/km²
WORLD AVERAGE
37.9 years
AVERAGE AGE (2022)
7,989.1 billion
passenger-km
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
VOLUME* (2019)
908.5 road motor
vehicles per
1,000 inhabitants
MOTORISATION RATE
(2019)
5,589.2 billion
tonne-km
FREIGHT TRANSPORT
VOLUME** (2018)
274 million people
TOTAL URBAN POPULATION (2020)
EXPECTED SHARE OF URBAN POPULATION:
89.2% (2050)
82.7% of total
URBAN POPULATION
(2020)
61.6%
G2O AVERAGE
56.2%
WORLD AVERAGE
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
432
406 486
415 406 396
27 26 26
2
015
2019
2
015
2018
1.00.71.00.60.5
0.5
78
78
76
14
15
43
8
45
4954
Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
FemaleMale%
[per 1,000 inhabitants]
Source: World Development Indicators,
World Population Prospects 2022
Rail, HSR
Rail, other
Road, car
Road, bus
Aviation
Waterways
2015
2019/2018
2-/3-wheeler
Source: World Development Indicators, ITF / OECD
** does not include all transport modes
Source: Bureau of Transportation Statistics
* does not include all transport modes
USA
0
0
100
100
0
0
Energy / carbon emission
standards for light duty
vehicles (LDV)
Current EU CO₂ efficiency standards:
• Passenger cars: 95 g/km (2021) • Light commercial: 147 g/km (2020)
Future standards (2030):
• Passenger cars: 59 g/km • Light commercial: 101 g/km
Energy / carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
• The UK transitioned EU regulation to UK law
Targets for average CO₂ emissions from new heavy duty-vehicles:• In 2025, 15% lower than in 2019 • In 2030, at least 30% lower than in 2019
Pricing instruments • First-year special registration tax based on CO₂
• Company car taxation based on CO₂
• Circulation tax based on CO₂
• Vehicle Excise Duty based on CO₂
Mandatory vehicle labellingNational implementation of the EU Car Labelling Directive 1999/94/EC
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• CO₂/km, size, and range-based purchase subsidy scheme for passenger vehicles
• Purchase subsidies for all-electric and hydrogen buses
• Automotive Transformation Fund: 500 GBP to support EVs
• Consultations in progress to move to ZEV mandates by 2024
• Reduced taxation for company cars
• Support for charging infrastructure deployment, including for residential charging
• Proposed legislation would require charging infrastructure for new buildings and renovations
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
• National Bus Strategy, to improve bus services and mode integration
• Improvement of rail connectivity with other modes
• Integration of GHG emission reduction for transport investment allocation
• Clean air zone framework to support local low-emission zone implementation
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Expansion and upgrade of freight rail infrastructure
• Grants for intermodal hubs
• Mode shift revenue support scheme
• Funding for developing and piloting new solutions for urban freight
• 40% increase in transport investments in public and shared transport
National-level measures to support new mobility services
• Guidance for local governments on how to promote shared car ownership
• Mobility as a service code of practice (planned)
• 'Commute Zero' programme (planned)
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• Cycling and walking plan for England (2020) and investment strategy
• Employee benefit scheme for bicycles and safety equipment
• Subsidies for electric cargo bikes
• National funding for cycling infrastructure TOTAL EMISSIONSTRANSPORT SECTOR EMISSIONS 134135
5.0
WORLD AVERAGE
8.4
G20 AVERAGE
SHARE OF TRANSPORT EMISSIONS IN TOTAL CO₂
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Sources: IEA, SLOCAT, UNDESA
* projected emissions under an average business-as-usual scenario
t CO₂ per capita
Source: IEA
1,763.18 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
(2019)
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS PER CAPITA IN THE
TRANSPORT SECTOR
2030*
20152019
2020
4.40
5.31 5.37
4.59
14.13%
SHARE IN GLOBAL
EMISSIONS (2019)
4,744.45 Mt CO₂
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION (2019)
Total CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion in the US decreased by 1% between 1990 and
2019. Emissions from the transport sector increased by 23% over the same period, and
now account for just over 37% of total emissions. Per capita transport emissions are the
highest in the G20. Aviation plays an important role in domestic transport, representing
7.4% of sector emissions, the second-highest share in the G20. Under a business-as-usual
scenario, sector emissions are projected to decrease 11% by 2030 and 17% by 2050
relative to 2020 levels.
