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Waste Electronic and
Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India
Advancing Circular Economy of
DISCLAIMER
This document is not a statement of policy by the National Institution for Transforming India (hereinafter
referred to as NITI Aayog). It has been prepared by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) with
the support of NITI Aayog, for independent, academic, and policy-oriented research.
Unless otherwise stated, NITI Aayog, in this regard, has not made any representation or warranty, express
or implied, as to the completeness or reliability of the information, data, findings, or methodology
presented in this document. While due care has been taken by the author(s) in the preparation of
this publication, the content is based on independently procured information and analysis available
at the time of writing and may not reflect the most current policy developments or datasets.
The assertions, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the views of NITI Aayog or the Government of India, unless otherwise
mentioned. As such, NITI Aayog does not endorse or validate any of the specific views or policy
suggestions made herein by the author(s).
NITI Aayog shall not be liable under any circumstances, in law or equity, for any loss, damage,
liability, or expense incurred or suffered as a result of the use of or reliance upon the contents of
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commercial decisions.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste) and Lithium-
Ion Batteries in India
Copyright @ NITI Aayog
Published: January 2026
NITI AAYOG
National Institute for Transforming India
Government of India
NITI Bhawan, Sansad Marg
New Delhi – 110001
Waste Electronic and
Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion
Batteries in India
Advancing Circular Economy of
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India i
Acknowledgements
We thank Shri BVR Subrahmanyam, CEO, NITI Aayog, for his guidance and valuable
suggestions in the preparation of this report. We also thank the members of the Working
Group on Circular Economy of Electronic waste (E-waste) and Lithium-Ion Batteries
for their active participation and constructive inputs. We thank our knowledge partner,
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), along with the concerned ministries and all
stakeholders for their support in finalizing the report.
CHAIRPERSON
Maj Gen K Narayanan
AVSM**, SM (Retd), Programme
Director, Security and Law, NITI Aayog
Chairperson, Working Group on
Circular Economy of E-waste and
Lithium-Ion Batteries
LEADERSHIP
Shri Suman K Bery
Vice Chairperson, NITI Aayog
Shri Rajiv Gauba
Member, NITI Aayog
Shri B.V.R. Subrahmanyam
CEO, NITI Aayog
Dr. Anshu Bharadwaj
Programme Director,
Green Transition, Climate &
Environment (GTC&E), NITI Aayog
Shri Surender Mehra
Advisor, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
Shri Amit Verma
Former Director, GTC&E,
NITI Aayog (Currently Joint Secretary,
Department of Commerce)
Shri Satyendra Kumar
Former Director, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
(Currently IG, ACB, Govt. of Rajasthan)
Shri Priyavrat Bhati
Programme Lead, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
AUTHORS
NITI AAYOG
Shri Amit Verma
Former Director, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
Dr. Abhijeet Anand
Consultant, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
Ms. Prinshila Gandhi
Young Professional, GTC&E,
NITI Aayog
KNOWLEDGE PARTNERS
Dr. Souvik Bhattacharya
Director and Senior Fellow,
TERI, New Delhi
Mr. Arya Jash
Research Associate, TERI, New Delhi
Ms. Mrunali Tembhurne
Associate Fellow, TERI
Mr. Ravi Kasera
Sustainability Analyst, ExxonMobil
WORKING GROUP COORDINATORS
Shri Amit Verma
Former Director, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
Ms. Prinshila Gandhi
Young Professional, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
iii
WORKING GROUP MEMBERS
Sh. Sudhendu Jyoti Sinha,
Former Adviser (Infra & Connectivity),
NITI Aayog
Shri Vinod Singh
Director, MoEFCC
Ms. Youthika Puri
Additional Director, CPCB
Shri Runa Oraon
Divisional Head, CPCB
Shri Vinod Babu
Former Divisional Head, CPCB
Shri KC Sharma
Advisor, MoRTH
Smt. Sunita Verma
Scientist G, Meity
Shri Surendar Gotharwal
Scientist D, Meity
Dr. R Ratheesh
Director, C-MET, MeitY
Dr. Ram Babu
Quality Manager, C-MET, MeitY
Rajesh Dr. S Kumar
Scientist-F, C-MET, MeitY
Dr. R P Gupta
Director, MoMines
Dr. Suresh Babu
Scientist-E, CEST, DST
Shri Arun Agarwal,
Deputy Director General, DoT, MoC
Mr. Naveen Tandon
Head of Policy & Strategy, Apple
Ms. Poonam Kaur
ESG Head, Apple
Mr. Alok Verma
Head of Corporate Strategy,
Ashok Leyland
Dr. Abhinav Mathur
Co-Founder & Head of Policy &
Strategy, Attero
Ms. Himanshi, Attero
Ms. Paromita, Attero
Mr. Naveen Chikkara
Head ESG & EHS, Bajaj Electricals
Mr. Utkarsh Singh
CEO, BatX Energies
Mr. Mandeep Manocha
Co-Founder, Cashify
Mr. Khyat Mahajan
Vice President, Cashify
Ms. Divya Malhotra
Compliance Head, Cashify
Mr. B. K. Soni
Eco Recycling Ltd.
Mr. Arvind Kumar,
Vice president,
E-Parisaraa Pvt. Ltd.
Mr. Raman Sharma
Founder, Exigo Recycling
Mr. Mritunjay Kumar
Director of Public Policy,
RCEICE, FICCI
Mr. Rohit Pattnaik
Head of Government Affairs and
Sustainability, First Solar
Mr. Tejashree Joshi
Head of Environment Sustainability,
Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Ltd.
Ms. Aditi Chaturvedi
Lead - Government Affairs
and Public Policy, Google
Dr. Ashok Kumar
President, Greenscape Eco
Management Pvt. Ltd.
iv
Mr. Prateek Mittal
General Manager - AI, R&D, Hitachi India
Mr. Hitesh Sharma
Lead Sustainability,
HP India
Mr. Dilip Chenoy
Advisor, IBSA
Ms. Manvi Sherawat
Consultant - Public
Policy, IBSA
Dr. Aashish Saurikhia
Director of Public Policy, ICEA
Mr. Rajesh Sharma
Executive Director &
Principal Advisor, ICEA
Ms. Shambhavi Singh
Assistant Manager of
Public Policy, ICEA
Mr. Siddhart Hande
Founder, Kabadiwala Connect
Ms. Swathilakshmi R
Research Manager,
Kabadiwala Connect
Mr. Pranshu Singhal
Founder, Karo Sambhav
Mr. VGS Mani
Vice President, Karo Sambhav
Mr. Piyush Gupta
CEO, Lithion Power
Mr. Rajat Verma
CEO, Lohum Cleantech
Mr. Pratyush Sinha
Vice President, Lohum Cleantech
Mr. Sachin Maheshwari
Head of Corporate Development &
Global Expansion, Lohum Cleantech
Mr. Ayush Sabat
Senior Manager, Lohum Cleantech
Ms. Bhavana Mahajan
Head Public Affairs, Lohum Cleantech
Mr. Aryan Tomar
Markets Team, Lohum Cleantech
Col Suhail Zaidi (Retd)
Director General, MAIT
Lt Col Harsh Vardhan Srivastava
Deputy Director General, MAIT
Ms. Poonam Kaur
Chairperson of Environment
Committee, MAIT
Mr. Prem Ananth
Co-Chairperson of Environment
Committee, MAIT
Ms. Fariha Salman
EO, MAIT
Mr. Sachin Jain
Head of Corporate Affairs, MRAI
Mr. Divvye Kohli
Director, MRAI
Mr. Satish Kohli
Advisor, MRAI
Mr. Gaurav Kaul
Head of Government Relations, MRAI
Mr. Darshan Virupaksha
Co-Founder, Nunam Battery
Ms. Ritu Ghosh
Associate Director,
Panasonic Life Solutions
Mr. Praveen Bhargava
Vice President, Pegasus
Waste Management Pvt. Ltd.
Mr. Praveen Singh
Business Development
Officer, RecycleKaro
Mr. Abhay Deshpande
Co-Founder, Recykal
Mr. Abhishek Deshpande
Co-Founder, Recykal
Dr. Masood Khajenoori
Founder & CEO, ReCy Energy Pvt. Ltd.
v
Mr. Rahul Singh
Director, Rocklink
Mr. Raj Sahu
Senior Director, Samsung
Mr. Navneet Singh
Manager, Samsung
Mr. Judajit Sen
DGM, Samsung
Dr. Sandip Chatterjee
Senior Advisor, SERI
Mr. Rino Raj
Chief of energy business, TATA Chemicals
Mr. Syed Mohammad Danish
Government & Corporate Affairs,
TATA Motors Ltd.
Mr. Mohammad Danish Ghazali
Senior Manager, TATA Motors Ltd.
Mr. Sachin Thakur
Deputy General Manager,
TATA Motors Ltd.
Mr. Vikram Jadhav
Deputy General Manager,
TATA Motors Ltd.
Ms. Lovey Tripathi
Senior Manager of Government &
Corporate Affairs, TATA Motors Ltd.
Mr. Arya jash
Project Associate, TERI
Ms. Priya Bhadra
Lead - Government Affairs, Vivo
Mr. Parveen Kumar
Head of Sustainability, WRI
Ms. Chaitanya Kanuri
Head of Sustainability, WRI
Mr. Manish Jain
Associate Director -
Government Relation, Xiaomi
Mr. Rohan Singh Bias
CTO, Ziptrax Cleantech
COLLABORATORS
Shri Tanmay Kumar
Secretary, MoEFCC
Shri Ved Prakash
Joint Secretary, MoEFCC
Shri Neelesh Kumar Sah
Joint Secretary, MoEF&CC
RESEARCH & NETWORKING (R&N) TEAM
Smt. Anna Roy
Programme Director,
R&N Division, NITI Aayog
Smt. Banusri Velpandian
Senior Specialist, R&N Division, NITI Aayog
DESIGN TEAM
Ms. Keerti Tiwari,
Director, Communication,
NITI Aayog
vi
vii
viii
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India ix
Table of Contents
List of Figures 1
List of Abb
reviations
2
Ex
ecutive Summary
4
1. Introduction 5
2. Background 6
2.1 Material Composition of E-waste and Lithium-ion Batteries 6
2.2 Current and Projected E-waste and
Lithium-ion Batteries Generation in India 7
2.3 State of Formal E-waste and End-of-Life
Lithium-ion Batteries Recycling in India 9
3. Policy Landscape 13
3.1 E-waste Management Rules (EWMR) 13
3.2 Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR) 14
3.3 EPR for E-waste 15
3.4 EPR for Lithium-ion Batteries 15
4. Global Best Practices 17
4.1 E-waste Management 17
4.2 End-of-Life Lithium-ion Batteries Management 19
5. Addressing the Gaps in Policy Landscape 21
5.1 Weak Monitoring of Recyclers 21
5.2 Limited EPR Coverage Under EWMR 22
5.3 Gaps in Battery Waste Management Rules 23
5.3.1 GSTN-EPR Portal Integration Gap 23
5.3.2 Inadequate EPR Pricing for Low-Value
Lithium-ion Battery Chemistries 24
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India x
5.3.3 EPR Compliance Cycle for LFP EV (4W) Batteries 25
5.3.4 Chemical Composition Verification Gap 26
5.3.5 Guidelines for Safe Handling of Lithium-ion Batteries 28
6. Nurturing the Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Industry 29
6.1 Standards for Recycled Content 29
6.2 Limited Recycled Content Uptake 29
6.3 Untapped Potential of Carbon Markets 30
7. Addressing Workforce Skill Gaps in E-waste and
Lithium-ion Battery Recycling 32
7.1 Skilling for E-waste Recycling 32
7.2 Absence of Certification Pathways for Informal Workers 32
8. Formalising the Informal Sector 34
8.1 Regulatory Barriers for Informal Sector Integration 35
8.2 Underutilisation of Government Schemes for Sector Formalisation 36
9
.
Strengthening E-waste Collection and Consumer Awareness 38
10. Conclusion – Summary of Recommendations 40
Ref
erences
43
Annex
ure I
44
Anne
xure II
45
Anne
xure III
47
An
nexure IV
50
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 1
List of Figures
Fig. No.Description Page
1 E-waste Material Composition 6
2 Material Composition in Lithium-ion Battery Chemistries 7
3 Projected E-waste Generation in India 7
4 Projected Lithium-ion Battery Demand Growth in India 8
5 Projected End-of-Life Lithium-ion Battery Availability in India 8
6 India’s Position in Global E-waste Generation and Recycling 9
7 Categorization Of E-waste Recyclers and Recycling Capacity 10
8 Formal E-waste Recycling Projections 10
9
Projected End-of-Life Lithium-ion Battery Availability and Recycling
Capacity in India
11
10 Material Flow in the Indian Lithium-ion Battery Value Chain 12
11
Material Recovery from E-waste Under the Current EPR Framework 22
12
Potential Increase in Material Recovery Under Expanded
EPR Framework
23
13 Unit Economics of a 10kt Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Plant 24
14 Chemistry-wise Unit Economies of LCO, NMC, And LFP 25
15 Carbon Credit Benefits of the Proposed Intervention 31
16 Economic Value Loss in the Current E-waste Ecosystem 35
17 Heavy Metal Contamination at Informal E-waste Processing Sites 35
18 Age Group-based Consumer Behaviour on E-waste Disposal 38
19
Required Number of Collection Points for Optimized Collection by
Population Category
39
20
Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy Processes for E-waste Recycling 46
21 Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy: Metal Extraction Pathways 48
22 Mechanical and Hydrometallurgical Processing Pathways 49
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 2
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation Description
BCD Basic Customs Duty
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
CE Consumer Electronics
CFC Common Facility Centres
C-MET Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
CRM Critical Raw Materials
DGFT Directorate General of Foreign Trade
DPIIT Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade
EEE/E-waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Waste
EPR Extended Producer Responsibility
ESS Energy Storage System
GST Goods and Services Tax
KT Kiloton
LCO Lithium Cobalt Oxide
LIB Lithium-Ion Battery
LFP Lithium Ferro Phosphate
LPW Low-Priced Waste
MeitY Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
MHI Ministry of Heavy Industries
MoE Ministry of Education
MoEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
MoF Ministry of Finance
MoM Ministry of Mines
MoMSME Ministry of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises
MSDE Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
MMT Million Metric Tonnes
NCA Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide
NCMM National Critical Mineral Mission
NMC Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PLI Production Linked Incentive
PPP Public-Private Partnership
R&D Research and Development
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
SPCB State Pollution Control Board
ULB Urban Local Body
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 3
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 4
Executive Summary
The clean energy and digital transition are driving exponential growth in the usage of
L
ithium-ion batteries and the generation of electronic waste (E-waste) in India. Despite
t
he gradual expansion of the formal recycling ecosystem, Lithium-ion Battery scrap and
E
-waste are largely handled by the unregulated informal sector, which often employs
u
nscientific methods, resulting in economic losses, environmental contamination, and public
health risks. Informal sector dominance also persists due to weak monitoring mechanisms
and
complex compliance requirements that deter informal recyclers from entering the
formal ecosystem.
In recent years, the Government of India has introduced policies to
promote circularity
and ensure responsible management of E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scrap. However,
a
robust circular ecosystem is yet to materialize due to multiple factors. For instance,
Extended
Producer Responsibility (EPR) coverage in E-waste recycling is limited to Gold,
Copper, Iron, and Aluminum, restricting investment and innovation in the recovery of other
valuable and critical minerals. Weak enforcement allows spurious and non-operational
recyclers
to distort EPR markets throu
gh fraudulent certification. Low skills, and limited
accessibility of advanced recycling processes also restrict the scalability and efficiency
of
the sector. Collection inefficiencies, low consumer awareness, and inadequate
financing
further e
xacerbate systemic challenges, which risk resource leakages and
e
nvironmental hazards, and undermine India’s long-term energy security by deepening
its dependence on critical mineral
imports. Therefore, advancing the circular economy
framework for E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scrap is a national priority.
F
or E-waste management, recommended priority actions include expanding EPR coverage to
other high-value metals. For Lithium-ion Battery scrap management, recommended priority
actions include integrating the EPR-GSTN portal for seamless invoice verification, tightening
EPR enforcement to track and ensure accountability across the value chain, and
notifying
chemistry-wise metal composition in Lithium-ion Batteries. BIS certification (IS
16046) to
be updated to include mandatory chemical composition testing of the recycled Lithium-ion
Batteries, and detailed guidelines to be issued for the
collection, storage, transportation,
r
efurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries. Purity standards be established, and additional
incentives may be provided to manufacturers under the Production Linked Incentive scheme
for Advanced Ch
emistry Cells to promote the uptake of recycled materials. Third-party
a
gencies to be empanelled to conduct unit-wise periodic audits, thereby enhancing compliance
and credibility. Parallel efforts to be build technical capacity through dedicated E-waste and
Lithium-ion Battery recycling curricula in engineering colleges and technical universities,
and improve access to finance for recycling infrastructure. Establishing Common Facility
C
entres equipped with recycling technologies would allow informal clusters to access
safer
a nd efficient processing methods. Simplified registration, fee waivers, and the formal
recognition of informal workers can make the transition inclusive and just.
At
the collection and consumer interface, public awareness campaigns, product-level
recycling information, and expanded collection networks operated by Urban Local Bodies
in public-private partnership would increase formal collection.
T
hese measures outline a coherent pathway to embed circular economy principles across
I
ndia’s E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery value chains. By simultaneously tightening governance,
deepening markets for secondary materials, and fostering domestic technological capabilities,
India can convert E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scraps into strategic resource reservoirs,
reduce exposure to volatile global supply chains, an
d consolidate its leadership in sustainable
and clean-tech value chains.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 5
1. Intr
India’s transition towards a sustainable future is anchored in the Hon’ble Prime Minister’s
vision for Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India), which is centered on expanding clean
technologies such as renewable energy, promoting electric vehicles (EVs), and digital
infrastructure. Underlying this transformation, there is an unprecedented demand for
critical minerals (Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, and rare earth metals), essential components
of Lithium-ion batteries powering EVs and renewable energy systems, and electrical
and electronic equipment embedded across digital infrastructure.
However, this transition will also create challenges of accumulating end-of-life Lithium-
ion Batteries and Electrical and Electronic Equipment. Despite the rapid accumulation
of these waste streams, India’s formal recycling infrastructure remains inadequate and
fragmented. Most waste is either exported or abandoned in informal channels, representing
both an economic loss and a resource security vulnerability, as India is entirely import-
dependent for Lithium and Cobalt, and relies on imports for 75-80% of its Nickel and
rare earth requirements (Eninrac, 2025; EXIM Bank, 2025). With a geopolitically volatile
global supply chain, India’s clean energy ambitions face critical supply-side vulnerabilities.
Advancing a circular economy for E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scraps is not an
optional policy domain but a strategic imperative for India.
India has taken preliminary steps toward establishing a circular economy framework
under the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, and the Batteries (Management and
Handling) Rules, 2022, for E-waste and end-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries, respectively.
Despite these initiatives, implementation remains inconsistent, and the gap between
waste generation and formal management reflects systemic deficiencies in India’s circular
economy framework.
This report examines the current state of India’s E-waste and end-of-life Lithium-ion
Batteries, recycling ecosystems, identifies systemic barriers to advancing the circular
economy, and outlines targeted recommendations to transform these waste streams
into strategic resources that advance India’s transition while ensuring environmental
stewardship and inclusive growth.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 6
2. Back
2.1 Ma
Batteries
Electronic devices contain over 60 elements, including precious metals (Gold,
Silver, Platinum, and Palladium), critical materials (Lithium and Cobalt), rare
earth elements (Indium, Gallium, and Tantalum), and multiple hazardous
substances and heavy metals (Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, and Chromium)
(ITU & UNITAR, 2024). The concentration and combination of these materials
vary across devices, requiring specialised processing. E-waste constitutes
about 33% metals, 30% plastics, and 37% glass and other materials. Iron (52%)
dominates the metal composition, followed by Copper (18%), Aluminium
(12%), Zinc (3%), and Lead (3%). Other metals account for the remaining 12%
(Fig. 1). Also, E-waste contains a higher concentration of precious metals
compared to traditional ores, creating substantial economic opportunities
for formal E-waste processing. For instance, mobile phones yield 300-400
g of Gold and 3,000-4,000 g of Silver per tonne of E-waste, while printed
circuit boards from other devices contain 200-300 g of Gold and 1,000-
2,000 g of Silver per tonne.
Fig. 1: E-waste material composition (ITU & UNITAR, 2024)
Lithium-ion Battery chemistries continue to evolve to meet diverse requirements
across transport, energy storage systems, and consumer electronics. Cathodes
made of Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP), Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC), and Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) are the most widely used in
Lithium-ion Batteries. Depending on the specific cell chemistry, the cathode
forms the majority share (40-65%) by weight in Lithium-ion Battery. The
anode stores lithium ions during charging and is usually made of graphite or silicon. The separator facilitates the movement of lithium ions between the electrodes. Material composition in Lithium-ion Battery chemistries is shown in Fig. 2.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 7
Fig. 2: Material composition in Lithium-ion Battery chemistries (Source: Industry Consultation)
2.2 Curr
Battery Generation in India
India is witnessing a sharp increase in E-waste generation. According to the
Global E-waste Monitor, E-waste generation in India has increased from ~2.76
MMT in 2020 to ~6.19 MMT in 2024 and is projected to reach 14 MMT by 2030
(ITU & UNITAR, 2024). About 16.9% annual growth in E-waste generation (Fig.
3) reflects the rapid adoption of digital technologies and shorter product life
cycles. Computer equipment accounts for the largest share of the E-waste
stream (65%), followed by large appliances and medical equipment (15%),
telecom equipment (12%), and consumer electronics (8%). Household E-Waste
(including smartphones, computers, televisions, home appliances, and consumer
electronics) contributes 60-70% of the total E-waste. Manufacturing units
and bulk consumers (corporations, institutions, government agencies, and
hospitals) account for approximately 30-40% of E-waste generation. In 2024,
the annual E-waste recycling capacity in India was ~4.2 MMT. Large equipment
accounts for the largest share of formally collected and recycled e-waste (37%),
followed by small equipment (17%), screens and monitors (11%), and small IT
and telecommunication equipment (7%). Although formal recycling capacity
in India has increased since 2020, the informal sector remains dominant,
accounting for ~62%. A category-wise breakdown of E-waste generation and
share of formal and informal waste processing capacity is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Projected E-waste generation in India (ITU & UNITAR, 2024)
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 8
India’s Lithium-ion Battery demand is also expected to grow rapidly in the
coming years. As shown in Fig. 4, Lithium-ion Battery demand is projected to
increase at a rate of 26% annually, from 16 GWh in 2023 to 248 GWh by 2035
(ITU & UNITAR, 2024). Lithium-ion Battery demand in Consumer Electronics
is expected to decrease from 38% to 8%. On the other hand, Lithium-ion
Battery demand in EVs is expected to increase from 56% to 63% and in energy
storage systems from 6% to 29% by 2035, driven by the growth of electric
mobility and increasing integration of renewable energy sources.
Fig. 4: Projected Lithium-ion Battery demand growth in India (ITU & UNITAR, 2024)
Consequently, end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery availability for recycling is projected to rise at a rate of 26% annually, from 19 kT in 2023 to 233 kT in 2035 (Fig. 5). This growth is primarily driven by end-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Energy Storage System, which are expected to increase from 2 kT to 123 kT by 2035. Each of consumer electronics and production scrap is expected to rise to 55 kT by 2035.
Therefore, the projected rise in end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery highlights the
urgent need to develop efficient recycling infrastructure and technologies to recover valuable materials and support India’s clean energy objectives.
Fig. 5: Projected End-of-life Lithium-ion Battery availability in India
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 9
2.3 State of Formal E-waste and End-of-Life Lithium-ion
Battery Recycling in India
As illustrated in Fig. 6, India is the third-largest E-waste generator (7% of
global volumes). However, India’s recycling rate is only 10%, significantly
below the global average (~22%) and substantially lower than in the EU
and the USA (55% and 56%, respectively) (ITU & UNITAR, 2024). Currently,
majority of E-waste and end-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries are collected,
processed and recycled through informal sector or remains in storage with
consumers and bulk users, due to inadequate formal coverage. Only 2,808
collection centres serve India’s population, creating access barriers that drive
disposal toward informal channels. On the other hand, the informal networks
achieve high collection coverage and provide livelihoods to over 500,000
workers. However, the informal workforce operates under conditions that
pose significant environmental and health risks. Also, retailers’ take-back
compliance remains at only 12%, indicating non-compliance with mandatory
take-back requirements and a lack of integration between retail operations
and formal processing networks.
Fig. 6: India’s position in global E-waste generation and recycling (ITU & UNITAR, 2024)
India’s annual formal E-waste recycling capacity is ~1.75 MMT, distributed across more than 400 authorised recyclers and dismantlers. 48.2% of total capacity lies with 30 High-Capacity Recyclers (>10,000 MT), followed by 36.3% of capacity with 89 Medium-Capacity Recyclers (2,500-10,000 MT), 7.4% of capacity with each of 65 Small-Capacity Recyclers (1,000-2,500 MT), and 274 Micro-Recyclers (<1,000 MT) (ICEA, 2023). As demonstrated in Fig. 7, this distribution indicates that 6% of recyclers control over 60% of formal processing capacity, while 75% of recyclers contribute only 15% of total capacity.
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Fig. 7: Categorization of E-waste recyclers and recycling capacity (ICEA, 2023)
Furthermore, formal E-waste recycling capacity is projected to grow at
17%, achieving 40% formalisation by 2036 (Fig. 8) (REDSEER, 2025). This
indicates that, despite significant investment in realizing formal sector growth,
the well-entrenched informal sector ecosystem for E-waste recycling has a
formidable hold on the market, making it difficult to divert material resources
to the formal sector. However, aggressive support for the formal sector,
combined with dedicated formal-informal integration, may achieve a 35%
annual growth rate, potentially realizing 95% formalisation of the E-waste
management sector by 2038.
Fig. 8: Formal E-waste recycling projections (REDSEER, 2025)
On the other hand, estimates indicate that ~36 kT of Lithium-ion Batteries
will reach the end-of-life in 2025, with 33.12 kT originating from Consumer
Electronics, 1.08 kT from EVs, and 1.8 kT from Energy Storage System.
Notably, about 12.6 kT of these Lithium-ion Batteries would remain uncollected,
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 11
highlighting a considerable gap in collection efficiency. Also, informal collection
would account for 18 kT, compared to just 5.04 kT through formal channels,
underscoring the need to strengthen regulatory and infrastructural frameworks.
Formal recycling would produce 5.37 kT of black mass, which can be refined
to produce 2.61 kT of industrial-grade salt for export and 1.74 kT reserved
for non-battery domestic uses, underscoring the economic potential of
recovered materials. Also, 0.5 kT of produced battery-grade salts can be
reused in battery manufacturing.
The analysis underscores the urgent need to transition informal collections into
formal systems to improve traceability, safety, and material recovery rates.
Also, minimizing rejects and process waste (1.24 kT) through technological
advancements can improve overall recovery efficiency. Material flow in the
Indian Lithium-ion Battery sector is illustrated in Fig. 10.
India’s Lithium-ion Battery recycling sector also faces challenges of higher
announced processing capacities than the actual end-of-life Lithium-ion
Battery supply projected for the coming years. Against over 80 kT of
announced recycling capacity, only ~15 kT of end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery
would need to be recycled in 2025. This gap is expected to persist till 2030,
when announced processing capacity is expected to reach 115 kT, compared
to an estimated actual supply of ~60 kT of end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery.
Bridging the supply-capacity gap is crucial for achieving sustainability,
ensuring critical mineral security, and fostering a robust circular economy.
Therefore, strengthening end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery collection, logistics,
and processing is crucial for India to increase recovery rates, meet demand,
and establish long-term resilience in the Lithium-ion Battery value chain.
Projected end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery availability and recycling capacity
in India are presented in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9: Projected End-of-Life Lithium-ion Battery availability and recycling capacity in India
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Fig. 10 Material flow in the Indian Lithium-ion Battery value chain
(Source: Industry Data)
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3. Policy Landscape
The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC), along with other
ministries, governs the recycling and management of End-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries
and E-waste in India through its respective regulatory frameworks. The current policy
landscape regarding E-waste and End-of-life-Lithium-ion Battery management has been
discussed in this section.
3.1
E-waste Management Rules (EWMR)
The MoEFCC established an E-waste management framework through the E-waste (Management) Rules, 2022, which superseded the E-waste
(Management) Rules, 2016. The framework was subsequently amended in
2023 and 2024 to address gaps and evolving technological challenges. Key
highlights of EWMR, 2022, and its amendments are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Key highlights of EWMR, 2022, and its amendments
Title
Gazette
Notification
Policy Description
E-waste (Management) Rules, 2022
G.S.R. 801(E)
(02.11.2022)
Established an E-waste management
framework with provisions of producer
responsibility, collection and recycling
targets, mandatory stakeholder registration
and authorization, environmental safeguards
for processing activities, and strengthened
monitoring and compliance systems
Apply to manufacturers, refurbishers,
dismantlers, recyclers, and importers of
electrical and electronic equipment and
its components.
Standardized reporting of material flow
and processing outcomes, environmental
clearances for facilities, and penalty
enforcement by the CPCB and SPCBs.
E-waste
(Management)
Amendment Rules,
2023
G.S.R. 61(E)
(30.01.2023)
Strengthened producer accountability by
tightening reporting requirements.
Expanded exemptions from hazardous
substance restrictions for specified solar and
medical equipment.
Enhanced disclosure of hazardous substances
in electrical and electronic equipment.
E-waste
(Management)
Second
Amendment Rules,
2023
G.S.R.534(E)
(24.07.2023)
Assigned responsibility for refrigerant
destruction to manufacturers and recyclers.
Introduced conversion factors for EPR
certificates to standardize compliance estimates.
Updated exemptions under Schedule II.
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Title
Gazette
Notification
Policy Description
E-waste
(Management)
Amendment Rules,
2024
G.S.R. 164(E)
(08.03.2024)
Clarified definitions of dismantlers and
extended reporting timelines in specified
circumstances.
Empowered the Central Government to
establish EPR certificate trading platforms
under CPCB to strengthen market-based
compliance and traceability mechanisms.
3.2
Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR)
The Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022, issued by the MoEFCC, laid down provisions for the sustainable management of all types of waste batteries, including Lithium-ion Battery. EPR-based rules mandated the collection, recycling, and refurbishment of waste batteries, prohibiting
disposal through landfill and incineration. The Rules also specified collection
targets for producers, recovery efficiency for recyclers, and minimum use of recycled materials in new batteries. These measures aimed to promote
the circular economy in the battery sector, reduce dependence on imported
raw materials, and strengthen domestic recycling capacity. Key highlights of BWMR, 2022, and its amendments are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2: Key highlights of BWMR, 2022, and its amendments
Title
Gazette
Notification
Policy Description
Battery Waste Management Rules,
2022
S.O. 3984(E)
(22.08.2022)
Established a framework for sustainable
management of all waste batteries (portable,
automotive, industrial, EV).
Introduced EPR obligations for producers.
Laid down provisions for registration, collection,
recycling, reuse, and reporting.
Battery Waste
Management
(Amendment) Rules,
2023
G.S.R. 4669(E)
(25.10.2023)
Strengthened the institutional and
compliance framework.
Updated definitions and clarified producer
obligations.
Enhanced CPCB’s role in EPR oversight.
Revised timelines for registration and reporting.
Permitted EPR trading platforms with
price bands.
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Title
Gazette
Notification
Policy Description
Battery Waste
Management
(Amendment) Rules,
2024
G.S.R. 190(E)
(14.03.2024)
Refined the EPR framework with maximum/
minimum price bands linked to environmental
compensation.
Amended Rule 13 on compliance and
environmental compensation.
Allowed carry forward (up to 60%) of excess
EPR obligations across compliance cycles.
Battery Waste
Management
(Amendment) Rules,
2025
S.O. 958(E)
(24.02.2025)
Advanced labelling and compliance framework
with digital labels (QR/barcodes) showing EPR
registration.
Exempted packaging under Legal Metrology
Rules from specific requirements.
Mandated CPCB to publish a quarterly list of
compliant producers on the online portal.
Use of Domestically Recycled Materials – Rule 4(14), BWMR 2022
MoEFCC, vide Office Memorandum dated 17.05.2024, clarified that the minimum
use of domestically recycled materials refers to any type of material such as lithium,
cobalt, aluminium, graphite, plastic, and paper recovered from recycling of waste
products, including end-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries. In case of imported batteries
or battery packs, the marking of the EPR registration number on the equipment or
its packaging shall imply compliance with this provision.
3.3
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for E-waste
The EWMR, 2022, established a comprehensive EPR framework requiring producers
to assume financial and operational responsibility for the collection, processing, and sustainable disposal of their end-of-life products
1
. EPR obligations differ for
importers and refurbishers. Importers must assume 100% EPR responsibility for
nd-of-life imported equipment that is not re-exported. However, refurbishers must
generate EPR certificates for the materials they process. The collection and recycling
targets for manufacturers with obligations are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3: Summary of EPR obligations for Electrical and Electronic Equipment OEMs.
S. No. Year E-waste Recycling Target (by weight)
1 2025–2026 70% of the quantity of an Electrical and Electronic Equipment placed in the market in year Y-X, where ‘X’ is the average life of that product
2 2026–2027
3 2027–2028
80% of the quantity of an Electrical and Electronic Equipment placed in the market in year Y-X4
2028–2029
onwards
Note: The e-waste recycling target may be reviewed and increased after the end of the 2028-2029 fiscal year.
1 Details of the environmental compensation and stakeholder application cost for the EPR is given in Annexure IV.
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EPR target for producers (started sales operations recently, i.e., the number of years
of sales operations is less than the average life of their products mentioned in the
CPCB guidelines
S. No. Year (Y) E-waste Recycling Target (by weight)
1
2025-2026
onwards
20% of the sales figure of the financial year two years back
Note: Once the number of years of sales operation equals the average life of their
product mentioned in the guidelines issued by CPCB, their EPR obligation shall be
as per the targets mentioned above.
3.4
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for
Lithium-ion Ba
ttery
Under the regulatory framework, producers are required to meet defined
recovery targets for different battery categories, as outlined in Table 4. For
portable and EV batteries, recovery targets progressively increase from
70% to 90%, while for automotive and industrial batteries, the minimum
recovery ranges between 55-60%. These provisions ensure the systematic
collection, recycling, and sustainable management of End-of-Life Lithium-
ion Batteries, thereby preventing the leakage of hazardous constituents
and securing producer accountability across all sectors.
Table 4: Recovery targets for recyclers
Battery Type 2024-25 (%) 2025-26 (%) 2026-27 and onwards (%)
Portable and EV batteries
Portable 70 80 90
EV 70 80 90
Automotive and industrial batteries
Automotive 55 60 60
Industrial 55 60 60
The minimum requirements for recycled content in new batteries are
summarized in Table 5. Producers must incorporate 5-20% recycled material in
portable and EV batteries, and 35-40% in automotive and industrial batteries.
This provision enhances circularity by ensuring a stable demand for secondary
raw materials, reducing reliance on virgin resources, and promoting long- term sustainability in battery value chains.
Table 5: Mandate for minimum use of recycled content
Battery Type 2027-28 (%) 2028-29 (%) 2029-30 (%) 2030-31 and onwards (%)
Portable and EV batteries
Portable 5 10 15 20
EV 5 10 15 20
Automotive and industrial batteries
Automotive 35 35 40 40
Industrial 35 35 40 40
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4. Global Best Practices
4.1 E-waste Management
The global framework and infrastructure development model for E-waste
management are summarized in Tables 6 and 7, respectively.
Table 6: Global E-waste management frameworks.
Country Legislation / Framework Mechanism
Outcomes
and Learnings
Switzerland
Ordinance on Return, Take- back and Disposal of Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Full producer financial and operational responsibility; Mandatory producer registration; Strict collection targets and reporting.
Highest global collection and recovery rates; Economically viable high-cost, high- efficiency systems supported by robust regulation and consumer participation.
Germany
Electrical and Electronic Equipment Act (ElektroG)
Differential EPR fees based on recyclability and hazardous content; Strong enforcement and tax incentives.
Eco-design and design-for-recycling; High compliance through strong enforcement and PPP.
European
- Union (EU)
WEEE Directives (2002/96/EC and updates)
Harmonised EPR standards across member states with flexibility for national implementation.
Consistent high performance (Netherlands, Sweden); Strong consumer awareness; Convenient collection networks; Balance of common standards and national flexibility.
United
States
EPA guidance under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act; Regulation governed through 25+ State-level Acts
Consumers in California pay advance recycling fees at the time of purchase; Manufacturers in Oregon, New York, and Washington finance collection and processing based on the market/ return share.
Flexible implementation
and strong private- sector participation; Uneven coverage and performance;
Federal guidance
and certification
schemes give baseline
environmental
safeguards
and encourage
refurbishment and reuse.
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Country Legislation / Framework Mechanism
Outcomes
and Learnings
Japan
Home Appliance
Recycling Law
Consumer-pay
model with disposal
fees collected at
end-of-life; Strict
producer obligations
~92% compliance
and ~70% collection;
Balance government
oversight and
private engagement;
Importance
of consumer
awareness campaigns.
South
Korea
Act on Resource
Circulation of
Electrical and
Electronic Equipment
and Vehicles
Hybrid system of
producer fees and
government funding;
Non-compliance
penalties up to 130%
of recycling cost
~88% compliance
and ~75% collection;
Regional processing
hubs reduce per-ton
costs by 25–30%.
Taiwan
Waste Disposal Act
(EPR system)
Comprehensive
producer
registration and
strict enforcement
Strong performance
driven by rigorous
oversight and penalties.
Singapore
Resource
Sustainability Act
(2019)
Newly implemented
EPR with IoT and
blockchain tracking
of waste flows
Technological
innovation in
waste tracking;
Low consumer
awareness is
a challenge
despite the use of
advanced systems.
India
EPR under
E-waste
(Management)
Rules, 2022
OEM’s responsibility
is to ensure E-waste
recycling based
on the quantity
of Electrical and
Electronic Equipment
and its average
lifespan. Obligations
met through the
purchase of EPR
certificates from
authorized recyclers.
National framework for
producer responsibility
with progressive
recycling targets;
EPR certificate
gives market-based
compliance and
traceability; Strong
enforcement and
consumer awareness.
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Table 7: Global E-waste management infrastructure development model.
Model Country Key Features Key Learnings
Regional
processing hubs
South
Korea
Regional centers
processing 100,000-
200,000 tons
annually for a 50-100
million population
The hub-and-spoke model
reduces transport costs,
enables scaling, and
facilitates partnerships with
the informal sector.
Collection
infrastructure
investment
EU,
Japan
$50-100 per capita
investment in
collection points and
transport systems
High collection rates
correlate directly with
upfront investment and
convenient consumer access.
Authorised
dismantling
and recycling
facilities
India The combined capacity of
registered recyclers and
dismantlers exceeds total
formal collection volumes.