14.13
TOTAL CO₂ EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION PER CAPITA (2019)
Sources: IEA
36.1%
Transport sector emissions by subsector
t CO₂ per capita
-3.7%
CHANGE IN TOTAL EMISSIONS
(2015–2019)
+50%
0%
-25%
- 50%
+25%
23.3%
CHANGE IN TRANSPORT
SECTOR EMISSIONS
(1990–2019)
+50%
0%
- 50%
Other emissions from
fuel combustion
Transport emissions
Intl. aviation
Intl. shipping
Civil aviation
Other
Rail electricity
Rail
Road electricity
Road
Waterborne navigation
Total national emissions
0
50
150
200
100
250
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Source: IEA
[Mt CO₂] ENERGYELECTRIC VEHICLES
LINKAGES TO THE
ENERGY SECTOR 134135
Fuel supply and use
Source: US LCDS 2021
* electricity split calculated based on share of renewables
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Year: 2020Source: IEA World Energy Statistics
Existing targets for renewable
electricity generation
• 100% carbon pollution-free electricity by 2035
GASOLINE PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
DIESEL PRICE (2020)
US cents/litre
G20
Average¹
104.31
G20
lowest
54
G20
highest
172.41
G20 Average¹
93.08
G20 lowest
13
G20 highest
155.51
* local currency prices converted
using OECD annual exchange rates
Source: Globalpetrolprices.com *
The role of hydrogen
• The hydrogen strategy in place focuses on R&D.
• The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act of 2021
contains a $9.5 billion budget to boost clean-hydrogen
development.
• Hydrogen Earthshot initiative aims to reduce the cost of
hydrogen by 80% to $1 per 1 kilogramme in the next
decade (“111 Goal”).
Battery reuse and recycling• There is no regulation in place that requires the re-use and recycling
of batteries.
• The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act provides funding
for research and local government programmes.
• The proposed Battery and Critical Mineral Recycling Act, introduced into Congress in 2021, would create incentives for re-use and recycling
and establish a task force on producer requirements.
Energy use in transport by fuel
Other liquid biofuels
Biodiesels
Biogasoline
Biogases
Fuel oil
Gas/diesel oil excl. biofuels
Electricity
Total fossil aviation fuels
Motor gasoline excl. biofuels
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Natural gas
25
20
15
10
5
0
Biofuels &
renewable
electricity*
Fossil fuels
0
5000000
10000000
15000000
20000000
25000000
-200000-1000000100000200000300000400000500000600000700000800000
Production Imports Exports Stock changes
Transport fuels
(excl. biofuels)
Crude oil &
oil products
[1,000 kt]
-200300-1002001004005006007008000
Source: ACS Energy Letters (2022), U.S. CongressSource: US Department of Energy, US Congress; WEF (2022)
[ Million TJ]
Source: IEA
CO₂ intensity of power
54
60
58
56
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
[g CO₂ /kWh]
Index values: 2000 = 100
In the US, natural gas and coal are the primary fuels for
power generation, followed by nuclear. One of the main
policies for supporting renewables was the Renewable
Electricity Production Tax Credit (PTC). Electricity from wind,
closed-loop biomass, and geothermal sources that
commenced construction before December 31, 2021 received
the PTC, which expired for all renewables after this date.
A second policy for supporting renewables is the Business
Energy Investment Tax Credit (ITC), which, depending on the
technology, applies corporate tax credits at varying rates. The
Residential Renewable Energy Tax Credit allows US residents
to claim a credit for qualified expenditures for their personal
taxes. The credit rate is decreasing and the programme is
scheduled to expire at the end of 2023. The current credit
rate is 26%. The 2022 Energy and Climate Bill introduces
further support, mostly in the form of tax credits.