Formal collection facilities
are concentrated in major
urban areas.
Demonstrates early
success in building formal
capacity; highlights the
need for geographical
expansion and integration
of the informal sector to
increase actual throughput.
4.2
End-of-Life Lithium-ion Battery Management
Global regulatory frameworks for end-of-life Lithium-ion battery recycling
vary from incentive-driven approaches to strong, legally binding mandates.
While the EU and China have advanced compliance systems, India is emerging
with a structured framework that prioritizes EPR, phased targets, and sector-
specific focus to drive circularity and sustainability. The global scenario of
end-of-life Lithium-ion battery recycling regulations is summarized in Table 8.
Table 8: Global scenario of end-of-life Lithium-ion battery recycling regulations.
Aspect United States EU China India
Blending Mandate / Incentive
Raw materials recycled in North America qualify for the IRA subsidy
2023: 50%
No mandate
2027/2030:
2030: 70%
Portable and
EV: 5%/20%
Automotive
and Industrial:
35%/40%
Battery
End-of-Life
Management
Most states: No
commitments,
guidelines
under review
Exceptions: New
Jersey enacted
EPR laws for
battery OEMs
OEM is
responsible
for battery
waste.
45-73%
collection
rate for
portable
batteries
by 2030
OEM is
responsible for
battery waste
Testing the
obligation of
end-of-life LIBs
before recycling
Storage
and sorting
requirements
Portable and
EV: 70%
Automotive:
70%
Industrial:
60%
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Aspect United States EU China India
Recovery
Targets
Inflation
Reduction
Act guidelines:
Extraction and
processing
of “critical
materials”-40%
in 2023
to 80% by 2027
Production
and assembly
of “battery
components”-50%
in 2023 to
100% in 2029
2031 2020 2024/25/26
Ni: 95% Ni: 98%
Portable and
EV:
70/80/90%
Automotive
and Industrial:
55/60/60%
Li: 80% Li: 80%
Co: 95% Co: 98%
Cu: 95% Mn: 98%
TraceabilityNot required Required Required Not required
Enforcement
No
binding
regulations
“Battery
passport”;
fines of up to
10,000 EUR/
battery in
Germany;
other countries
may follow
Accountability
determined via
EPR and
Traceability
Management
(battery
codification/
passport)
No
enforcement
mechanism
is detailed
as part of
the regulation.
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5. Addressing the Gaps in Policy
Landscape
5.1
Weak Monitoring of Recyclers
Current Status/Legal Position:
Under Schedule V of the EWMR, 2022, SPCBs are responsible for conducting
random inspections of recyclers and refurbishers, as well as for monitoring
the utilisation of recycling capacity. Under Rule 12(1) of the BWMR, 2022,
SPCBs shall verify the compliance of entities involved in the refurbishing and
recycling of waste batteries through inspection and periodic audits. As per
the directives of the CPCB and the National Green Tribunal (NGT), SPCBs
are required to conduct random inspections of recyclers and refurbishers
registered on the EPR portal.
Issue:
Despite a clear regulatory mandate, enforcement has remained weak across
states. Poor enforcement has often enabled non-compliant recyclers to
generate spurious EPR certificates at a lower cost, thereby undermining EPR
certificate prices. Inconsistent inspections and limited audits have created
gaps in compliance verification, resulting in a mismatch between registered
entities on the EPR portal and actual operational recycling facilities.
Analysis:
As of 01 November 2025, there are 509 registered E-waste entities, including
381 recyclers, 128 refurbishers, and 43 Lithium-ion Battery recyclers. The
existing audit mechanism relies largely on paper-based, checklist-driven
verification, which fails to capture real-time recycling operations and actual
processing. In the absence of regular, plant-level audits, unverified processing
claims and non-operational entities continue to remain within the formal
EPR system.
Therefore, to align with the systemic implementation framework, it is
necessary to have a proper auditing system with specific criteria
2
aligned
with international standards such as the Reuse and Recycling (R2) standards.
It should have core requirements such as Environment, Health and Safety
(EHS) management systems, periodic evaluation of the risk of exposure to
hazardous substances, development of a legal compliance plan, import/export
compliance, data security, monitoring compliance, and adherence to a mass
balance approach
3
. These audit parameters would support the inspection
and compliance verification of E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery recycling
units, ensuring environmental compliance, transparency, and credibility within
the formal recycling ecosystem. In addition to SPCB undertaking such audit
2 Machinery and Technical Setup Verification; Operational Expenditure (OPEX) Validation; Supplementary Equipment and Chemical Inventory;
Labour Compliance and Workplace Welfare; Compliance with Waste Handling; EPR Registration and Compliance; Fire Safety and Groundwater
Use; Contracts and Invoices with Downstream Vendors; Factory License and associated documents.
3 R2 Standard was established by Sustainable Electronics Recycling International (SERI)
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inspections, third-party agencies should be empowered to expedite these
audits. Third-party agencies should have proper certification.
Key Recommendations:
MoEFCC to empanel third-party agencies to ensure unit-wise periodic audits.
5.2
Limit
Management Rules (BWMR)
Current Status/Legal Position: The EWMR (2022) considers four metals (Copper, Aluminium, Iron, and
Gold) under the EPR mandate.
Issue:
There are over 15 precious and critical minerals
4
with substantial recovery
value. Despite the availability of material extraction technologies for these
materials, the narrow scope for material recovery creates a structural
mismatch, hindering wider material extraction and recycling initiatives and
undermining the objectives of a circular economy.
Analysis:
E-waste material recovery assessment revealed that base metals and precious
metals achieve ~52% and 55% recovery, respectively; however, critical raw
materials recovery remains ~17% (Fig. 11). Estimates showed a cumulative
loss of resources worth INR 42,500 Cr due to low recovery rates (REDSEER,
2025). This substantial economic and resource loss is tied to the critical
recovery gap due to the regulatory scope under the current EPR framework.
Fig. 11: Material Recovery from E-waste under the current EPR framework (Panchal et al., 2021)
Therefore, expanding material coverage under the current EPR mandate would address this gap, improve collection efficiency, and ensure that valuable resources are systematically channeled back into the economy, thereby enhancing resource security. A comparison of material recovery under current and expanded EPR mandates is shown in Fig. 12.
4
Neodymium, Tellurium, Selenium, Indium, & Ruthenium (list drawn from Critical Mineral Recycling Incentive Scheme and international best
practices). Criteria for expanding EPR may be technology, criticality, carbon saving, toxicity, financial viability, material concentration and others.
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Fig. 12: Potential increase in material recovery under expanded EPR framework
(Panchal et al., 2021)
Key Recommendations:
MoEFCC to develop a phased plan to expand the EPR mandate to other
high-value metals.
5.3
G
5.3.1 GSTN-EPR Portal Integration Gap
Current Status/Legal Position:
As per Rule 11(11) of the BWMR, 2022, the CPCB shall conduct data audits,
including the use of information from the Goods and Services Tax Network
(GSTN) portal, either directly or through a designated agency, of registered
entities listed on the CPCB portal.
Issue:
Currently, the GSTN and EPR portals are not integrated, resulting in gaps
in invoice verification, material traceability, and detection of fake EPR
transactions. This prevents cross-verification of financial records with reported
recycling activities.
Analysis:
Without invoice-level cross-verification, compliance assessments remain
largely self-declared and document-based, thereby reducing the effectiveness
of regulatory oversight. Integrating the GSTN portal with the EPR portal
would enable verification of material flow against financial records, improving
traceability across the recycling value chain. Such linkage is crucial for
strengthening data authenticity, deterring fraudulent EPR claims, and
supporting the credible implementation of EPR obligations under the
BWMR framework.
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC and CPCB to make improvements in the EPR portal by integrating
GSTN-based invoice verification.
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5.3.2 Inadequate EPR Pricing for Low-Value Lithium-ion Battery
Chemistries
Current Status/Legal Position:
Rule 11(24) of the BWMR, 2022, empowers the CPCB to review battery
recycling technologies for techno-economic viability with respect to battery
material recovery.
Issue:
Currently, recycling low-value chemistries, such as Lithium Ferro Phosphate
(LFP), is not economically viable due to the presence of materials like Iron and
Aluminum in these chemistries. As a result, recovery of materials from such
chemistries is not feasible, despite the availability of recycling technologies.
Analysis:
The economics of Lithium-ion battery recycling demonstrate a promising
pathway for sustainable resource management and economic growth. Analysis
(Fig. 13) of a 10 kT capacity plant reveals that the total cost of recycling,
encompassing procurement, logistics, dismantling, processing, and capital
expenditure, ranges from INR 294 to 350 per kilogram of battery.
Fig. 13 Unit Economics of a 10kT Lithium-ion Battery recycling plant
(Source: Industry-provided data and consultations)
The viability of recycling is closely tied to the chemistry of the battery. Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese batteries provide the highest economic returns owing to their rich Cobalt and Nickel content, while Lithium Cobalt
Oxide (LCO) chemistries yield moderate margins. In contrast, Lithium Ferro
Phosphate (LFP) batteries generate negative margins, as the absence of
low-value metals makes recovery commercially unattractive. A comparison
of unit economics across key Lithium-ion Battery chemistries: Lithium Cobalt
Oxide (LCO), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese (NCM), and Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) (Fig. 14) shows substantial variation in recycling margins driven by underlying metal value. Under the current BWMR framework,
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EPR targets are defined by battery type (portable, automotive, industrial,
EV) and do not differentiate between Lithium-ion chemistries. As a result,
low-value chemistries like Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP), despite their
high processing cost and low intrinsic metal value, make Lithium Ferro
Phosphate (LFP) recycling financially unviable for recyclers. This creates
a structural misalignment between actual chemistry, economics, and the
pricing assumptions built into the EPR mechanism.
Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistries are expected to account for
nearly 60 % of India’s battery demand by 2030. Therefore, without targeted
interventions (such as differentiated EPR incentives or advances in material
recovery), the dominance of Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) could undermine
overall industry profitability. On the other hand, separate EPR pricing
mechanisms would compensate recyclers for low-value chemistries.
Fig. 14 Chemistry-wise unit economies of LCO, NMC, and LFP
(Source: Industry-provided data and consultations)
Various factors, including low-value material composition, emerging battery
chemistries, conversion factors, and high processing and compliance costs,
need to be considered when introducing a separate EPR regime for low-value
chemistries. A differentiated EPR pricing mechanism for low-value chemistries,
along with scale efficiencies, incentives under the National Critical Minerals
Mission -Recycling Incentive Scheme, GST rationalisation, and monetisation of
carbon credits, can provide critical supplementary revenue and cost support.
Together, these interventions can bridge the viability gap and enhance overall economics. This approach would support recyclers and improve techno-economic viability. It also aligns EPR design with the rationale of BWMR to enable recovery of a broader range of battery materials.
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC to develop a chemistry-specific EPR pricing framework for Lithium
Ferro Phosphate (LFP) and other low-value chemistry Lithium-ion Batteries.
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5.3.3 EPR Compliance Cycle for LFP EV (4W) Batteries
Current Status/Legal Position:
As per Schedule II, Table (xii) of BWMR, 2022, a 70% producer responsibility
obligation is prescribed for four-wheeler (4W) EV batteries, with compliance
commencing from 2029-30 for batteries placed in the market in 2021-22.
Issue:
The rules apply equally to all batteries, irrespective of their chemistry. Lithium
Ferro Phosphate (LFP) batteries used in EVs (4W) are designed for extended
operational life (~15-30 years), making early EPR compliance timelines (8
years) misaligned with the longer battery life.
Analysis:
EV batteries for 4W using Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistry are
designed to last the lifetime of the vehicle. EPR target of 70% within eight
years for Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistry batteries may adversely
affect customer confidence and EV adoption. On the other hand, differentiated
collection timelines for Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistry batteries used
in EVs (4W) align with their longer operational life. Also, performance-based
end-of-life criteria, linked to battery state of health, can inform appropriate
EPR targets. For instance, Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistry batteries
have a longer operational life and often continue in use beyond the intended
service period of the EV due to their sufficient retention capacity for second-life
applications. Therefore, aligning EPR compliance under BWMR with real end-
of-life generation of Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) batteries would support
efficient resource planning, improve collection and recycling outcomes, and
strengthen the circular economy. Comparative performance analysis for
LFP and NMC is presented in Table 9.
Table 9: Comparative performance analysis for LFP and NMC (Source: Industry Consultations).
Parameter LFP NMC
Safety High (More Stable Chemistry) Low
Cycle life
High (2000+ cycles in first life and additional 2000 cycles in second life)
Low
(1000 Cycles)
Residual capacity retention
(fit for second life)
Very High Very Low
Cost Low High
Energy density Low High
Recycling profitability Low High
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC and CPCB to align EPR compliance with actual end-of-life generation.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
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5.3.4 Chemical Composition Verification Gap
Current Status/Legal Position:
Schedule I (2) of BWMR, 2022, requires producers to ensure that all batteries
carry BIS-prescribed labelling. BIS certification for Lithium-ion Battery (IS 16046)
emphasizes safety and performance tests, including electrical and thermal testing.
There are no provisions for chemistry-wise metal composition declaration.
Issue:
In the absence of a notified chemistry-wise metal composition, producers declare
variable metal content for a given chemistry, which makes it challenging to
verify Lithium-ion Battery chemical composition and accurately assess material
recovery and recycled content, weakening the EPR compliance verification.
Analysis:
BIS certification for Lithium-ion Batteries (IS 16046) emphasizes only safety
and performance tests, including electrical and thermal testing, without
requiring assessments of chemical or metal composition. Also, CPCB applies
chemistry-wise metal composition ranges for Lithium-ion Batteries in the
calculation of EPR certificates. The wide ranges in metal composition
across Lithium-ion Battery chemistries result in producers declaring metal
content on a self-assessment basis. In the absence of chemistry-wise fixed
reference values, such self-declarations create variability in reported material
content. In such a scenario, verifying the chemical composition of Lithium-ion
Battery remains challenging in practice, which affects transparency in EPR
compliance and the reporting of recovered/recycled materials. Therefore,
chemical composition labelling is required to improve the accuracy of EPR
determination, reduce misreporting, and enhance compliance across the
Lithium-ion Battery value chain. Although the CPCB has proposed fixed
metal content for Lithium-ion Batteries, chemistry-wise fixed composition
benchmarks are also required. Such standardization would enhance
transparency, facilitate uniform verification, and strengthen EPR accounting
within the BWMR framework. The metal composition in a typical Lithium-ion
Battery and different types of Lithium-ion Battery chemistries is presented
in Tables 10 and 11, respectively.
Table 10: Metal composition (%) in a typical Lithium-ion Battery. (Source: CPCB)
Battery Type Li Mn Zn Ni Co Al Fe Cu
Lithium-ion 1 - 5 0 - 15 < 1 0 - 150 - 205 - 25 1 - 46 2 - 18
Lithium-ion (proposed
in July 2025)
1.4 9.170 5 10 18.15 13.12 7.2
Table 11: Metal composition (%) based on Lithium-ion Battery chemistries. (Source: CPCB)
Lithium-ion Battery Type Li Mn Ni Co Al Fe Cu
Nickel Cobalt
Aluminium (NCA)
1 - 20 10 - 15 2 - 5 20 - 25 < 1 10 - 15
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
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Lithium-ion Battery Type Li Mn Ni Co Al Fe Cu
Lithium
Manganese Oxide (LMO)
1 - 2 10 - 150 0 20 - 25 < 1 10 - 15
Nickel Manganese
Cobalt (NMC)
1 - 2 4 - 8 12 - 16 8 - 12 20 - 25 5 - 10 12 - 18
Lithium
Cobalt Oxide (LCO)
2 - 4 0 1 - 2 15 - 20 4 - 8 15 - 205 - 10
Lithium Iron
Phosphate (LFP)
1 - 20 0 0 5 - 1040 - 455 - 10
Key Recommendation:
(a) CPCB to notify chemistry-wise (e.g., NMC, LFP) fixed metal composition.
(b) BIS to update (IS 16046) to include mandatory chemical composition
testing as part of the assessment for recycled Lithium-ion Battery.
5.3.5
Guidelines for Safe Handling of Lithium-ion Battery
Current Status/Legal Position:
Rule 11(17) of the BWMR, 2022, mandates the CPCB to issue guidelines
for sustainable procedures for the collection, storage, transportation,
refurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries, ensuring uniform and safe
management practices.
Issue:
Currently, there are no guidelines for collection, storage, transportation,
refurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries in place, and waste Lithium-
ion batteries continue to be collected and handled through informal channels,
resulting in unsafe handling practices, improper disposal, and limited traceability.
Analysis:
The absence of detailed guidelines for waste Lithium-ion Battery significantly
elevates fire and safety risks across collection and transportation. Improper
storage of damaged or end-of-life batteries, lack of segregation, and
unsafe handling of intermediate materials, such as black mass, increase the
likelihood of thermal runaway, fires, and explosions at collection centers,
storage facilities, and recycling units. Therefore, clear guidelines covering
safe storage conditions, packaging, labelling, and transportation protocols
are critical. Standardised procedures would reduce accident risks, improve
traceability, and ensure environmentally sound management of end-of-life
Lithium-ion Batteries.
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC and CPCB to issue detailed guidelines for the collection, storage,
transportation, refurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries, including
specific provisions for Lithium-ion batteries.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 29
6. Nurturing the Lithium-ion Battery
Recycling Industry
The demand for Lithium-ion Battery (especially for EV batteries) and the availability of
end-of-life-Lithium-ion Batteries are expected to increase rapidly. However, Lithium-ion
Battery recycling in India is still in its nascent stage, and capacity remains limited, with
several structural constraints continuing to impede economies of scale. This section outlines
the key challenges of the Lithium-ion Battery recycling industry and the recommendations
for addressing them.
6.1
Standards for Recycled Content
Current Status/Legal Position:
India’s battery value chain is transitioning from a disposal-focused approach
to a closed-loop material system under the BWMR. As producers move
towards meeting upcoming recycled-content obligations from 2026-27, the
credibility, traceability, and quality assurance of recycled battery materials
become central to EPR compliance. This transition requires systems that
can reliably distinguish battery-grade recycled outputs from lower-grade
material streams.
Issue:
Currently, there are no standards to verify the purity of recycled content
recovered from Lithium-ion Battery, resulting in weak accountability in
material recovery and hindering the use of recycled materials in Lithium-
ion Battery manufacturing.
Analysis:
The absence of purity verification protocols creates uncertainty for producers
required to use recycled content under BWMR. While initiatives such as
the National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM) set high-purity recovery
targets (≥ 99.0%) for critical minerals, the lack of standardised testing
and certification mechanisms hinders the consistent validation of recycled
materials. Standardised protocols for verifying the purity of recycled materials
can ensure a verified flow of materials and support compliance with global
recycled content requirements in Lithium-ion Battery markets, thereby
strengthening the outcomes of the circular economy.
Key Recommendation:
BIS to establish recycled material purity standards for Lithium-ion Battery.
6.2
Limited Recycled Content Uptake
Current Status/Legal Position: Under the BWMR, producers are mandated to progressively use recycled
content in new batteries, with obligations commencing from the 2026-27
financial year onwards. This requirement aims to promote circularity, reduce
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 30
dependence on imported raw materials, and foster sustained demand for
recycled battery-grade materials. Battery-grade material refers to metals
recovered at high purity levels suitable for reuse in new batteries. For example,
Lithium recovered as battery-grade Lithium carbonate or Lithium hydroxide
at required purity levels can be directly used in cathode manufacturing.
When such recycled materials replace imported virgin materials, value is
added within India, strengthening the domestic battery supply chain. The
effectiveness of this mandate is closely linked to the availability, quality,
and commercial uptake of recycled materials within the domestic battery
manufacturing ecosystem.