6.1%
93.9%
705.8
-9.5
62.6
-154.7
-164.2
-1,3
291.1
602.6
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE (2021)
[NoData]
SLOW CHARGE
[NoData]
FAST CHARGE
28,789 *
SLOW CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
43,927 *
FAST CHARGE
G20 AVERAGE
*number of units
68.070.0
[NoData]
SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN
TOTAL PASSENGER CAR
STOCK (2021)
ELECTRIC CAR FLEET BY VEHICLE TYPE (2015 VS. 2021)
[NoData]
TOTAL FLEET GROWTH (2015–2021)
2,032,300
vehicles
TOTAL STOCK OF
ELECTRIC CARS (2021)
Source: IEA EV Data Explorer
[1,000 vehicles]
2015
2021
0 400 8001200160020002400
400
0
0
0
0
2,032
[NO DATA]
MARKET SHARE OF ELECTRIC CARS IN NEW SALES (2021) AMBITION
TRADE₂OFFS
COVID 136IMPLEMENTATION
Source: OECD
The US economy contracted by 3.4% in 2020, but
growth resumed in 2021 at a rate 150% higher than
before the pandemic. Public transport ridership in the
twenty-largest metropolitan areas fell by 40–85%
between March and April 2020. While ridership
increased again slightly later in 2020, levels remained
substantially below pre-pandemic levels in early 2021.
Commuter rail agencies reported that ridership
remained 59% below pre-pandemic levels by
September 2021. Overall, emissions from the transport
sector decreased by 12% in 2020.
NDCs and national climate targets
General NDC targets
Committed to reduce GHG emissions by 50–52%
by 2030 relative to 2005 levels
Transport related NDC measures
• Tailpipe emission and efficiency standards
• Incentives for zero-emission personal vehicles
• Funding for charging infrastructure
• Investment in transport infrastructure to support
the shift to public and active transport modes
Future targets at national level
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions from aviation
to or below 2019 levels (216 Mt CO₂) by 2030
• Production of 3 billion gallons of sustainable
aviation fuel by 2030
National EV deployment targets
• 50% of LDV sales by 2030
• 100% share of ZEVs in federal government vehicle
procurement by 2035, including 100% share of
ZEVs in light-duty vehicle acquisitions by 2027
• Build a national network of 500,000 EV chargers
by 2030
Energy
Energy / carbon emission
standards for light duty vehi-
cles (LDV)
Currently applicable standards (2022):• Passenger cars: 116 g/km
• Light commercial: 169 g/km
Future standards (2026):
• Passenger cars: 1.8 g/km
• Light commercial: 157 g/km
Standards are currently under revision and proposed to increase by 1.5%
Energy / carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
• Phase 1 (2014–2018): 6–23% fuel savings compared with 2010 baseline
• Phase 2 (2018–2027): 16–30% fuel savings compared with 2010 baseline
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption-based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingEPA Motor Vehicle Fuel Economy Label
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Tax credits for EV purchases and additional rebates under the new climate and energy bill, including for used vehicles; linked to some
'place-of-origin' requirements
• US$5.5 billion earmarked for charging infrastructure investment, including
in rural areas
• Support for domestic production facilities for EVs and critical minerals
• Inflation Reduction Act 2022:
1. EV tax credit for vehicles (new & used) and charger credit
2. Promotes production of EV components within the US or in countries
with trade agreements
Source: U.S. national sources
3,650 MILLION USD
LEVEL OF FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES
IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR (2020)
3.65 billion USD
Source: IMF 2022, GAO, Yi et al (2021)
SubsidiesSustainability of biofuels
To meet environmental objectives, lifecycle green-
house gas emissions need to show a minimum
reduction against a petroleum baseline. Thresholds
are defined for different combinations of feedstock,
production processes and fuels, and range from
20 to 60%.