Issue:
The Lithium-ion Battery component manufacturing sector in India remains
weak, and most battery-grade materials are imported. The demand for
recycled battery-grade material remains low, constraining domestic value
addition and limiting scale-up of India’s battery recycling sector. This reduces
commercial uptake of recycled outputs across the battery value chain.
Analysis:
Limited uptake of recycled battery-grade materials is linked to weak domestic
cell manufacturing capacity, the absence of assured long-term offtake, and
concerns about the consistency and quality of recycled inputs. As a result,
recyclers face uncertainty in monetising recovered materials, which constrains
the investment and scaling up of formal recycling infrastructure.
Therefore, the government schemes need to be leveraged, including upcoming
battery manufacturing initiatives such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI)
for Advanced Chemistry Cells (ACC), which can help strengthen domestic
demand for recycled battery-grade materials. Such an approach would
support the utilisation of domestically recovered materials, reduce import
dependence, and advance India’s battery manufacturing ecosystem.
Key Recommendation:
MHI may consider leveraging upcoming battery manufacturing schemes
(e.g., the PLI scheme for ACC) to support additional incentives for utilizing
domestically recycled Cathode Active Material (CAM).
6.3
Untapped Potential of Carbon Markets
Current Status/Legal Position:
Recycling of waste streams falls under the “waste handling and disposal”
sector of the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) offset mechanism in
the Indian Carbon Market (ICM).
Issue:
Currently, the absence of an approved carbon-credit methodology for
Lithium-ion Battery recycling prevents recyclers from earning carbon credits
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 31
and monetizing climate benefits generated through material recovery and
resource efficiency under Carbon Credit Trading Scheme.
Analysis:
Lithium-ion Battery recycling delivers measurable greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission reductions by avoiding primary material extraction, reducing
energy use, and enhancing resource efficiency. However, in the absence of
an approved carbon-credit methodology under the Carbon Credit Trading
Scheme, these climate benefits remain unaccounted and cannot be translated
into tradable Carbon Credit Certificates (CCC). This limits the ability of
recyclers to materialize environmental benefits within their business models.
A dedicated carbon-credit methodology for Lithium-ion Battery recycling
would enable the standardised quantification of emission reductions based
on process efficiencies, recovery rates, and avoided upstream emissions,
allowing recyclers to earn CCC based on GHG emission reductions. It would
serve as an additional revenue stream, incentivise formal recycling, and
support the growth of India’s green industry. Therefore, integrating Lithium-
ion Battery recycling into the Indian Carbon Market through a robust MRV
(measurement, reporting, and verification) framework would improve the
techno-economic viability of advanced recycling technologies, incentivise
formal sector adoption, and support the scalable deployment of low-carbon
recycling infrastructure in India. The benefits of the proposed intervention
are illustrated in Fig. 15.
Fig. 15: Benefits of the proposed interventions
Key Recommendation:
BEE to develop a methodology for integrating Lithium-ion Battery recycling
within the Indian Carbon Market through MoEFCC’s Technical Committee.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 32
7. Addressing Workforce Skill Gaps in
E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery Recycling
7.1
Skilling for E-waste Recycling
Current Status/Legal Position:
E-waste recycling in the formal sector primarily relies on manual dismantling
and mechanical separation.
Issue:
Manual sorting results in significant losses and leads to contamination in
recovered materials, making them unmarketable for high-value applications.
Analysis:
This highlights a gap in the skilled human resources required to meet the
operational demands of the E-waste recycling sector. To address this issue,
the Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET) offers E-waste
management courses at the diploma and postgraduate levels through IITs
(Ropar, Hyderabad, and Roorkee) and the National Institute of Electronics
and Information Technology (NIELIT), Gangtok, along with the E-waste
Kaushal Vikas online training portal. Despite these efforts, insufficient
academic outreach limits the availability of a skilled workforce, constraining
the operational efficiency and development of the E-waste recycling sector.
Therefore, academic integration and outreach are necessary to address
human resource gaps and support the scaling of formal E-waste recycling
while maintaining technical and operational excellence.
Key Recommendation:
MeitY and MoE to establish recycling-focused material engineering and
E-waste management electives across all engineering colleges and technical
universities.
7.2
Absence of Certification Pathways for Informal
Workers
Current Status/Legal Position: Informal workers engaged in recycling acquire skills through on-the-job
experience rather than formal training pathways.
Issue:
Despite being skilled, a lack of recognised certification limits the informal
workforce’s access to formal employment opportunities and keeps them
confined to low-wage, low-productivity work. This gap restricts upward
mobility and reduces overall workforce efficiency in the sector.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 33
Analysis:
Streamlining onboarding requirements and easing compliance can encourage
the informal workforce to transition into the formal system. This approach
would also help increase the number of licensed recyclers, improve adherence
to regulatory norms, and reinforce the overall performance of waste
management and recycling systems.
Key Recommendation
MSDE; NSDC; CPCB; SPCBs to:
(a)
Develop an industry-aligned certification and Recognition of Prior
Learning (RPL) system with digital credentials to facilitate the transition
of informal workers into formal employment and advanced skilling.
(b)
Ensure recognition and registration of informal workers involved in
dismantling and recycling.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 34
8. Formalising the Informal Sector
Despite an established regulatory framework under the EWMR, 2022, the informal sector
remains dominant in the recycling ecosystem and processes ~78% of India’s total E-waste.
While the informal sector demonstrates significant reach in collection, its operations
often involve hazardous practices
5
, defy compliance, and compromise safety, recovery
value, and value retention, contrasting with the benefits offered by the formal sector
and leading to environmental degradation. This creates massive inefficiencies, with the
informal sector achieving only 10-20% material recovery rates compared to 95-97% in
formal recycling facilities.
Informal E-waste processing facility (Pic: Hindustan Times)
Estimates indicate that the annual economic value of India’s E-waste stream is ~INR
51,000 crores, of which ~60% is technically recoverable (Fig. 16). Current recovery systems
capture only 18% of this potential. The formal sector claims only 5% and the rest flows to
the informal sector (13%). The remaining 42% of the technically extractable value is lost
due to poor processing and inefficiencies in the informal sector. As of today, 40% of the
complex alloys and trace metals remain non-extractable due to current technological
limitations. Massive soil and water contamination has also been reported at the informal
recycling facilities in Bangalore, Chennai, and Delhi (Fig. 17).
5 Environmental injustice: How informal E-waste recycling impacts human rights, Norton Rose Fulbright, https://www .nortonrosefulbright.com/
en/knowledge/publications/f54afc62/environmental-injustice-how-informal-e-waste-recycling-impacts-human-rights
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 35
Fig.16: Economic Value Loss in the current E-waste ecosystem (REDSEER, 2025)
Fig. 17: Heavy Metal Contamination at Informal E-waste Processing Sites
(Monday et al., 2025; Sambyal & Sohail, 2015; Shikarpur, 2016)
Given the disadvantages of the informal sector, which operates outside legal and
environmental norms, efforts have been made to formalise the informal recycling system.
However, it faces certain challenges, as discussed below.
8.1
Regulatory Barriers for Informal Sector Integration
Current Status/Legal Position:
The government has launched an integrated portal for mandatory registration
under the EWMR, 2022, and the BWMR, 2022.
Issue:
The informal sector faces challenges in navigating the multi-stage registration
process for entering the formal E-waste recycling ecosystem. Complex
regulatory compliance and document requirements also pose significant
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 36
barriers to the informal sector’s participation in and operation within the
formal system. In addition, the absence of provisions to recognise and
legitimise informal workers discourages their transition into the formal
recycling framework.
Analysis:
These regulatory hurdles perpetuate informality, limiting the reach and
inclusivity of the country’s E-waste management ecosystem. Simplifying
registration procedures and lowering entry barriers can facilitate the
formalization of informal recycling units, broadening the base of authorised
recyclers, and enhancing regulatory compliance across the sector.
Key Recommendation:
MSME, State Governments, CPCB, and SPCBs to:
(a)
Utilise the single window registration system for recyclers and the state
government to facilitate their registration process.
(b) Provide a one-time waiver of liability and registration fees to informal units.
8.2 Underutilization of Government Schemes for Sector
Formalization
Current Status/Legal Position: The government has launched the Recycling Incentive Scheme (RIS) under
the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) and Micro and Small Enterprises
- Cluster Development Programme (MSE-CDP). Issue:
The predominant informal operations limit the availability of quality feedstock
for authorised recyclers, suppressing margins and undermining the commercial
viability of the formal sector. Also, eligibility conditions for incentives, “the
minimum investment (in KTPA) threshold (` 25 crores)” under section 6 of
National Critical Mineral Mission- Recycling Incentive Scheme, are too high
for smaller and informal units.
Analysis:
Inadequate access to compliant feedstock constrains capacity expansion
and dampens investment in formal recycling infrastructure. Adopting cluster-
based interventions under government schemes, such as the MSE-CDP and
the NCMM - Recycling Incentive Scheme, can help balance this structural
imbalance by enabling shared access to safe infrastructure, skill development,
and institutional finance for informal units. Linking financial and policy incentive
mechanisms to verify sourcing would strengthen feedstock availability for
formal recyclers, improve operational viability, and accelerate sector-wide
formalization across the E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery recycling ecosystem.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 37
Key Recommendation:
MoM, MeitY, MoEFCC, SPCBs to:
(a) Establish cluster-based Common Facility Centres (CFCs) for E-waste
and
Lithium-ion Battery that provide training and safe facilities for
informal workers under MSE-CDP.
(b)
Another category may be added in 6.1.1 as Group C (1 KTPA capacity)
with a minimum investment threshold (` 1 crore), along with the addition
of a revised methodology for Capex and Opex Incentive Allocation
(Section 7) to benefit small informal units from the scheme for E-waste
and Lithium-ion Battery waste recycling. Handholding of informal units
for credit access is required under schemes with a cluster approach.
(c)
Establish a separate vertical in MoM/National Critical Mineral Mission
(NCMM) only on recycling.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 38
9. Strengthening E-waste Collection and
C
onsumer Awareness
Current Status/Legal Position:
No established template or framework for E-waste collection. Urban Local
Bodies (ULBs) are conducting door-to-door collection only in a few major
cities. Also, consumer awareness of safe E-waste disposal practices remains
low in India.
Issue:
A fragmented and underdeveloped formal E-waste collection network and
insufficient consumer awareness regarding responsible end-of-life E-waste
and Lithium-ion Battery management perpetuate informal and unregulated
material handling practices, leading to poor recovery rates and undermining
the effectiveness of the EPR framework.
Analysis:
The consumer awareness gap is also evident from the fact that only 22%
of E-waste enters authorised recycling facilities. Nearly 60% of consumers
retain unused devices, resulting in an estimated 1.3 MMT of E-waste withheld
from circulation. Key deterrents include the perception that devices might
be useful later (31%), concerns over data privacy and data theft during
disposal (28%), and the low perceived resale value of discarded electronics
(24%). It is also evident from Fig. 18 that the retention rate is higher among
older individuals, suggesting a greater awareness of formal waste disposal
mechanisms among the younger populations.
Fig. 18: Age group-based consumer behaviour on E-waste disposal
(Namo eWaste, 2026; Toxics Link, 2016)
The poor accessibility of formal E-waste disposal mechanisms (only one formal collection
point per 4.9 lakh people) further hinders convenient E-waste disposal for consumers.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 39
However, as shown in Table 12, global experience suggests that the larger the number
of collection centres, the higher the collection rate.
Table 12: Comparison of global and Indian E-waste collection load (REDSEER, 2025).
Country Collection
No. of Collection Centres
(for every 1 lakh population)
Germany 85% 45
Japan 78% 38
India 11% 0.1
Furthermore, the rural population has lower consumer awareness of formal waste management (<5%) than the urban population (~32%), which is directly linked to the number of formal collection points in the area. The area-wise optimised number of collection centres is presented in Fig. 19.
Fig. 19: Required number of collection points for optimised collection by population category
(REDSEER, 2025)
Therefore, government support for collection infrastructure is required to increase formal
collection. Also, wider exposure to formal E-waste management systems is necessary to sensitise citizens to the responsible disposal of E-waste.
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC, MeitY, MHI, State Governments, and ULBs to:
(a) Support formal E-waste collection efforts (such as Selsmart, ReLoop, Bino,
KaroSambhav) by establishing collection centres run on a PPP model.
(b) Provide details of collection centres and consumer-facing platforms
on central and state government websites (such as Greene
).
(c)
Provide targeted advertisements in newspapers and digital media
containing information and contact details (Phone number, QR Code, Hyperlinks) for formal E-waste collection platforms.
(d)
Mandate the compulsory inclusion of E-waste disposal details on product
packaging and manufacturers’ websites.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 40
10. Conclusion – Summary of
Rec
ommendations
As India moves forward to integrate the circular economy framework within the waste
management landscape, sustainable E-waste and Lithium-ion Batteries management
present a complex policy challenge and a priority resource imperative. This report has
examined the current policy framework, institutional mechanisms, technological aspects,
the requirement for a skilled workforce, incentivization routes, and behavioural dimensions
shaping the E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery ecosystem. This report identifies persistent
gaps that limit the formal collection, processing, and recovery of high-value materials
from E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scraps. The recommendations are designed
to guide coordinated action by the designated implementing agencies to ensure the
sustainable management of E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scraps. A summary of the
recommendations on E-waste and end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery management has
been provided in Table 13.
Table 13: Summary of the recommendations on E-waste and
end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery management
Recommendations Implementation Agency
Addressing Gaps in Waste Management Rules
Monitoring of recyclers through audits
Empanel third-party agencies to ensure unit-wise periodic audits.
MoEFCC
E-waste Management Rules (EWMR)
Expand E-waste EPR coverage to other high-value metals.
Develop a phased plan to expand the EPR mandate for other
high-value metals.
MoEFCC
Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR)
GSTN–EPR portal integration
Enhance the EPR portal by integrating GSTN-based invoice verification.
MoEFCC; CPCB
Enhanced EPR pricing for Low-Value Lithium-ion Battery chemistries
Develop a chemistry-specific EPR pricing framework for LFP
and other low-value chemistry Lithium-ion Batterys.
MoEFCC
EPR compliance cycle for LFP EV (4W) batteries
Introduce EPR compliance provision for LFP batteries used in
EV (4W), with the compliance cycle aligned with the battery
life offered by OEMs (e.g., 15 years by Tata/Mahindra).
MoEFCC
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 41
Recommendations Implementation Agency
Chemistry-wise metal composition and labelling requirements for Lithium-ion Battery
Notify chemistry-wise (e.g., NMC, LFP, etc.) metal composition.MoEFCC; CPCB
Update BIS certification (IS 16046) to include mandatory
chemical composition testing as part of the assessment for
recycled Lithium-ion Battery.
BIS
Guidelines for Safe Handling of Lithium-ion Battery
Issue detailed guidelines for the collection, storage,
transportation, refurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries,
including specific provisions for Lithium-ion Battery.
MoEFCC; CPCB
Nurturing the Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Industry
Standardising protocols for recycled-content verification
Establish purity standards for recycled materials in Lithium-
ion Batteries.
BIS
Promoting recycled-content uptake
Upcoming battery manufacturing schemes (e.g., the Production
Linked Incentive scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cells)
may consider supporting additional incentives for utilizing
domestically recycled Cathode Active Material (CAM).
MHI
Leveraging carbon markets for Lithium-ion Battery recycling
Develop a methodology for integrating Lithium-ion
Battery recycling within the ICM through MoEFCC’s
Technical Committee.
BEE
Enhancing Skilling in E-waste Management
Skill Development for E-waste Recycling
Establish recycling-focused material engineering and e-waste
management electives across all engineering colleges and
technical universities.
MeitY; MoE
Skilled informal workers certification for better employability in the formal sector
Develop an industry-aligned certification and Recognition of
Prior Learning (RPL) system with digital credentials to facilitate
the transition of informal workers into formal employment
and advanced skilling.
Ensure recognition and registration of informal workers
involved in dismantling and recycling.
MSDE;
NSDC; CPCB; SPCBs
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 42
Recommendations Implementation Agency
Formalising the Informal Sector
Regulatory Reforms for Informal Sector Integration
Utilise a single-window registration system for recyclers and
the state government to facilitate their registration process.
Provide a one-time waiver of liability and registration fees
to informal units.
MSME;
State Governments;
CPCB; SPCBs
Leveraging Government schemes for sector formalisation
Leverage the following schemes:
Establish cluster-based Common Facility Centres (CFCs) for
E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery that provide training and
safe facilities for informal workers under MSE-CDP.
Another category may be added in 6.1.1 as Group C (1 KTPA
capacity) with a minimum investment threshold (`1 crore),
along with the addition of a revised methodology for Capex and
Opex Incentive Allocation (Section 7) to benefit small informal
units from the scheme for E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery
waste recycling. Handholding of informal units for credit
access is required under schemes with a cluster approach.
MoM; MeitY;
MoEFCC; SPCBs
Establish a separate vertical in MoMines/National Critical
Mineral Mission (NCMM) only on recycling.
MoM
Strengthening E-waste Collection and Consumer Awareness
Support collection and increasing awareness about E-waste disposal
Support formal E-waste collection efforts (such as Selsmart,
ReLoop, Bino, KaroSambhav) by establishing collection
centres run on a PPP model.
Provide details of collection centres and consumer-facing
platforms on central and state government websites (such
as Greene).
Provide targeted advertisements in newspapers and
digital media containing information and contact details
(Phone number, QR Code, Hyperlinks) for formal E-waste
collection platforms.
Mandate the compulsory inclusion of E-waste disposal details
on product packaging and manufacturers’ websites.
MoEFCC, MeitY,
MHI, State
Governments, and ULBs
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 43
References
1. Eninrac. (2025). India Critical Minerals Market 2025-2030: Domestic, Export, Value
Chain, Investment Trends and China Comparison. https://www.eximbankindia.in/
sites/default/files/2025-07/211file (1).pdf
2. EXIM Bank. (2025). India’s Need to Secure Critical Minerals for Energy Transition
(No. 230; Occasional Paper). https://www.eximbankindia.in/sites/default/files/2025-
07/211file (1).pdf
3.
ICEA. (2023). Pathways to Circular Economy in Indian Electronics Sector.
4.
ITU, & UNITAR. (2024). Global E-Waste Monitor 2024: Electronic Waste Rising Five
Times Faster Than Documented E-Waste Recycling. https://globalewaste.org/
5. Monday, S., Khajuria, A., Elliason, E. K., Gagan, & Kamanda, J. S. (2025). A Study on
Heavy Metal Contamination in Workers Handling Electronic Waste in North India.
OmniScience: A Multi-Disciplinary Journal, 15(2). https://journals.stmjournals.com/
osmj/article=2025/view=214877
6.
Namo eWaste. (2026). E-waste Management Habits of Indians and Their Awareness
Level. https://namoewaste.com/e-waste-management-habits-of-indians-and-
awareness-level/#:~:text=About 82%25 of the respondents,complete and responsible
recycling services.
7. Panchal, R., Singh, A., & Diwan, H. (2021). Economic potential of recycling e-waste
in India and its impact on import of materials. Resources Policy, 74, 102264. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102264
8.
REDSEER. (2025). Consumer led E-Waste Market Assessment.