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
Various funds that support investment in public transport infrastructure, integrated mobility innovation, and service quality
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Capital investment grants for heavy rail
• Inflation Reduction Act: 1 billion funding for the support of heavy duty
vehicle electrification
National-level measures to support new mobility services
• Federal Automated Vehicles Policy
• 2021 comprehensive plan for automated vehicles
• Shared-use mobility centre
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• Bicycle and Pedestrian Program
• Funding programmes for active mobility infrastructure and planning
• Active transportation funding and finance toolkit
Mobility
$ 137
Agora Verkehrswende | 08 | Country FACTSHEETS
Energy / carbon emission
standards for light duty vehi-
cles (LDV)
Currently applicable standards (2022):
• Passenger cars: 116 g/km
• Light commercial: 169 g/km
Future standards (2026):
• Passenger cars: 1.8 g/km
• Light commercial: 157 g/km
Standards are currently under revision and proposed to increase by 1.5%
Energy / carbon emission
standards for heavy duty vehicles (HDV)
• Phase 1 (2014–2018): 6–23% fuel savings compared with 2010 baseline
• Phase 2 (2018–2027): 16–30% fuel savings compared with 2010 baseline
Pricing instruments No CO₂ or energy consumption-based taxes
Mandatory vehicle labellingEPA Motor Vehicle Fuel Economy Label
Support mechanism for
electric vehicles &
charging infrastructure
• Tax credits for EV purchases and additional rebates under the new climate and energy bill, including for used vehicles; linked to some
'place-of-origin' requirements
• US$5.5 billion earmarked for charging infrastructure investment, including
in rural areas
• Support for domestic production facilities for EVs and critical minerals
• Inflation Reduction Act 2022:
1. EV tax credit for vehicles (new & used) and charger credit
2. Promotes production of EV components within the US or in countries
with trade agreements
National programmes to
support shift to public
transport
Various funds that support investment in public transport infrastructure, integrated mobility innovation, and service quality
Measures to support
low-carbon freight logistics
• Capital investment grants for heavy rail
• Inflation Reduction Act: 1 billion funding for the support of heavy duty
vehicle electrification
National-level measures to support new mobility services
• Federal Automated Vehicles Policy
• 2021 comprehensive plan for automated vehicles
• Shared-use mobility centre
National measures to support non-motorised transport
• Bicycle and Pedestrian Program
• Funding programmes for active mobility infrastructure and planning
• Active transportation funding and finance toolkit SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
05 139
05 | Summary and recommendations
The economies of the G20 are responsible for the lion’s
share of global economic activity, and, by extension,
for the preponderance of global GHG emissions. Given
the role of transport as a backbone for economic activ-
ity, international climate action must give adequate
attention to the sector – not least because transport is
the only sector in which notable reductions have not
been achieved since 1990. Quite to the contrary:
transport emissions have been spiking on the back of
increasing motorisation around the globe.
The G20 confirmed its steadfast commitment to the
Paris Agreement at the 2022 summit in Bali. In the
official statement from this summit, the G20 under-
lined the “urgency to rapidly transform and diversify
energy systems” and declared its dedication to “accel-
erating and ensuring clean, sustainable, just, afforda-
ble, and inclusive energy transitions” while also
encouraging the “flow of sustainable investments”.
Due to the pandemic and growing geopolitical ten-
sions, the international commitment to climate action
is currently facing challenges with even the strong
economies of the G20 coming under significant pres-
sure. The fact that climate action is not being accorded
the necessary attention is apparent in the specific
content of the Bali G20 declaration, including lack of
reference to the importance of decarbonizing and
reshaping transport. Individual G20 members face
divergent challenges when it comes to socioeconomic
transformation in general and the remaking of the
transport sector in particular. China and India still
have relatively low per capita emissions, but absolute
transport-related emissions have increased dramati-
cally in recent years. The transformation of the energy
sector towards renewable energy is a difficult task for
most countries, in part because of the need for robust
change in core economic sectors, such as vehicle man-
ufacturing. In addition, current tectonic shifts in geo-
politics mean greater economic competition between
China, India, and Indonesia, on the one hand, and the
US, Western Europe, and Japan, on the other.