9. Sambyal, S. S., & Sohail, S. (2015). E-toxic Trail. DownToEarth.
10. Shikarpur, D. (2016). eWaste - A New Digital Threat to Environment (No. 8).
11. Toxics Link. (2016). What India Knows About E-Waste.
12. Yang, J.-L., Zhao, X.-X., Ma, M.-Y., Liu, Y., Zhang, J.-P., & Wu, X.-L. (2022). Progress
and prospect on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries: Ending is begining. Carbon Neutralization, 1(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/cnl2.31
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 44
Annexure I
Importance of E-waste Management and Circular Economy
E-waste management is crucial in advancing the circular economy, ensuring that materials
retain their highest value for as long as possible through reuse, refurbishment, and
recycling, rather than being disposed of linearly. This transition holds importance across
several dimensions of sustainable development and economic competitiveness.
(i)
Circular Economy Integration: The E-waste circular economy goes beyond material
recovery to encompass design innovation, producer responsibility, and consumer
behaviour change. Integrating E-waste management creates synergies with renewable
energy and advanced manufacturing. Recovery of critical materials also reduces
dependence on imports, aligning environmental and economic goals.
(ii)
Economic Opportunity: The current E-waste management system causes significant
economic losses by foregoing value recovery. Electronic devices hold far higher concentrations of valuable metals than conventional ores, showing the formal sector’s potential to generate safer, better-paying jobs and enhance efficiency
and environmental performance. However, innovation and technology upgradation
are limited by insufficient domestic investment.
(iii) Strategic Material Security: E-waste management is crucial for India’s material
security, particularly for resources essential to clean energy and advanced
manufacturing. Materials such as rare earths and specialty alloys in electronic devices
remain underutilised or lost due to limited domestic processing, reinforcing import
dependence and strategic vulnerability.
(iv)
Environmental Concerns: Improper E-waste processing releases persistent toxic
substances (lead, mercury, cadmium, brominated flame retardants) that cause long-term environmental harm. Soil contamination renders land unusable; toxic
leachates critically contaminate groundwater; and fumes (from burning plastics and
chemical processing) cause severe community health impacts, including respiratory
and neurological damage, as well as increased cancer risks.
(v)
Occupational Health Hazards and Social Justice in the Informal Sector: Workers
in informal E-waste processing face severe occupational risks due to hazardous exposure (inhalation of fumes/particulates, skin/chemical contact, ingestion) and unsafe conditions/lack of protection. Adverse health effects include respiratory disorders, neurological damage, skin disorders, and reproductive issues. Child
labour is a critical concern, exposing children to toxins during development. Gender
dimensions include women’s sorting/dismantling work in homes, contaminating entire families.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 45
Annexure II
Methods for Recovering E-waste and Limitations
(i) Hydrometallurgy (Water-Based Processing) - This approach utilizes specialized
chemical solutions to selectively dissolve and separate metals from E-waste
components. (Fig. 19) The process works optimally for the extraction of Gold,
Silver, copper, cobalt, and lithium, producing very pure metals with lower energy
requirements than thermal methods. Hydrometallurgical processes achieve only
35% efficiency, compared to the 80% standard, primarily due to limited chemical
processing capabilities and the absence of selective extraction systems. Current
facilities lack the sophisticated chemical control systems necessary for high-efficiency
metal extraction. This prevents the achievement of material purity levels demanded
by secondary metal markets.
(ii)
Pyrometallurgy (Heat-Based Processing) - High-temperature smelting operations
melt E-waste to separate metals through density and chemical property differences.
This method excels for mixed waste streams and high-volume processing of Gold, copper, platinum, and palladium. Current pyrometallurgical capabilities operate at only 45% efficiency, compared to the global benchmark of 85%, resulting in a
substantial loss of value in high-temperature processing operations. These deficiencies
prevent the processing of specialized electronic components containing high-value
alloys, forcing recyclers to either export materials for processing abroad or accept
significantly reduced recovery rates.
(iii) Bioleaching - Emerging biological processes use microorganisms to produce
natural acids that dissolve metals from E-waste, offering energy efficiency and environmental benefits. However, these methods remain slow and require specific
waste compositions. Indian research institutions are exploring bioleaching as a potential
solution for low-grade PCBs and mining tailings, with the aim of commercial scaling.
The current biometallurgical capabilities operate at only 5% efficiency in research
stages, far below the 75% global efficiency achievable in biological metal extraction.
Despite zero commercial deployment, bioleaching presents a critical opportunity for sustainable metal recovery, particularly for complex electronic components
where biological processes offer higher selectivity and lower environmental impact
than conventional chemical methods.
(iv)
Mechanical Separation – A physical process that involves shredding E-waste and
sorting the fragments by size, density, or other physical properties to recover metals, plastics, and other materials. Its effectiveness is limited by inconsistent waste segregation, inadequate access to high-precision sorting equipment, and an inability to recover high-purity trace elements.
(v)
Electrorefining – An electrochemical technique used to purify metals such as copper
and Silver recovered from E-waste by dissolving impure metal and redepositing it in a refined form. This process faces challenges due to high energy requirements,
chemical management issues, and limited availability of pure input streams.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 46
(vi) V – A method of recovering rare or volatile metals from E-waste
by processing them under vacuum conditions, which allows for controlled melting,
evaporation, and condensation of valuable elements. High capital costs and limited
domestic expertise have constrained its adoption.
(vii) Cryogenic Crushing – A technique that uses extremely low temperatures to make
materials brittle, enabling efficient separation of plastics and metals from E-waste
through controlled crushing. Its use is minimal owing to high operational costs and
limited infrastructure for cryogenic processing.
Fig. 20: Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy Processes for E-waste Recycling
(Yang et al., 2022)
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 47
Annexure III
Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Technologies
Several key recycling technologies are currently available for lithium-ion batteries, as outlined
below. These technologies play essential roles in recovering valuable materials and supporting
circularity in the battery value chain. However, despite the availability of multiple technologies,
their actual uptake remains limited due to broader economic, operational, and viability-relat
ed considerations that continue to restrict large-scale adoption by recyclers.
Hydrometallurgy
In this method, the black mass is dissolved in chemical solutions, followed by leaching,
solvent extraction, and crystallization to recover high-purity lithium, cobalt, nickel, and
manganese. It offers high recovery efficiency with lower energy consumption compared
to Pyrometallurgy. The approach, however, is more complex, requiring precise process
control and adjustments for variations in battery chemistry, which can challenge
standardisation at scale.
Advantage: High recovery efficiency; lower energy consumption than pyrometallurgy.
Disadvantage: Complex chemical process; requires precise control; variable by
battery chemistry.
Pyrometallurgy
This high-temperature smelting process recovers metals such as cobalt, nickel, and copper,
while organic materials, including electrolytes, separators, and binders, are destroyed
to produce slag. It is highly tolerant of variations in feedstock and can process different
Lithium-ion Battery chemistries without equipment modifications. However, lithium and
aluminium are typically lost in the slag phase, and the process requires advanced gas-
cleaning systems to manage emissions, leading to a higher environmental burden.
Advantage: Robust process tolerates variations; processes different chemistries
without modification.
Disadvantage: High energy use, material losses, and significant environmental control
requirements.
Direct-Recycling
This emerging technology recovers and regenerates cathode active materials such as NMC
and LFP without breaking them down into individual metals. By preserving the structural
integrity of these materials, direct recycling supports a closed-loop manufacturing model,
reducing reliance on primary raw materials and eliminating specific refining steps. The main challenges include the need for uniform battery chemistry to ensure consistent quality and the additional purification needed to meet industry specifications.
Advantage: Preserves cathode integrity; supports closedloop manufacturing and reuse.
Disadvantage: High post-treatment costs; needs uniform chemistry; additional
purification required.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 48
Black Mass Recycling: Main Processes
Based on the above recycling technologies, two dominant processes are currently in use,
enabling the recovery of valuable metals from black mass for reuse in the production
of new batteries.
Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy
Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy are two primary methods used for recycling lithium-
ion batteries. The process begins with collecting and sorting used batteries from various
sources, including electric vehicles, energy storage systems, and consumer electronics.
After collection, batteries are carefully tested, discharged, and dismantled to prepare
them for processing. During Pyrometallurgy, batteries are smelted at high temperatures
to recover valuable metals, such as cobalt, nickel, and copper, as alloys, while other
elements form slag. Hydrometallurgy then utilizes solutions to extract and refine metals,
resulting in compounds like nickel sulfate and cobalt sulfate. Together, these approaches
help recover essential materials and support a circular economy for battery waste.
By combining safe collection, organised dismantling, and advanced processing techniques,
Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy make it possible to recover key resources from
spent batteries, supporting environmental sustainability and resource security.
Fig. 21: Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy: Metal Extraction Pathways
Mechanical and Hydrometallurgy
Mechanical and hydrometallurgical recycling is a stepwise process that begins with the
safe collection and sorting of used batteries from sources such as electric vehicles, energy
storage systems, and consumer electronics. After sorting, the batteries are tested, safely
discharged, and dismantled. Mechanical treatment involves crushing and separating
components to produce “black mass,” containing valuable metals like cobalt, nickel, and
lithium, along with metal foils and plastics. The black mass then undergoes Hydrometallurgy,
where leaching, purification, and crystallization recover essential metals in the form
of salts. This systematic approach enables efficient recovery of critical materials and
supports a sustainable, circular battery value chain.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 49
This method aligns with best practices, emphasizing efficient material recovery with a
lower environmental footprint and reinforcing sustainable battery lifecycle management.
Fig. 22: Mechanical and Hydrometallurgical Processing Pathways
SOP for Utilisation of Black Mass from Lithium-ion Battery
The CPCB issued a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) in January 2025 for the
utilisation of black mass generated from dismantling and recycling of end-of-life-
Lithium-ion Batteries. The SOP, notified under Rule 9 of the Hazardous and Other Wastes
(Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, lays down the mandatory
facilities, authorization process, and compliance requirements for recyclers. It also covers
recovery of carbon/graphite and key metal compounds such as cobalt, manganese, nickel,
lithium, copper, iron, aluminium, and sodium through hydrometallurgy. This provides
a clear regulatory pathway to promote scientific recycling, ensure resource efficiency,
and advance circularity in the Lithium-ion Battery value chain while safeguarding
environmental and occupational health standards.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 50
Annexure IV
(a) R
CPCB Registration and Fee Structure
Registration Requirements:
• Recycler registration: `15,000 for five years
• Additional charges for renewals and transactions
• Mandatory manifest maintenance and mass balance reporting
• Audit requirements for EPR certificate issuance and retirement
EPR Certificate Pricing Mechanism: CPCB establishes EPR certificate price bands based
on environmental compensation (EC) calculations
6
, which measure the per-unit cost
of collection, transportation, and processing for each material (in Rs/kg for copper,
aluminium, and iron; Rs/gram for Gold). The price floor and ceiling are set at 30% and
100% of the EC, respectively. A key operational constraint is that certificate revenue
is realized post-verification rather than upfront at collection, creating working capital
challenges for formal operators.
Provisions in Union Budget 2025-26
To boost domestic Lithium-ion Battery manufacturing and promote a circular battery
economy, the Government of India, through Notification No. 11/2025-Customs (01.022025),
extended Basic Customs Duty exemption to a wide range of capital goods used in
battery production, including powder dryers, blending systems, slurry transfer systems,
vacuum pumps, and electrode slitting machines. Complementing this, the Union Budget
2025-26 granted full BCD exemption on Lithium-ion Battery scrap and several critical
mineral wastes, including cobalt powder, lead, zinc, and twelve other minerals, to
improve secondary raw material availability, lower production costs, and strengthen
clean-technology industries.
(b)
Global Best Practices and Technology Models
Advanced Recovery Technologies Currently Deployed
Pyrometallurgical Systems
• Rönnskär Smelters (Boliden, Sweden): Processes over 100,000 tonnes annually
using Kaldo furnaces and refining technology, co-treating E-waste with industrial
scrap to achieve economies of scale.
•
Umicore (Belgium): Hybrid pyro-hydrometallurgy facility processing diverse
E-waste streams with high-capacity centralized operations.
Hydrometallurgical Innovations
• Royal Mint (UK, Wales): Ambient leaching technology extracting precious metals
(Gold, copper, Silver) from 4,000 tonnes annually of printed circuit boards with
low-emission processing.
• BARC Resin-Based Process: Continuous, scalable hydrometallurgical method using
polymeric resin to extract high-purity copper oxide nanoparticles from PCBs.
6
Rules-2022-25.08.25.pdf.pdf
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 51
Battery-Specific Technologies
• VW/Duesenfeld (Germany): Pilot hybrid pyro-hydrometallurgy achieving ~90%
EV battery recovery through LithoRec process.
• European Battery Recycling Plants: Facilities like Accurec (Germany) and
Nickelhütte Aue, which operate with capacities of 7,000-120,000 tonnes annually,
share capacity for EV and consumer batteries.
Examples of Indian Infrastructure Models
•
C-MET Demonstration Plant (Hyderabad): A publicly operated center featuring
shredding, smelting with a rotary tilting furnace, electrorefining, and leaching.
Achieves copper recovery of ~90% with Silver and Gold at 99.9% purity—accessible
to informal collectors on a fee basis, providing a formalization pathway.
•
Hindalco-Metso Facility (Gujarat, upcoming): Large-scale integrated copper
recovery plant from E-waste using Kaldo furnaces and Hydrometallurgy, targeting
50,000 tonnes annually of low-carbon copper production. Located near existing
copper infrastructure, enabling shared metal extraction networks.Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET)’s Technology Portfolio
The C-MET has developed nine critical technologies at Technology Readiness
Levels (TRL) 5-8, including Lithium-ion Battery recycling system (>95% recovery
efficiency), PCB processing unit (1 tone/ day pilot scale), and hydrometallurgical
systems for precious metals extraction. C-MET’s hydrometallurgical processing
include specialized resin-based systems for extracting high-purity copper oxide
nanoparticles from printed circuit boards. These technologies recover gold and silver
with 99.9% purity, matching international standards for direct use in electronics
manufacturing. However, commercialization remains limited at 15% success rate,
constrained by high capital requirements, lack of innovation financing mechanisms,
and inadequate private sector engagement in bridging the commercialization gap.
NOTES
NOTES
Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India
Advancing Circular Economy of
DISCLAIMER
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referred to as NITI Aayog). It has been prepared by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) with
the support of NITI Aayog, for independent, academic, and policy-oriented research.
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or implied, as to the completeness or reliability of the information, data, findings, or methodology
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The assertions, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are those of the author(s)
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Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste) and Lithium-
Ion Batteries in India
Copyright @ NITI Aayog
Published: January 2026
NITI AAYOG
National Institute for Transforming India
Government of India
NITI Bhawan, Sansad Marg
New Delhi – 110001
Waste Electronic and
Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion
Batteries in India
Advancing Circular Economy of
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India i
Acknowledgements
We thank Shri BVR Subrahmanyam, CEO, NITI Aayog, for his guidance and valuable
suggestions in the preparation of this report. We also thank the members of the Working
Group on Circular Economy of Electronic waste (E-waste) and Lithium-Ion Batteries
for their active participation and constructive inputs. We thank our knowledge partner,
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), along with the concerned ministries and all
stakeholders for their support in finalizing the report.
CHAIRPERSON
Maj Gen K Narayanan
AVSM**, SM (Retd), Programme
Director, Security and Law, NITI Aayog
Chairperson, Working Group on
Circular Economy of E-waste and
Lithium-Ion Batteries
LEADERSHIP
Shri Suman K Bery
Vice Chairperson, NITI Aayog
Shri Rajiv Gauba
Member, NITI Aayog
Shri B.V.R. Subrahmanyam
CEO, NITI Aayog
Dr. Anshu Bharadwaj
Programme Director,
Green Transition, Climate &
Environment (GTC&E), NITI Aayog
Shri Surender Mehra
Advisor, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
Shri Amit Verma
Former Director, GTC&E,
NITI Aayog (Currently Joint Secretary,
Department of Commerce)
Shri Satyendra Kumar
Former Director, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
(Currently IG, ACB, Govt. of Rajasthan)
Shri Priyavrat Bhati
Programme Lead, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
AUTHORS
NITI AAYOG
Shri Amit Verma
Former Director, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
Dr. Abhijeet Anand
Consultant, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
Ms. Prinshila Gandhi
Young Professional, GTC&E,
NITI Aayog
KNOWLEDGE PARTNERS
Dr. Souvik Bhattacharya
Director and Senior Fellow,
TERI, New Delhi
Mr. Arya Jash
Research Associate, TERI, New Delhi
Ms. Mrunali Tembhurne
Associate Fellow, TERI
Mr. Ravi Kasera
Sustainability Analyst, ExxonMobil
WORKING GROUP COORDINATORS
Shri Amit Verma
Former Director, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
Ms. Prinshila Gandhi
Young Professional, GTC&E, NITI Aayog
iii
WORKING GROUP MEMBERS
Sh. Sudhendu Jyoti Sinha,
Former Adviser (Infra & Connectivity),
NITI Aayog
Shri Vinod Singh
Director, MoEFCC
Ms. Youthika Puri
Additional Director, CPCB
Shri Runa Oraon
Divisional Head, CPCB
Shri Vinod Babu
Former Divisional Head, CPCB
Shri KC Sharma
Advisor, MoRTH
Smt. Sunita Verma
Scientist G, Meity
Shri Surendar Gotharwal
Scientist D, Meity
Dr. R Ratheesh
Director, C-MET, MeitY
Dr. Ram Babu
Quality Manager, C-MET, MeitY
Rajesh Dr. S Kumar
Scientist-F, C-MET, MeitY
Dr. R P Gupta
Director, MoMines
Dr. Suresh Babu
Scientist-E, CEST, DST
Shri Arun Agarwal,
Deputy Director General, DoT, MoC
Mr. Naveen Tandon
Head of Policy & Strategy, Apple
Ms. Poonam Kaur
ESG Head, Apple
Mr. Alok Verma
Head of Corporate Strategy,
Ashok Leyland
Dr. Abhinav Mathur
Co-Founder & Head of Policy &
Strategy, Attero
Ms. Himanshi, Attero
Ms. Paromita, Attero
Mr. Naveen Chikkara
Head ESG & EHS, Bajaj Electricals
Mr. Utkarsh Singh
CEO, BatX Energies
Mr. Mandeep Manocha
Co-Founder, Cashify
Mr. Khyat Mahajan
Vice President, Cashify
Ms. Divya Malhotra
Compliance Head, Cashify
Mr. B. K. Soni
Eco Recycling Ltd.
Mr. Arvind Kumar,
Vice president,
E-Parisaraa Pvt. Ltd.
Mr. Raman Sharma
Founder, Exigo Recycling
Mr. Mritunjay Kumar
Director of Public Policy,
RCEICE, FICCI
Mr. Rohit Pattnaik
Head of Government Affairs and
Sustainability, First Solar
Mr. Tejashree Joshi
Head of Environment Sustainability,
Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Ltd.
Ms. Aditi Chaturvedi
Lead - Government Affairs
and Public Policy, Google
Dr. Ashok Kumar
President, Greenscape Eco
Management Pvt. Ltd.
iv
Mr. Prateek Mittal
General Manager - AI, R&D, Hitachi India
Mr. Hitesh Sharma
Lead Sustainability,
HP India
Mr. Dilip Chenoy
Advisor, IBSA
Ms. Manvi Sherawat
Consultant - Public
Policy, IBSA
Dr. Aashish Saurikhia
Director of Public Policy, ICEA
Mr. Rajesh Sharma
Executive Director &
Principal Advisor, ICEA
Ms. Shambhavi Singh
Assistant Manager of
Public Policy, ICEA
Mr. Siddhart Hande
Founder, Kabadiwala Connect
Ms. Swathilakshmi R
Research Manager,
Kabadiwala Connect
Mr. Pranshu Singhal
Founder, Karo Sambhav
Mr. VGS Mani
Vice President, Karo Sambhav
Mr. Piyush Gupta
CEO, Lithion Power
Mr. Rajat Verma
CEO, Lohum Cleantech
Mr. Pratyush Sinha
Vice President, Lohum Cleantech
Mr. Sachin Maheshwari
Head of Corporate Development &
Global Expansion, Lohum Cleantech
Mr. Ayush Sabat
Senior Manager, Lohum Cleantech
Ms. Bhavana Mahajan
Head Public Affairs, Lohum Cleantech
Mr. Aryan Tomar
Markets Team, Lohum Cleantech
Col Suhail Zaidi (Retd)
Director General, MAIT
Lt Col Harsh Vardhan Srivastava
Deputy Director General, MAIT
Ms. Poonam Kaur
Chairperson of Environment
Committee, MAIT
Mr. Prem Ananth
Co-Chairperson of Environment
Committee, MAIT
Ms. Fariha Salman
EO, MAIT
Mr. Sachin Jain
Head of Corporate Affairs, MRAI
Mr. Divvye Kohli
Director, MRAI
Mr. Satish Kohli
Advisor, MRAI
Mr. Gaurav Kaul
Head of Government Relations, MRAI
Mr. Darshan Virupaksha
Co-Founder, Nunam Battery
Ms. Ritu Ghosh
Associate Director,
Panasonic Life Solutions
Mr. Praveen Bhargava
Vice President, Pegasus
Waste Management Pvt. Ltd.
Mr. Praveen Singh
Business Development
Officer, RecycleKaro
Mr. Abhay Deshpande
Co-Founder, Recykal
Mr. Abhishek Deshpande
Co-Founder, Recykal
Dr. Masood Khajenoori
Founder & CEO, ReCy Energy Pvt. Ltd.
v
Mr. Rahul Singh
Director, Rocklink
Mr. Raj Sahu
Senior Director, Samsung
Mr. Navneet Singh
Manager, Samsung
Mr. Judajit Sen
DGM, Samsung
Dr. Sandip Chatterjee
Senior Advisor, SERI
Mr. Rino Raj
Chief of energy business, TATA Chemicals
Mr. Syed Mohammad Danish
Government & Corporate Affairs,
TATA Motors Ltd.
Mr. Mohammad Danish Ghazali
Senior Manager, TATA Motors Ltd.
Mr. Sachin Thakur
Deputy General Manager,
TATA Motors Ltd.
Mr. Vikram Jadhav
Deputy General Manager,
TATA Motors Ltd.
Ms. Lovey Tripathi
Senior Manager of Government &
Corporate Affairs, TATA Motors Ltd.
Mr. Arya jash
Project Associate, TERI
Ms. Priya Bhadra
Lead - Government Affairs, Vivo
Mr. Parveen Kumar
Head of Sustainability, WRI
Ms. Chaitanya Kanuri
Head of Sustainability, WRI
Mr. Manish Jain
Associate Director -
Government Relation, Xiaomi
Mr. Rohan Singh Bias
CTO, Ziptrax Cleantech
COLLABORATORS
Shri Tanmay Kumar
Secretary, MoEFCC
Shri Ved Prakash
Joint Secretary, MoEFCC
Shri Neelesh Kumar Sah
Joint Secretary, MoEF&CC
RESEARCH & NETWORKING (R&N) TEAM
Smt. Anna Roy
Programme Director,
R&N Division, NITI Aayog
Smt. Banusri Velpandian
Senior Specialist, R&N Division, NITI Aayog
DESIGN TEAM
Ms. Keerti Tiwari,
Director, Communication,
NITI Aayog
vi
vii
viii
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India ix
Table of Contents
List of Figures 1
List of Abb
reviations
2
Ex
ecutive Summary
4
1. Introduction 5
2. Background 6
2.1 Material Composition of E-waste and Lithium-ion Batteries 6
2.2 Current and Projected E-waste and
Lithium-ion Batteries Generation in India 7
2.3 State of Formal E-waste and End-of-Life
Lithium-ion Batteries Recycling in India 9
3. Policy Landscape 13
3.1 E-waste Management Rules (EWMR) 13
3.2 Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR) 14
3.3 EPR for E-waste 15
3.4 EPR for Lithium-ion Batteries 15
4. Global Best Practices 17
4.1 E-waste Management 17
4.2 End-of-Life Lithium-ion Batteries Management 19
5. Addressing the Gaps in Policy Landscape 21
5.1 Weak Monitoring of Recyclers 21
5.2 Limited EPR Coverage Under EWMR 22
5.3 Gaps in Battery Waste Management Rules 23
5.3.1 GSTN-EPR Portal Integration Gap 23
5.3.2 Inadequate EPR Pricing for Low-Value
Lithium-ion Battery Chemistries 24
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India x
5.3.3 EPR Compliance Cycle for LFP EV (4W) Batteries 25
5.3.4 Chemical Composition Verification Gap 26
5.3.5 Guidelines for Safe Handling of Lithium-ion Batteries 28
6. Nurturing the Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Industry 29
6.1 Standards for Recycled Content 29
6.2 Limited Recycled Content Uptake 29
6.3 Untapped Potential of Carbon Markets 30
7. Addressing Workforce Skill Gaps in E-waste and
Lithium-ion Battery Recycling 32
7.1 Skilling for E-waste Recycling 32
7.2 Absence of Certification Pathways for Informal Workers 32
8. Formalising the Informal Sector 34
8.1 Regulatory Barriers for Informal Sector Integration 35
8.2 Underutilisation of Government Schemes for Sector Formalisation 36
9
.
Strengthening E-waste Collection and Consumer Awareness 38
10. Conclusion – Summary of Recommendations 40
Ref
erences
43
Annex
ure I
44
Anne
xure II
45
Anne
xure III
47
An
nexure IV
50
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 1
List of Figures
Fig. No.Description Page
1 E-waste Material Composition 6
2 Material Composition in Lithium-ion Battery Chemistries 7
3 Projected E-waste Generation in India 7
4 Projected Lithium-ion Battery Demand Growth in India 8
5 Projected End-of-Life Lithium-ion Battery Availability in India 8
6 India’s Position in Global E-waste Generation and Recycling 9
7 Categorization Of E-waste Recyclers and Recycling Capacity 10
8 Formal E-waste Recycling Projections 10
9
Projected End-of-Life Lithium-ion Battery Availability and Recycling
Capacity in India
11
10 Material Flow in the Indian Lithium-ion Battery Value Chain 12
11
Material Recovery from E-waste Under the Current EPR Framework 22
12
Potential Increase in Material Recovery Under Expanded
EPR Framework
23
13 Unit Economics of a 10kt Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Plant 24
14 Chemistry-wise Unit Economies of LCO, NMC, And LFP 25
15 Carbon Credit Benefits of the Proposed Intervention 31
16 Economic Value Loss in the Current E-waste Ecosystem 35
17 Heavy Metal Contamination at Informal E-waste Processing Sites 35
18 Age Group-based Consumer Behaviour on E-waste Disposal 38
19
Required Number of Collection Points for Optimized Collection by
Population Category
39
20
Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy Processes for E-waste Recycling 46
21 Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy: Metal Extraction Pathways 48
22 Mechanical and Hydrometallurgical Processing Pathways 49
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 2
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation Description
BCD Basic Customs Duty
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
CE Consumer Electronics
CFC Common Facility Centres
C-MET Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
CRM Critical Raw Materials
DGFT Directorate General of Foreign Trade
DPIIT Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade
EEE/E-waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Waste
EPR Extended Producer Responsibility
ESS Energy Storage System
GST Goods and Services Tax
KT Kiloton
LCO Lithium Cobalt Oxide
LIB Lithium-Ion Battery
LFP Lithium Ferro Phosphate
LPW Low-Priced Waste
MeitY Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
MHI Ministry of Heavy Industries
MoE Ministry of Education
MoEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
MoF Ministry of Finance
MoM Ministry of Mines
MoMSME Ministry of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises
MSDE Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
MMT Million Metric Tonnes
NCA Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide
NCMM National Critical Mineral Mission
NMC Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PLI Production Linked Incentive
PPP Public-Private Partnership
R&D Research and Development
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
SPCB State Pollution Control Board
ULB Urban Local Body
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 3
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 4
Executive Summary
The clean energy and digital transition are driving exponential growth in the usage of
L
ithium-ion batteries and the generation of electronic waste (E-waste) in India. Despite
t
he gradual expansion of the formal recycling ecosystem, Lithium-ion Battery scrap and
E
-waste are largely handled by the unregulated informal sector, which often employs
u
nscientific methods, resulting in economic losses, environmental contamination, and public
health risks. Informal sector dominance also persists due to weak monitoring mechanisms
and
complex compliance requirements that deter informal recyclers from entering the
formal ecosystem.
In recent years, the Government of India has introduced policies to
promote circularity
and ensure responsible management of E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scrap. However,
a
robust circular ecosystem is yet to materialize due to multiple factors. For instance,
Extended
Producer Responsibility (EPR) coverage in E-waste recycling is limited to Gold,
Copper, Iron, and Aluminum, restricting investment and innovation in the recovery of other
valuable and critical minerals. Weak enforcement allows spurious and non-operational
recyclers
to distort EPR markets throu
gh fraudulent certification. Low skills, and limited
accessibility of advanced recycling processes also restrict the scalability and efficiency
of
the sector. Collection inefficiencies, low consumer awareness, and inadequate
financing
further e
xacerbate systemic challenges, which risk resource leakages and
e
nvironmental hazards, and undermine India’s long-term energy security by deepening
its dependence on critical mineral
imports. Therefore, advancing the circular economy
framework for E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scrap is a national priority.
F
or E-waste management, recommended priority actions include expanding EPR coverage to
other high-value metals. For Lithium-ion Battery scrap management, recommended priority
actions include integrating the EPR-GSTN portal for seamless invoice verification, tightening
EPR enforcement to track and ensure accountability across the value chain, and
notifying
chemistry-wise metal composition in Lithium-ion Batteries. BIS certification (IS
16046) to
be updated to include mandatory chemical composition testing of the recycled Lithium-ion
Batteries, and detailed guidelines to be issued for the
collection, storage, transportation,
r
efurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries. Purity standards be established, and additional
incentives may be provided to manufacturers under the Production Linked Incentive scheme
for Advanced Ch
emistry Cells to promote the uptake of recycled materials. Third-party
a
gencies to be empanelled to conduct unit-wise periodic audits, thereby enhancing compliance
and credibility. Parallel efforts to be build technical capacity through dedicated E-waste and
Lithium-ion Battery recycling curricula in engineering colleges and technical universities,
and improve access to finance for recycling infrastructure. Establishing Common Facility
C
entres equipped with recycling technologies would allow informal clusters to access
safer
a nd efficient processing methods. Simplified registration, fee waivers, and the formal
recognition of informal workers can make the transition inclusive and just.
At
the collection and consumer interface, public awareness campaigns, product-level
recycling information, and expanded collection networks operated by Urban Local Bodies
in public-private partnership would increase formal collection.
T
hese measures outline a coherent pathway to embed circular economy principles across
I
ndia’s E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery value chains. By simultaneously tightening governance,
deepening markets for secondary materials, and fostering domestic technological capabilities,
India can convert E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scraps into strategic resource reservoirs,
reduce exposure to volatile global supply chains, an
d consolidate its leadership in sustainable
and clean-tech value chains.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 5
1. Intr
India’s transition towards a sustainable future is anchored in the Hon’ble Prime Minister’s
vision for Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India), which is centered on expanding clean
technologies such as renewable energy, promoting electric vehicles (EVs), and digital
infrastructure. Underlying this transformation, there is an unprecedented demand for
critical minerals (Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, and rare earth metals), essential components
of Lithium-ion batteries powering EVs and renewable energy systems, and electrical
and electronic equipment embedded across digital infrastructure.
However, this transition will also create challenges of accumulating end-of-life Lithium-
ion Batteries and Electrical and Electronic Equipment. Despite the rapid accumulation
of these waste streams, India’s formal recycling infrastructure remains inadequate and
fragmented. Most waste is either exported or abandoned in informal channels, representing
both an economic loss and a resource security vulnerability, as India is entirely import-
dependent for Lithium and Cobalt, and relies on imports for 75-80% of its Nickel and
rare earth requirements (Eninrac, 2025; EXIM Bank, 2025). With a geopolitically volatile
global supply chain, India’s clean energy ambitions face critical supply-side vulnerabilities.
Advancing a circular economy for E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scraps is not an
optional policy domain but a strategic imperative for India.
India has taken preliminary steps toward establishing a circular economy framework
under the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, and the Batteries (Management and
Handling) Rules, 2022, for E-waste and end-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries, respectively.
Despite these initiatives, implementation remains inconsistent, and the gap between
waste generation and formal management reflects systemic deficiencies in India’s circular
economy framework.
This report examines the current state of India’s E-waste and end-of-life Lithium-ion
Batteries, recycling ecosystems, identifies systemic barriers to advancing the circular
economy, and outlines targeted recommendations to transform these waste streams
into strategic resources that advance India’s transition while ensuring environmental
stewardship and inclusive growth.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 6
2. Back
2.1 Ma
Batteries
Electronic devices contain over 60 elements, including precious metals (Gold,
Silver, Platinum, and Palladium), critical materials (Lithium and Cobalt), rare
earth elements (Indium, Gallium, and Tantalum), and multiple hazardous
substances and heavy metals (Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, and Chromium)
(ITU & UNITAR, 2024). The concentration and combination of these materials
vary across devices, requiring specialised processing. E-waste constitutes
about 33% metals, 30% plastics, and 37% glass and other materials. Iron (52%)
dominates the metal composition, followed by Copper (18%), Aluminium
(12%), Zinc (3%), and Lead (3%). Other metals account for the remaining 12%
(Fig. 1). Also, E-waste contains a higher concentration of precious metals
compared to traditional ores, creating substantial economic opportunities
for formal E-waste processing. For instance, mobile phones yield 300-400
g of Gold and 3,000-4,000 g of Silver per tonne of E-waste, while printed
circuit boards from other devices contain 200-300 g of Gold and 1,000-
2,000 g of Silver per tonne.
Fig. 1: E-waste material composition (ITU & UNITAR, 2024)
Lithium-ion Battery chemistries continue to evolve to meet diverse requirements
across transport, energy storage systems, and consumer electronics. Cathodes
made of Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP), Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC), and Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) are the most widely used in
Lithium-ion Batteries. Depending on the specific cell chemistry, the cathode
forms the majority share (40-65%) by weight in Lithium-ion Battery. The
anode stores lithium ions during charging and is usually made of graphite or silicon. The separator facilitates the movement of lithium ions between the electrodes. Material composition in Lithium-ion Battery chemistries is shown in Fig. 2.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 7
Fig. 2: Material composition in Lithium-ion Battery chemistries (Source: Industry Consultation)
2.2 Curr
Battery Generation in India
India is witnessing a sharp increase in E-waste generation. According to the
Global E-waste Monitor, E-waste generation in India has increased from ~2.76
MMT in 2020 to ~6.19 MMT in 2024 and is projected to reach 14 MMT by 2030
(ITU & UNITAR, 2024). About 16.9% annual growth in E-waste generation (Fig.
3) reflects the rapid adoption of digital technologies and shorter product life
cycles. Computer equipment accounts for the largest share of the E-waste
stream (65%), followed by large appliances and medical equipment (15%),
telecom equipment (12%), and consumer electronics (8%). Household E-Waste
(including smartphones, computers, televisions, home appliances, and consumer
electronics) contributes 60-70% of the total E-waste. Manufacturing units
and bulk consumers (corporations, institutions, government agencies, and
hospitals) account for approximately 30-40% of E-waste generation. In 2024,
the annual E-waste recycling capacity in India was ~4.2 MMT. Large equipment
accounts for the largest share of formally collected and recycled e-waste (37%),
followed by small equipment (17%), screens and monitors (11%), and small IT
and telecommunication equipment (7%). Although formal recycling capacity
in India has increased since 2020, the informal sector remains dominant,
accounting for ~62%. A category-wise breakdown of E-waste generation and
share of formal and informal waste processing capacity is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Projected E-waste generation in India (ITU & UNITAR, 2024)
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 8
India’s Lithium-ion Battery demand is also expected to grow rapidly in the
coming years. As shown in Fig. 4, Lithium-ion Battery demand is projected to
increase at a rate of 26% annually, from 16 GWh in 2023 to 248 GWh by 2035
(ITU & UNITAR, 2024). Lithium-ion Battery demand in Consumer Electronics
is expected to decrease from 38% to 8%. On the other hand, Lithium-ion
Battery demand in EVs is expected to increase from 56% to 63% and in energy
storage systems from 6% to 29% by 2035, driven by the growth of electric
mobility and increasing integration of renewable energy sources.
Fig. 4: Projected Lithium-ion Battery demand growth in India (ITU & UNITAR, 2024)
Consequently, end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery availability for recycling is projected to rise at a rate of 26% annually, from 19 kT in 2023 to 233 kT in 2035 (Fig. 5). This growth is primarily driven by end-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Energy Storage System, which are expected to increase from 2 kT to 123 kT by 2035. Each of consumer electronics and production scrap is expected to rise to 55 kT by 2035.
Therefore, the projected rise in end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery highlights the
urgent need to develop efficient recycling infrastructure and technologies to recover valuable materials and support India’s clean energy objectives.
Fig. 5: Projected End-of-life Lithium-ion Battery availability in India
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 9
2.3 State of Formal E-waste and End-of-Life Lithium-ion
Battery Recycling in India
As illustrated in Fig. 6, India is the third-largest E-waste generator (7% of
global volumes). However, India’s recycling rate is only 10%, significantly
below the global average (~22%) and substantially lower than in the EU
and the USA (55% and 56%, respectively) (ITU & UNITAR, 2024). Currently,
majority of E-waste and end-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries are collected,
processed and recycled through informal sector or remains in storage with
consumers and bulk users, due to inadequate formal coverage. Only 2,808
collection centres serve India’s population, creating access barriers that drive
disposal toward informal channels. On the other hand, the informal networks
achieve high collection coverage and provide livelihoods to over 500,000
workers. However, the informal workforce operates under conditions that
pose significant environmental and health risks. Also, retailers’ take-back
compliance remains at only 12%, indicating non-compliance with mandatory
take-back requirements and a lack of integration between retail operations
and formal processing networks.
Fig. 6: India’s position in global E-waste generation and recycling (ITU & UNITAR, 2024)
India’s annual formal E-waste recycling capacity is ~1.75 MMT, distributed across more than 400 authorised recyclers and dismantlers. 48.2% of total capacity lies with 30 High-Capacity Recyclers (>10,000 MT), followed by 36.3% of capacity with 89 Medium-Capacity Recyclers (2,500-10,000 MT), 7.4% of capacity with each of 65 Small-Capacity Recyclers (1,000-2,500 MT), and 274 Micro-Recyclers (<1,000 MT) (ICEA, 2023). As demonstrated in Fig. 7, this distribution indicates that 6% of recyclers control over 60% of formal processing capacity, while 75% of recyclers contribute only 15% of total capacity.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 10
Fig. 7: Categorization of E-waste recyclers and recycling capacity (ICEA, 2023)
Furthermore, formal E-waste recycling capacity is projected to grow at
17%, achieving 40% formalisation by 2036 (Fig. 8) (REDSEER, 2025). This
indicates that, despite significant investment in realizing formal sector growth,
the well-entrenched informal sector ecosystem for E-waste recycling has a
formidable hold on the market, making it difficult to divert material resources
to the formal sector. However, aggressive support for the formal sector,
combined with dedicated formal-informal integration, may achieve a 35%
annual growth rate, potentially realizing 95% formalisation of the E-waste
management sector by 2038.