Divergent challenges to effective climate action are
also evident in the disparity between industrialised
and emerging economies. All international actors need
to expand their ambition. But while emerging econo-
mies need to address rapid motorisation and stagger-
ing growth rates in the transport sector, industrialised
countries, by contrast, need to bring down high per
capita emissions, and, by extension, total emission
levels. COP26 has seen an unprecendeted number of
new transport related commitments, yet policies thus
far have not resulted in an observable slowing of
existing trends. Regretably, COP27 has also failed to
trigger accelerated action in transport. On a positive
note, there was no retreat from existing commitments.
During the G20 presidency of India, experts hope that
transport and the decoupling of emissions from eco-
nomic growth will play a more central role in the
nation’s agenda. By providing insight into national
decarbonisation trends, this report aims to serve as a
basis for discussion as well as an impetus for policy
direction.
Having a clear and ambitious vision for the future of
the transport sector is crucial for bringing about radi-
cal change in the movement of people and goods. In
this regard, an important first step is formulating a
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and setting
corresponding targets in national energy policy. How-
ever, setting targets is a futile endeavour in the
absence of clear policies and measures that will bring
about their attainment. Legislators must pass laws that
encourage the testing and implementation of new
ideas and concepts. Yet they must also promote the
accelerated expansion of proven low carbon systems
and ensure policies take a holistic approach, address-
ing the linkages to other sectors, such as energy and
land use.
Public transport infrastructure, for example, will be
key not only to reducing GHG emissions in passenger
transport, but also to improving the quality of urban
life by reducing congestion, air pollution and traffic
fatalities.
The broader changes needed to transform the trans-
port sector are illustrated with the aid of the diagram
shown in figure 5.1. The “mobility transition” is about
changing how people get around. Its goal is decreasing
final energy consumption in the transport sector Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
140
without restricting individual mobility. The “energy
transition in transport” refers to the technological
transformation needed to serve mobility demand more
efficiently while generating lower emissions (Agora
Verkehrswende 2017a). The success of the “transport
transformation” as a whole thus rests on both a “mobil-
ity transition” and an “energy transition in transport”.
The model is a further elaboration of the “Avoid, Shift
and Improve” strategy, which is at the core of the
transport transformation. Avoid–Shift–Improve
approaches are critical for achieving a just energy
transition in transport. Fortunately, G20 countries
have already begun this important work.
Fossil fuel subsidy reform can realign market signals to
avoid unnecessary vehicle trips and accelerate the
uptake of renewable electricity for low-carbon mobil-
ity. From 2014 to 2017, India incrementally reduced oil
and gas subsidies by 75%, while increasing funding for
renewable energy six-fold. Indonesia has reallocated
some fossil fuel subsidies for education, health, and
infrastructure projects, including renewables and
public transport.
Increasing investments to more energy-efficient
means of passenger and freight transport can also help
shift consumer demand toward lower-carbon trans-
port. Saudi Arabia has launched high-speed rail to
boost development and relieve congestion. Turkey is
developing 16 new high-speed rail lines to triple its
network length by 2023. France has banned short
domestic flights that can be easily replaced by rail.
Brazil aims to double the share of its freight trans-
ported via rail by 2035, and India has set a target to
move at least 50% of goods via rail by 2030 and fully
electrify its rail system by 2024. Argentina is adopting
new freight technologies to reduce transport emis-
sions by 8.4% by 2030.
Though not a silver bullet for transport decarbonisa-
tion, electric vehicles can improve energy efficiency
by producing about 20% less CO₂ emissions than
internal combustion engines. Private companies such
as Audi and Jaguar (supported by GridCars) are install-
ing public charging stations in South Africa in major
hubs and along frequently travelled routes. In India,
two- and three-wheelers are the most widely used
modes of transport. The country’s 2030 electrification
target for these modes will help to lower carbon emis-
Agora Verkehrswende (2023) | Source: Authors’s illustration based on Agora Verkehrswende (2017a)
The geometry of the Transport Transformation Figure 5.1
MOBILI TY TRANSITION
The transition t o sustainab le mobi lity
will reduce energ y consumpt ion
without limiting mobi lity.
ENERG Y TRANSITION
IN TRANSP ORT
The transition to clean energ y in the
transport sector will cover remaining
demand w ith carbon-neu tral energ y.
TRANSP ORT TRANSFORMATION
This large-scale transformation w ill ensur e
that transport is carbon neu tral by 2050.
+ Study | 05 | Summary and recommendations
141
sions. Lastly, Brazil, in order to meet the growing
demand for electric buses, has launched a domestic
manufacturing and assembly industry with various
companies, including BYD, Daimler, and Eletra.
Going forward, it is important that countries continue
to focus on avoid and shift measures in addition to
direct electrification. This will lower energy demand
in the transport sector while increasing the supply of
renewable energy for other uses.
More rapid action is needed
Delayed action will require more painful changes later
While there were promising policy developments in
some countries over the last years, far more ambition
is needed in the transport sector to achieve the objec-
tives of the Paris Agreement and to uphold the com-
mitments from COP26. The year-over-year growth in
transport-sector emissions showed a marginal
decrease of -0.15% in 2019 and some G20 countries in
fact have witnessed a reduction in emissions since
2015. However, overall G20 transport emissions grew
by almost 6% in 2015–2019.
Only a few countries are moving forward
with new action
Despite some positive trends in the area of fuel effi-
ciency, ICE phase out, emission standards, and EV pol-
icy support, new large-scale measures to support the
rapid decarbonisation of the transport sector are still
lacking.
A focus on fuel standards and electrification
is not enough
Not enough focus on changing mobility patterns
Since 2018 many countries have taken steps towards
the electrification of road transport, setting objectives
for EV penetration, sales, and charging infrastructure,
although with varying degrees of ambition. In many
cases, these objectives are backed up with specific
support policies.
A sole focus on vehicle technology will not be sufficient
for decarbonisation given a growing population,
increasing motorisation rates, and growing vehicle sizes.
Indeed, more efficient transport systems are essential
for achieving a decarbonisation pathway in the trans-
port sector. Measures that support a shift to more effi-
cient, less carbon-intensive modes of transport remain
too few and far between. While all countries are invest-
ing in public transport infrastructure, this investment
has often failed to keep pace with rising demand. Greater
efforts are needed to develop new mobility services and
make public transport, low-carbon freight alternatives,
and non-motorised transport more attractive.
Measures that reduce transport demand without
compromising mobility are needed
The G20’s 2019 Energy Efficiency Leading Programme
(EELP) recognised the importance of “behavioral
change”. While such recognition was a welcome first
step, little has been achieved since then, and the 2022
Bali summit has not provided any impetus for action in
the transport sector. Further, the pandemic and geopo-
litical shifts appear to have dampened national ambi-
tions. Countries need to implement policies that reduce
transport demand. Modern communication technolo-
gies are an important catalyser of change in this area,
for they enable optimised traffic routing and provide
alternatives to travel, such as videoconferencing.
In this regard, it is important to remember that
harnessing the power of information technology to
lower transport demand necessitates broad access to
reliable, high-speed communication infrastructure.
Ongoing efficiency efforts must be complemented
by measures to reduce vehicle weight
One development undermining efforts to augment the
energy efficiency of light duty vehicles is the trend
toward larger, heavier vehicles such as SUVs, even for
battery electric vehicles. To ensure that efficiency
gains ultimately achieve envisaged carbon reductions,
measures need to be tailored in a way that encourages
the use of smaller, lighter vehicles.
Electricity used in the transport sector needs to
come from renewables
Support measures that target electrification or
power-to-X technologies should be linked to
renewable requirements
Greater electrification of land-based transport and the
expansion of power-to-X fuels for aviation and ship-
ping will only encourage decarbonisation assuming Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
142
that there is a greater reliance on zero or low carbon
electricity. Grid emission factors allow us to observe
progress in the energy transition of the power sector.
In G20 countries, however, this statistic is not declin-
ing at the required pace. While most countries show at
least moderate improvement in grid emission factors,
four G20 countries – namely, Brazil, Indonesia, Japan,
and South Africa – now have higher GHG emissions
per kWh in relation to 1990.