Fig. 8: Formal E-waste recycling projections (REDSEER, 2025)
On the other hand, estimates indicate that ~36 kT of Lithium-ion Batteries
will reach the end-of-life in 2025, with 33.12 kT originating from Consumer
Electronics, 1.08 kT from EVs, and 1.8 kT from Energy Storage System.
Notably, about 12.6 kT of these Lithium-ion Batteries would remain uncollected,
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 11
highlighting a considerable gap in collection efficiency. Also, informal collection
would account for 18 kT, compared to just 5.04 kT through formal channels,
underscoring the need to strengthen regulatory and infrastructural frameworks.
Formal recycling would produce 5.37 kT of black mass, which can be refined
to produce 2.61 kT of industrial-grade salt for export and 1.74 kT reserved
for non-battery domestic uses, underscoring the economic potential of
recovered materials. Also, 0.5 kT of produced battery-grade salts can be
reused in battery manufacturing.
The analysis underscores the urgent need to transition informal collections into
formal systems to improve traceability, safety, and material recovery rates.
Also, minimizing rejects and process waste (1.24 kT) through technological
advancements can improve overall recovery efficiency. Material flow in the
Indian Lithium-ion Battery sector is illustrated in Fig. 10.
India’s Lithium-ion Battery recycling sector also faces challenges of higher
announced processing capacities than the actual end-of-life Lithium-ion
Battery supply projected for the coming years. Against over 80 kT of
announced recycling capacity, only ~15 kT of end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery
would need to be recycled in 2025. This gap is expected to persist till 2030,
when announced processing capacity is expected to reach 115 kT, compared
to an estimated actual supply of ~60 kT of end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery.
Bridging the supply-capacity gap is crucial for achieving sustainability,
ensuring critical mineral security, and fostering a robust circular economy.
Therefore, strengthening end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery collection, logistics,
and processing is crucial for India to increase recovery rates, meet demand,
and establish long-term resilience in the Lithium-ion Battery value chain.
Projected end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery availability and recycling capacity
in India are presented in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9: Projected End-of-Life Lithium-ion Battery availability and recycling capacity in India
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 12
Fig. 10 Material flow in the Indian Lithium-ion Battery value chain
(Source: Industry Data)
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 13
3. Policy Landscape
The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC), along with other
ministries, governs the recycling and management of End-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries
and E-waste in India through its respective regulatory frameworks. The current policy
landscape regarding E-waste and End-of-life-Lithium-ion Battery management has been
discussed in this section.
3.1
E-waste Management Rules (EWMR)
The MoEFCC established an E-waste management framework through the E-waste (Management) Rules, 2022, which superseded the E-waste
(Management) Rules, 2016. The framework was subsequently amended in
2023 and 2024 to address gaps and evolving technological challenges. Key
highlights of EWMR, 2022, and its amendments are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Key highlights of EWMR, 2022, and its amendments
Title
Gazette
Notification
Policy Description
E-waste (Management) Rules, 2022
G.S.R. 801(E)
(02.11.2022)
Established an E-waste management
framework with provisions of producer
responsibility, collection and recycling
targets, mandatory stakeholder registration
and authorization, environmental safeguards
for processing activities, and strengthened
monitoring and compliance systems
Apply to manufacturers, refurbishers,
dismantlers, recyclers, and importers of
electrical and electronic equipment and
its components.
Standardized reporting of material flow
and processing outcomes, environmental
clearances for facilities, and penalty
enforcement by the CPCB and SPCBs.
E-waste
(Management)
Amendment Rules,
2023
G.S.R. 61(E)
(30.01.2023)
Strengthened producer accountability by
tightening reporting requirements.
Expanded exemptions from hazardous
substance restrictions for specified solar and
medical equipment.
Enhanced disclosure of hazardous substances
in electrical and electronic equipment.
E-waste
(Management)
Second
Amendment Rules,
2023
G.S.R.534(E)
(24.07.2023)
Assigned responsibility for refrigerant
destruction to manufacturers and recyclers.
Introduced conversion factors for EPR
certificates to standardize compliance estimates.
Updated exemptions under Schedule II.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 14
Title
Gazette
Notification
Policy Description
E-waste
(Management)
Amendment Rules,
2024
G.S.R. 164(E)
(08.03.2024)
Clarified definitions of dismantlers and
extended reporting timelines in specified
circumstances.
Empowered the Central Government to
establish EPR certificate trading platforms
under CPCB to strengthen market-based
compliance and traceability mechanisms.
3.2
Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR)
The Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022, issued by the MoEFCC, laid down provisions for the sustainable management of all types of waste batteries, including Lithium-ion Battery. EPR-based rules mandated the collection, recycling, and refurbishment of waste batteries, prohibiting
disposal through landfill and incineration. The Rules also specified collection
targets for producers, recovery efficiency for recyclers, and minimum use of recycled materials in new batteries. These measures aimed to promote
the circular economy in the battery sector, reduce dependence on imported
raw materials, and strengthen domestic recycling capacity. Key highlights of BWMR, 2022, and its amendments are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2: Key highlights of BWMR, 2022, and its amendments
Title
Gazette
Notification
Policy Description
Battery Waste Management Rules,
2022
S.O. 3984(E)
(22.08.2022)
Established a framework for sustainable
management of all waste batteries (portable,
automotive, industrial, EV).
Introduced EPR obligations for producers.
Laid down provisions for registration, collection,
recycling, reuse, and reporting.
Battery Waste
Management
(Amendment) Rules,
2023
G.S.R. 4669(E)
(25.10.2023)
Strengthened the institutional and
compliance framework.
Updated definitions and clarified producer
obligations.
Enhanced CPCB’s role in EPR oversight.
Revised timelines for registration and reporting.
Permitted EPR trading platforms with
price bands.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 15
Title
Gazette
Notification
Policy Description
Battery Waste
Management
(Amendment) Rules,
2024
G.S.R. 190(E)
(14.03.2024)
Refined the EPR framework with maximum/
minimum price bands linked to environmental
compensation.
Amended Rule 13 on compliance and
environmental compensation.
Allowed carry forward (up to 60%) of excess
EPR obligations across compliance cycles.
Battery Waste
Management
(Amendment) Rules,
2025
S.O. 958(E)
(24.02.2025)
Advanced labelling and compliance framework
with digital labels (QR/barcodes) showing EPR
registration.
Exempted packaging under Legal Metrology
Rules from specific requirements.
Mandated CPCB to publish a quarterly list of
compliant producers on the online portal.
Use of Domestically Recycled Materials – Rule 4(14), BWMR 2022
MoEFCC, vide Office Memorandum dated 17.05.2024, clarified that the minimum
use of domestically recycled materials refers to any type of material such as lithium,
cobalt, aluminium, graphite, plastic, and paper recovered from recycling of waste
products, including end-of-life Lithium-ion Batteries. In case of imported batteries
or battery packs, the marking of the EPR registration number on the equipment or
its packaging shall imply compliance with this provision.
3.3
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for E-waste
The EWMR, 2022, established a comprehensive EPR framework requiring producers
to assume financial and operational responsibility for the collection, processing, and sustainable disposal of their end-of-life products
1
. EPR obligations differ for
importers and refurbishers. Importers must assume 100% EPR responsibility for
nd-of-life imported equipment that is not re-exported. However, refurbishers must
generate EPR certificates for the materials they process. The collection and recycling
targets for manufacturers with obligations are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3: Summary of EPR obligations for Electrical and Electronic Equipment OEMs.
S. No. Year E-waste Recycling Target (by weight)
1 2025–2026 70% of the quantity of an Electrical and Electronic Equipment placed in the market in year Y-X, where ‘X’ is the average life of that product
2 2026–2027
3 2027–2028
80% of the quantity of an Electrical and Electronic Equipment placed in the market in year Y-X4
2028–2029
onwards
Note: The e-waste recycling target may be reviewed and increased after the end of the 2028-2029 fiscal year.
1 Details of the environmental compensation and stakeholder application cost for the EPR is given in Annexure IV.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 16
EPR target for producers (started sales operations recently, i.e., the number of years
of sales operations is less than the average life of their products mentioned in the
CPCB guidelines
S. No. Year (Y) E-waste Recycling Target (by weight)
1
2025-2026
onwards
20% of the sales figure of the financial year two years back
Note: Once the number of years of sales operation equals the average life of their
product mentioned in the guidelines issued by CPCB, their EPR obligation shall be
as per the targets mentioned above.
3.4
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for
Lithium-ion Ba
ttery
Under the regulatory framework, producers are required to meet defined
recovery targets for different battery categories, as outlined in Table 4. For
portable and EV batteries, recovery targets progressively increase from
70% to 90%, while for automotive and industrial batteries, the minimum
recovery ranges between 55-60%. These provisions ensure the systematic
collection, recycling, and sustainable management of End-of-Life Lithium-
ion Batteries, thereby preventing the leakage of hazardous constituents
and securing producer accountability across all sectors.
Table 4: Recovery targets for recyclers
Battery Type 2024-25 (%) 2025-26 (%) 2026-27 and onwards (%)
Portable and EV batteries
Portable 70 80 90
EV 70 80 90
Automotive and industrial batteries
Automotive 55 60 60
Industrial 55 60 60
The minimum requirements for recycled content in new batteries are
summarized in Table 5. Producers must incorporate 5-20% recycled material in
portable and EV batteries, and 35-40% in automotive and industrial batteries.
This provision enhances circularity by ensuring a stable demand for secondary
raw materials, reducing reliance on virgin resources, and promoting long- term sustainability in battery value chains.
Table 5: Mandate for minimum use of recycled content
Battery Type 2027-28 (%) 2028-29 (%) 2029-30 (%) 2030-31 and onwards (%)
Portable and EV batteries
Portable 5 10 15 20
EV 5 10 15 20
Automotive and industrial batteries
Automotive 35 35 40 40
Industrial 35 35 40 40
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 17
4. Global Best Practices
4.1 E-waste Management
The global framework and infrastructure development model for E-waste
management are summarized in Tables 6 and 7, respectively.
Table 6: Global E-waste management frameworks.
Country Legislation / Framework Mechanism
Outcomes
and Learnings
Switzerland
Ordinance on Return, Take- back and Disposal of Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Full producer financial and operational responsibility; Mandatory producer registration; Strict collection targets and reporting.
Highest global collection and recovery rates; Economically viable high-cost, high- efficiency systems supported by robust regulation and consumer participation.
Germany
Electrical and Electronic Equipment Act (ElektroG)
Differential EPR fees based on recyclability and hazardous content; Strong enforcement and tax incentives.
Eco-design and design-for-recycling; High compliance through strong enforcement and PPP.
European
- Union (EU)
WEEE Directives (2002/96/EC and updates)
Harmonised EPR standards across member states with flexibility for national implementation.
Consistent high performance (Netherlands, Sweden); Strong consumer awareness; Convenient collection networks; Balance of common standards and national flexibility.
United
States
EPA guidance under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act; Regulation governed through 25+ State-level Acts
Consumers in California pay advance recycling fees at the time of purchase; Manufacturers in Oregon, New York, and Washington finance collection and processing based on the market/ return share.
Flexible implementation
and strong private- sector participation; Uneven coverage and performance;
Federal guidance
and certification
schemes give baseline
environmental
safeguards
and encourage
refurbishment and reuse.
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Country Legislation / Framework Mechanism
Outcomes
and Learnings
Japan
Home Appliance
Recycling Law
Consumer-pay
model with disposal
fees collected at
end-of-life; Strict
producer obligations
~92% compliance
and ~70% collection;
Balance government
oversight and
private engagement;
Importance
of consumer
awareness campaigns.
South
Korea
Act on Resource
Circulation of
Electrical and
Electronic Equipment
and Vehicles
Hybrid system of
producer fees and
government funding;
Non-compliance
penalties up to 130%
of recycling cost
~88% compliance
and ~75% collection;
Regional processing
hubs reduce per-ton
costs by 25–30%.
Taiwan
Waste Disposal Act
(EPR system)
Comprehensive
producer
registration and
strict enforcement
Strong performance
driven by rigorous
oversight and penalties.
Singapore
Resource
Sustainability Act
(2019)
Newly implemented
EPR with IoT and
blockchain tracking
of waste flows
Technological
innovation in
waste tracking;
Low consumer
awareness is
a challenge
despite the use of
advanced systems.
India
EPR under
E-waste
(Management)
Rules, 2022
OEM’s responsibility
is to ensure E-waste
recycling based
on the quantity
of Electrical and
Electronic Equipment
and its average
lifespan. Obligations
met through the
purchase of EPR
certificates from
authorized recyclers.
National framework for
producer responsibility
with progressive
recycling targets;
EPR certificate
gives market-based
compliance and
traceability; Strong
enforcement and
consumer awareness.
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Table 7: Global E-waste management infrastructure development model.
Model Country Key Features Key Learnings
Regional
processing hubs
South
Korea
Regional centers
processing 100,000-
200,000 tons
annually for a 50-100
million population
The hub-and-spoke model
reduces transport costs,
enables scaling, and
facilitates partnerships with
the informal sector.
Collection
infrastructure
investment
EU,
Japan
$50-100 per capita
investment in
collection points and
transport systems
High collection rates
correlate directly with
upfront investment and
convenient consumer access.
Authorised
dismantling
and recycling
facilities
India The combined capacity of
registered recyclers and
dismantlers exceeds total
formal collection volumes.
Formal collection facilities
are concentrated in major
urban areas.
Demonstrates early
success in building formal
capacity; highlights the
need for geographical
expansion and integration
of the informal sector to
increase actual throughput.
4.2
End-of-Life Lithium-ion Battery Management
Global regulatory frameworks for end-of-life Lithium-ion battery recycling
vary from incentive-driven approaches to strong, legally binding mandates.
While the EU and China have advanced compliance systems, India is emerging
with a structured framework that prioritizes EPR, phased targets, and sector-
specific focus to drive circularity and sustainability. The global scenario of
end-of-life Lithium-ion battery recycling regulations is summarized in Table 8.
Table 8: Global scenario of end-of-life Lithium-ion battery recycling regulations.
Aspect United States EU China India
Blending Mandate / Incentive
Raw materials recycled in North America qualify for the IRA subsidy
2023: 50%
No mandate
2027/2030:
2030: 70%
Portable and
EV: 5%/20%
Automotive
and Industrial:
35%/40%
Battery
End-of-Life
Management
Most states: No
commitments,
guidelines
under review
Exceptions: New
Jersey enacted
EPR laws for
battery OEMs
OEM is
responsible
for battery
waste.
45-73%
collection
rate for
portable
batteries
by 2030
OEM is
responsible for
battery waste
Testing the
obligation of
end-of-life LIBs
before recycling
Storage
and sorting
requirements
Portable and
EV: 70%
Automotive:
70%
Industrial:
60%
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Aspect United States EU China India
Recovery
Targets
Inflation
Reduction
Act guidelines:
Extraction and
processing
of “critical
materials”-40%
in 2023
to 80% by 2027
Production
and assembly
of “battery
components”-50%
in 2023 to
100% in 2029
2031 2020 2024/25/26
Ni: 95% Ni: 98%
Portable and
EV:
70/80/90%
Automotive
and Industrial:
55/60/60%
Li: 80% Li: 80%
Co: 95% Co: 98%
Cu: 95% Mn: 98%
TraceabilityNot required Required Required Not required
Enforcement
No
binding
regulations
“Battery
passport”;
fines of up to
10,000 EUR/
battery in
Germany;
other countries
may follow
Accountability
determined via
EPR and
Traceability
Management
(battery
codification/
passport)
No
enforcement
mechanism
is detailed
as part of
the regulation.
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5. Addressing the Gaps in Policy
Landscape
5.1
Weak Monitoring of Recyclers
Current Status/Legal Position:
Under Schedule V of the EWMR, 2022, SPCBs are responsible for conducting
random inspections of recyclers and refurbishers, as well as for monitoring
the utilisation of recycling capacity. Under Rule 12(1) of the BWMR, 2022,
SPCBs shall verify the compliance of entities involved in the refurbishing and
recycling of waste batteries through inspection and periodic audits. As per
the directives of the CPCB and the National Green Tribunal (NGT), SPCBs
are required to conduct random inspections of recyclers and refurbishers
registered on the EPR portal.
Issue:
Despite a clear regulatory mandate, enforcement has remained weak across
states. Poor enforcement has often enabled non-compliant recyclers to
generate spurious EPR certificates at a lower cost, thereby undermining EPR
certificate prices. Inconsistent inspections and limited audits have created
gaps in compliance verification, resulting in a mismatch between registered
entities on the EPR portal and actual operational recycling facilities.
Analysis:
As of 01 November 2025, there are 509 registered E-waste entities, including
381 recyclers, 128 refurbishers, and 43 Lithium-ion Battery recyclers. The
existing audit mechanism relies largely on paper-based, checklist-driven
verification, which fails to capture real-time recycling operations and actual
processing. In the absence of regular, plant-level audits, unverified processing
claims and non-operational entities continue to remain within the formal
EPR system.
Therefore, to align with the systemic implementation framework, it is
necessary to have a proper auditing system with specific criteria
2
aligned
with international standards such as the Reuse and Recycling (R2) standards.
It should have core requirements such as Environment, Health and Safety
(EHS) management systems, periodic evaluation of the risk of exposure to
hazardous substances, development of a legal compliance plan, import/export
compliance, data security, monitoring compliance, and adherence to a mass
balance approach
3
. These audit parameters would support the inspection
and compliance verification of E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery recycling
units, ensuring environmental compliance, transparency, and credibility within
the formal recycling ecosystem. In addition to SPCB undertaking such audit
2 Machinery and Technical Setup Verification; Operational Expenditure (OPEX) Validation; Supplementary Equipment and Chemical Inventory;
Labour Compliance and Workplace Welfare; Compliance with Waste Handling; EPR Registration and Compliance; Fire Safety and Groundwater
Use; Contracts and Invoices with Downstream Vendors; Factory License and associated documents.
3 R2 Standard was established by Sustainable Electronics Recycling International (SERI)
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inspections, third-party agencies should be empowered to expedite these
audits. Third-party agencies should have proper certification.
Key Recommendations:
MoEFCC to empanel third-party agencies to ensure unit-wise periodic audits.
5.2
Limit
Management Rules (BWMR)
Current Status/Legal Position: The EWMR (2022) considers four metals (Copper, Aluminium, Iron, and
Gold) under the EPR mandate.
Issue:
There are over 15 precious and critical minerals
4
with substantial recovery
value. Despite the availability of material extraction technologies for these
materials, the narrow scope for material recovery creates a structural
mismatch, hindering wider material extraction and recycling initiatives and
undermining the objectives of a circular economy.
Analysis:
E-waste material recovery assessment revealed that base metals and precious
metals achieve ~52% and 55% recovery, respectively; however, critical raw
materials recovery remains ~17% (Fig. 11). Estimates showed a cumulative
loss of resources worth INR 42,500 Cr due to low recovery rates (REDSEER,
2025). This substantial economic and resource loss is tied to the critical
recovery gap due to the regulatory scope under the current EPR framework.
Fig. 11: Material Recovery from E-waste under the current EPR framework (Panchal et al., 2021)
Therefore, expanding material coverage under the current EPR mandate would address this gap, improve collection efficiency, and ensure that valuable resources are systematically channeled back into the economy, thereby enhancing resource security. A comparison of material recovery under current and expanded EPR mandates is shown in Fig. 12.
4
Neodymium, Tellurium, Selenium, Indium, & Ruthenium (list drawn from Critical Mineral Recycling Incentive Scheme and international best
practices). Criteria for expanding EPR may be technology, criticality, carbon saving, toxicity, financial viability, material concentration and others.