Market ramp-up of power-to-X fuels requires
intensified collaboration and investment
While the direct use of electricity is the most efficient
means of lowering the GHG emissions of road trans-
port, long-haul aviation and maritime shipping will
remain dependent on energy dense fuels. So-called
power-to-X fuels provide a pathway for the replace-
ment of conventional fossil energy carriers with car-
bon-neutral alternatives. However, to achieve the
desired impact of lowering net-CO₂ emissions, green
power-to-X fuels must be produced in substantial
quantities – and as of 2022, the industry is still in a
nascent state.
G20 member states should take a leading role in the
market-ramp up of power-to-X by adopting ambitious
policies that increase available funding while also pro-
viding guarantees for investors. Cooperation between
member states can be enhanced by fostering Just
Energy Transition Partnerships and by introducing
support for power-to-X technologies in partnership
agreements. In third countries with favorable produc-
tion potential, G20 countries can act as enablers by
setting up partnerships on equal terms as part of
projects for direct foreign investment and technology
transfer.
Fossil-fuel subsidies should be eliminated
Many countries have started to reduce fossil-fuel
subsidies, such as India, which phased out price
controls for transport fuels in late 2014. However,
overall subsidy levels are still distorting the market,
giving carbon-intensive modes of transport an undue
advantage.
Revenues spent or forfeited to finance fossil-fuel
subsidies could instead be used to enhance the
availability and cost-competitiveness of public trans-
port and to support both the electrification of vehicles
and the market uptake of electricity-based zero carbon
fuels for aviation and shipping.
Eliminating effects that distort the price of fossil fuels
would also support a higher share of renewables in the
power mix. As electrification is an important tool in
many countries for addressing local air pollution, a
shift towards fully renewable power generation would
help to reduce GHG emissions in the power sector
while also supporting zero-carbon transport options.
G20 activities should reflect the need for
integrated system approaches
Thinking “outside-of-the-box” is required
Many of the necessary developments in the transport
sector, such as electrification and digitalisation,
require close integration with other sectors. The
organisational structure of G20 working groups and
task forces should reflect this fact. To date, the G20 has
yet to establish a work stream dedicated to transform-
ing transport. By pooling expertise of IT, transport,
and power grid experts, it should be possible to iden-
tify measures that can promote greater integration
between the power and transport sectors, and, by
extension, guide the decarbonisation of the transport
sector and energy economy as a whole.
Study | 05 | Summary and recommendations
143 06
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Study | 07 | Annex: Data sources for factsheets Agora Verkehrswende | Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023
162 Publications by Agora Verkehrswende
163
Advantage for pioneers
How market developments and electrification strategies affect car manufacturers’ profit prospects
Leapfrogging to Sustainable Transport in Africa
Twelve Insights into the Continent’s Sector Transformation
Fair Prices in Road Transport
Guidelines for a climate-friendly, economically efficient and socially balanced reform of taxes, levies and subsidies related to passenger cars
Capital for the Transformation of the Automotive Industry
How investors and banks can take a leadership role in achieving the Paris climate goals in the automotive sector
Charging ahead
A comparative analysis of charging infrastructure development in Germany and India
Paving the way to an EV future (Executive Summary)
Policy recommendations for accelerated charging infrastructure development
Powering the Automotive Jobs of the Future
How the electrification of transport and other trends will change jobs in the automotive sector up to 2030 – and what this means for policymakers
Fit for 55 for transport professionals
What the European Commission's climate policy proposals mean for the transport sector and what the new German government should advocate
Future Ahoy!
An infographic novel about sustainable transport
Towards a Climate-Neutral Germany by 2045 (Summary)
How Germany can reach its climate targets before 2050
All publications are available on our website: www.agora-verkehrswende.de/en/publications/ Agora Verkehrswende is a joint initiative of Stiftung Mercator and the European Climate Foundation� Agora Verkehrswende is a Berlin-based think tank
that seeks to promote climate-friendly mobility.
Non-partisan and non-profit, it works together with
key stakeholders in the fields of politics, business,
academia and civil society to decarbonise the
transport system. To this end, the think-tank team
develops evidence-based policy strategies and
recommendations.
Agora Verkehrswende
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P +49 (0)30 700 14 35-000
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