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Fig. 12: Potential increase in material recovery under expanded EPR framework
(Panchal et al., 2021)
Key Recommendations:
MoEFCC to develop a phased plan to expand the EPR mandate to other
high-value metals.
5.3
G
5.3.1 GSTN-EPR Portal Integration Gap
Current Status/Legal Position:
As per Rule 11(11) of the BWMR, 2022, the CPCB shall conduct data audits,
including the use of information from the Goods and Services Tax Network
(GSTN) portal, either directly or through a designated agency, of registered
entities listed on the CPCB portal.
Issue:
Currently, the GSTN and EPR portals are not integrated, resulting in gaps
in invoice verification, material traceability, and detection of fake EPR
transactions. This prevents cross-verification of financial records with reported
recycling activities.
Analysis:
Without invoice-level cross-verification, compliance assessments remain
largely self-declared and document-based, thereby reducing the effectiveness
of regulatory oversight. Integrating the GSTN portal with the EPR portal
would enable verification of material flow against financial records, improving
traceability across the recycling value chain. Such linkage is crucial for
strengthening data authenticity, deterring fraudulent EPR claims, and
supporting the credible implementation of EPR obligations under the
BWMR framework.
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC and CPCB to make improvements in the EPR portal by integrating
GSTN-based invoice verification.
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5.3.2 Inadequate EPR Pricing for Low-Value Lithium-ion Battery
Chemistries
Current Status/Legal Position:
Rule 11(24) of the BWMR, 2022, empowers the CPCB to review battery
recycling technologies for techno-economic viability with respect to battery
material recovery.
Issue:
Currently, recycling low-value chemistries, such as Lithium Ferro Phosphate
(LFP), is not economically viable due to the presence of materials like Iron and
Aluminum in these chemistries. As a result, recovery of materials from such
chemistries is not feasible, despite the availability of recycling technologies.
Analysis:
The economics of Lithium-ion battery recycling demonstrate a promising
pathway for sustainable resource management and economic growth. Analysis
(Fig. 13) of a 10 kT capacity plant reveals that the total cost of recycling,
encompassing procurement, logistics, dismantling, processing, and capital
expenditure, ranges from INR 294 to 350 per kilogram of battery.
Fig. 13 Unit Economics of a 10kT Lithium-ion Battery recycling plant
(Source: Industry-provided data and consultations)
The viability of recycling is closely tied to the chemistry of the battery. Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese batteries provide the highest economic returns owing to their rich Cobalt and Nickel content, while Lithium Cobalt
Oxide (LCO) chemistries yield moderate margins. In contrast, Lithium Ferro
Phosphate (LFP) batteries generate negative margins, as the absence of
low-value metals makes recovery commercially unattractive. A comparison
of unit economics across key Lithium-ion Battery chemistries: Lithium Cobalt
Oxide (LCO), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese (NCM), and Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) (Fig. 14) shows substantial variation in recycling margins driven by underlying metal value. Under the current BWMR framework,
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EPR targets are defined by battery type (portable, automotive, industrial,
EV) and do not differentiate between Lithium-ion chemistries. As a result,
low-value chemistries like Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP), despite their
high processing cost and low intrinsic metal value, make Lithium Ferro
Phosphate (LFP) recycling financially unviable for recyclers. This creates
a structural misalignment between actual chemistry, economics, and the
pricing assumptions built into the EPR mechanism.
Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistries are expected to account for
nearly 60 % of India’s battery demand by 2030. Therefore, without targeted
interventions (such as differentiated EPR incentives or advances in material
recovery), the dominance of Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) could undermine
overall industry profitability. On the other hand, separate EPR pricing
mechanisms would compensate recyclers for low-value chemistries.
Fig. 14 Chemistry-wise unit economies of LCO, NMC, and LFP
(Source: Industry-provided data and consultations)
Various factors, including low-value material composition, emerging battery
chemistries, conversion factors, and high processing and compliance costs,
need to be considered when introducing a separate EPR regime for low-value
chemistries. A differentiated EPR pricing mechanism for low-value chemistries,
along with scale efficiencies, incentives under the National Critical Minerals
Mission -Recycling Incentive Scheme, GST rationalisation, and monetisation of
carbon credits, can provide critical supplementary revenue and cost support.
Together, these interventions can bridge the viability gap and enhance overall economics. This approach would support recyclers and improve techno-economic viability. It also aligns EPR design with the rationale of BWMR to enable recovery of a broader range of battery materials.
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC to develop a chemistry-specific EPR pricing framework for Lithium
Ferro Phosphate (LFP) and other low-value chemistry Lithium-ion Batteries.
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5.3.3 EPR Compliance Cycle for LFP EV (4W) Batteries
Current Status/Legal Position:
As per Schedule II, Table (xii) of BWMR, 2022, a 70% producer responsibility
obligation is prescribed for four-wheeler (4W) EV batteries, with compliance
commencing from 2029-30 for batteries placed in the market in 2021-22.
Issue:
The rules apply equally to all batteries, irrespective of their chemistry. Lithium
Ferro Phosphate (LFP) batteries used in EVs (4W) are designed for extended
operational life (~15-30 years), making early EPR compliance timelines (8
years) misaligned with the longer battery life.
Analysis:
EV batteries for 4W using Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistry are
designed to last the lifetime of the vehicle. EPR target of 70% within eight
years for Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistry batteries may adversely
affect customer confidence and EV adoption. On the other hand, differentiated
collection timelines for Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistry batteries used
in EVs (4W) align with their longer operational life. Also, performance-based
end-of-life criteria, linked to battery state of health, can inform appropriate
EPR targets. For instance, Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) chemistry batteries
have a longer operational life and often continue in use beyond the intended
service period of the EV due to their sufficient retention capacity for second-life
applications. Therefore, aligning EPR compliance under BWMR with real end-
of-life generation of Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) batteries would support
efficient resource planning, improve collection and recycling outcomes, and
strengthen the circular economy. Comparative performance analysis for
LFP and NMC is presented in Table 9.
Table 9: Comparative performance analysis for LFP and NMC (Source: Industry Consultations).
Parameter LFP NMC
Safety High (More Stable Chemistry) Low
Cycle life
High (2000+ cycles in first life and additional 2000 cycles in second life)
Low
(1000 Cycles)
Residual capacity retention
(fit for second life)
Very High Very Low
Cost Low High
Energy density Low High
Recycling profitability Low High
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC and CPCB to align EPR compliance with actual end-of-life generation.
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5.3.4 Chemical Composition Verification Gap
Current Status/Legal Position:
Schedule I (2) of BWMR, 2022, requires producers to ensure that all batteries
carry BIS-prescribed labelling. BIS certification for Lithium-ion Battery (IS 16046)
emphasizes safety and performance tests, including electrical and thermal testing.
There are no provisions for chemistry-wise metal composition declaration.
Issue:
In the absence of a notified chemistry-wise metal composition, producers declare
variable metal content for a given chemistry, which makes it challenging to
verify Lithium-ion Battery chemical composition and accurately assess material
recovery and recycled content, weakening the EPR compliance verification.
Analysis:
BIS certification for Lithium-ion Batteries (IS 16046) emphasizes only safety
and performance tests, including electrical and thermal testing, without
requiring assessments of chemical or metal composition. Also, CPCB applies
chemistry-wise metal composition ranges for Lithium-ion Batteries in the
calculation of EPR certificates. The wide ranges in metal composition
across Lithium-ion Battery chemistries result in producers declaring metal
content on a self-assessment basis. In the absence of chemistry-wise fixed
reference values, such self-declarations create variability in reported material
content. In such a scenario, verifying the chemical composition of Lithium-ion
Battery remains challenging in practice, which affects transparency in EPR
compliance and the reporting of recovered/recycled materials. Therefore,
chemical composition labelling is required to improve the accuracy of EPR
determination, reduce misreporting, and enhance compliance across the
Lithium-ion Battery value chain. Although the CPCB has proposed fixed
metal content for Lithium-ion Batteries, chemistry-wise fixed composition
benchmarks are also required. Such standardization would enhance
transparency, facilitate uniform verification, and strengthen EPR accounting
within the BWMR framework. The metal composition in a typical Lithium-ion
Battery and different types of Lithium-ion Battery chemistries is presented
in Tables 10 and 11, respectively.
Table 10: Metal composition (%) in a typical Lithium-ion Battery. (Source: CPCB)
Battery Type Li Mn Zn Ni Co Al Fe Cu
Lithium-ion 1 - 5 0 - 15 < 1 0 - 150 - 205 - 25 1 - 46 2 - 18
Lithium-ion (proposed
in July 2025)
1.4 9.170 5 10 18.15 13.12 7.2
Table 11: Metal composition (%) based on Lithium-ion Battery chemistries. (Source: CPCB)
Lithium-ion Battery Type Li Mn Ni Co Al Fe Cu
Nickel Cobalt
Aluminium (NCA)
1 - 20 10 - 15 2 - 5 20 - 25 < 1 10 - 15
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Lithium-ion Battery Type Li Mn Ni Co Al Fe Cu
Lithium
Manganese Oxide (LMO)
1 - 2 10 - 150 0 20 - 25 < 1 10 - 15
Nickel Manganese
Cobalt (NMC)
1 - 2 4 - 8 12 - 16 8 - 12 20 - 25 5 - 10 12 - 18
Lithium
Cobalt Oxide (LCO)
2 - 4 0 1 - 2 15 - 20 4 - 8 15 - 205 - 10
Lithium Iron
Phosphate (LFP)
1 - 20 0 0 5 - 1040 - 455 - 10
Key Recommendation:
(a) CPCB to notify chemistry-wise (e.g., NMC, LFP) fixed metal composition.
(b) BIS to update (IS 16046) to include mandatory chemical composition
testing as part of the assessment for recycled Lithium-ion Battery.
5.3.5
Guidelines for Safe Handling of Lithium-ion Battery
Current Status/Legal Position:
Rule 11(17) of the BWMR, 2022, mandates the CPCB to issue guidelines
for sustainable procedures for the collection, storage, transportation,
refurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries, ensuring uniform and safe
management practices.
Issue:
Currently, there are no guidelines for collection, storage, transportation,
refurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries in place, and waste Lithium-
ion batteries continue to be collected and handled through informal channels,
resulting in unsafe handling practices, improper disposal, and limited traceability.
Analysis:
The absence of detailed guidelines for waste Lithium-ion Battery significantly
elevates fire and safety risks across collection and transportation. Improper
storage of damaged or end-of-life batteries, lack of segregation, and
unsafe handling of intermediate materials, such as black mass, increase the
likelihood of thermal runaway, fires, and explosions at collection centers,
storage facilities, and recycling units. Therefore, clear guidelines covering
safe storage conditions, packaging, labelling, and transportation protocols
are critical. Standardised procedures would reduce accident risks, improve
traceability, and ensure environmentally sound management of end-of-life
Lithium-ion Batteries.
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC and CPCB to issue detailed guidelines for the collection, storage,
transportation, refurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries, including
specific provisions for Lithium-ion batteries.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
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6. Nurturing the Lithium-ion Battery
Recycling Industry
The demand for Lithium-ion Battery (especially for EV batteries) and the availability of
end-of-life-Lithium-ion Batteries are expected to increase rapidly. However, Lithium-ion
Battery recycling in India is still in its nascent stage, and capacity remains limited, with
several structural constraints continuing to impede economies of scale. This section outlines
the key challenges of the Lithium-ion Battery recycling industry and the recommendations
for addressing them.
6.1
Standards for Recycled Content
Current Status/Legal Position:
India’s battery value chain is transitioning from a disposal-focused approach
to a closed-loop material system under the BWMR. As producers move
towards meeting upcoming recycled-content obligations from 2026-27, the
credibility, traceability, and quality assurance of recycled battery materials
become central to EPR compliance. This transition requires systems that
can reliably distinguish battery-grade recycled outputs from lower-grade
material streams.
Issue:
Currently, there are no standards to verify the purity of recycled content
recovered from Lithium-ion Battery, resulting in weak accountability in
material recovery and hindering the use of recycled materials in Lithium-
ion Battery manufacturing.
Analysis:
The absence of purity verification protocols creates uncertainty for producers
required to use recycled content under BWMR. While initiatives such as
the National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM) set high-purity recovery
targets (≥ 99.0%) for critical minerals, the lack of standardised testing
and certification mechanisms hinders the consistent validation of recycled
materials. Standardised protocols for verifying the purity of recycled materials
can ensure a verified flow of materials and support compliance with global
recycled content requirements in Lithium-ion Battery markets, thereby
strengthening the outcomes of the circular economy.
Key Recommendation:
BIS to establish recycled material purity standards for Lithium-ion Battery.
6.2
Limited Recycled Content Uptake
Current Status/Legal Position: Under the BWMR, producers are mandated to progressively use recycled
content in new batteries, with obligations commencing from the 2026-27
financial year onwards. This requirement aims to promote circularity, reduce
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
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dependence on imported raw materials, and foster sustained demand for
recycled battery-grade materials. Battery-grade material refers to metals
recovered at high purity levels suitable for reuse in new batteries. For example,
Lithium recovered as battery-grade Lithium carbonate or Lithium hydroxide
at required purity levels can be directly used in cathode manufacturing.
When such recycled materials replace imported virgin materials, value is
added within India, strengthening the domestic battery supply chain. The
effectiveness of this mandate is closely linked to the availability, quality,
and commercial uptake of recycled materials within the domestic battery
manufacturing ecosystem.
Issue:
The Lithium-ion Battery component manufacturing sector in India remains
weak, and most battery-grade materials are imported. The demand for
recycled battery-grade material remains low, constraining domestic value
addition and limiting scale-up of India’s battery recycling sector. This reduces
commercial uptake of recycled outputs across the battery value chain.
Analysis:
Limited uptake of recycled battery-grade materials is linked to weak domestic
cell manufacturing capacity, the absence of assured long-term offtake, and
concerns about the consistency and quality of recycled inputs. As a result,
recyclers face uncertainty in monetising recovered materials, which constrains
the investment and scaling up of formal recycling infrastructure.
Therefore, the government schemes need to be leveraged, including upcoming
battery manufacturing initiatives such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI)
for Advanced Chemistry Cells (ACC), which can help strengthen domestic
demand for recycled battery-grade materials. Such an approach would
support the utilisation of domestically recovered materials, reduce import
dependence, and advance India’s battery manufacturing ecosystem.
Key Recommendation:
MHI may consider leveraging upcoming battery manufacturing schemes
(e.g., the PLI scheme for ACC) to support additional incentives for utilizing
domestically recycled Cathode Active Material (CAM).
6.3
Untapped Potential of Carbon Markets
Current Status/Legal Position:
Recycling of waste streams falls under the “waste handling and disposal”
sector of the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) offset mechanism in
the Indian Carbon Market (ICM).
Issue:
Currently, the absence of an approved carbon-credit methodology for
Lithium-ion Battery recycling prevents recyclers from earning carbon credits
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
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and monetizing climate benefits generated through material recovery and
resource efficiency under Carbon Credit Trading Scheme.
Analysis:
Lithium-ion Battery recycling delivers measurable greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission reductions by avoiding primary material extraction, reducing
energy use, and enhancing resource efficiency. However, in the absence of
an approved carbon-credit methodology under the Carbon Credit Trading
Scheme, these climate benefits remain unaccounted and cannot be translated
into tradable Carbon Credit Certificates (CCC). This limits the ability of
recyclers to materialize environmental benefits within their business models.
A dedicated carbon-credit methodology for Lithium-ion Battery recycling
would enable the standardised quantification of emission reductions based
on process efficiencies, recovery rates, and avoided upstream emissions,
allowing recyclers to earn CCC based on GHG emission reductions. It would
serve as an additional revenue stream, incentivise formal recycling, and
support the growth of India’s green industry. Therefore, integrating Lithium-
ion Battery recycling into the Indian Carbon Market through a robust MRV
(measurement, reporting, and verification) framework would improve the
techno-economic viability of advanced recycling technologies, incentivise
formal sector adoption, and support the scalable deployment of low-carbon
recycling infrastructure in India. The benefits of the proposed intervention
are illustrated in Fig. 15.
Fig. 15: Benefits of the proposed interventions
Key Recommendation:
BEE to develop a methodology for integrating Lithium-ion Battery recycling
within the Indian Carbon Market through MoEFCC’s Technical Committee.
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and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 32
7. Addressing Workforce Skill Gaps in
E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery Recycling
7.1
Skilling for E-waste Recycling
Current Status/Legal Position:
E-waste recycling in the formal sector primarily relies on manual dismantling
and mechanical separation.
Issue:
Manual sorting results in significant losses and leads to contamination in
recovered materials, making them unmarketable for high-value applications.
Analysis:
This highlights a gap in the skilled human resources required to meet the
operational demands of the E-waste recycling sector. To address this issue,
the Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET) offers E-waste
management courses at the diploma and postgraduate levels through IITs
(Ropar, Hyderabad, and Roorkee) and the National Institute of Electronics
and Information Technology (NIELIT), Gangtok, along with the E-waste
Kaushal Vikas online training portal. Despite these efforts, insufficient
academic outreach limits the availability of a skilled workforce, constraining
the operational efficiency and development of the E-waste recycling sector.
Therefore, academic integration and outreach are necessary to address
human resource gaps and support the scaling of formal E-waste recycling
while maintaining technical and operational excellence.
Key Recommendation:
MeitY and MoE to establish recycling-focused material engineering and
E-waste management electives across all engineering colleges and technical
universities.
7.2
Absence of Certification Pathways for Informal
Workers
Current Status/Legal Position: Informal workers engaged in recycling acquire skills through on-the-job
experience rather than formal training pathways.
Issue:
Despite being skilled, a lack of recognised certification limits the informal
workforce’s access to formal employment opportunities and keeps them
confined to low-wage, low-productivity work. This gap restricts upward
mobility and reduces overall workforce efficiency in the sector.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 33
Analysis:
Streamlining onboarding requirements and easing compliance can encourage
the informal workforce to transition into the formal system. This approach
would also help increase the number of licensed recyclers, improve adherence
to regulatory norms, and reinforce the overall performance of waste
management and recycling systems.
Key Recommendation
MSDE; NSDC; CPCB; SPCBs to:
(a)
Develop an industry-aligned certification and Recognition of Prior
Learning (RPL) system with digital credentials to facilitate the transition
of informal workers into formal employment and advanced skilling.
(b)
Ensure recognition and registration of informal workers involved in
dismantling and recycling.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 34
8. Formalising the Informal Sector
Despite an established regulatory framework under the EWMR, 2022, the informal sector
remains dominant in the recycling ecosystem and processes ~78% of India’s total E-waste.
While the informal sector demonstrates significant reach in collection, its operations
often involve hazardous practices
5
, defy compliance, and compromise safety, recovery
value, and value retention, contrasting with the benefits offered by the formal sector
and leading to environmental degradation. This creates massive inefficiencies, with the
informal sector achieving only 10-20% material recovery rates compared to 95-97% in
formal recycling facilities.
Informal E-waste processing facility (Pic: Hindustan Times)
Estimates indicate that the annual economic value of India’s E-waste stream is ~INR
51,000 crores, of which ~60% is technically recoverable (Fig. 16). Current recovery systems
capture only 18% of this potential. The formal sector claims only 5% and the rest flows to
the informal sector (13%). The remaining 42% of the technically extractable value is lost
due to poor processing and inefficiencies in the informal sector. As of today, 40% of the
complex alloys and trace metals remain non-extractable due to current technological
limitations. Massive soil and water contamination has also been reported at the informal
recycling facilities in Bangalore, Chennai, and Delhi (Fig. 17).
5 Environmental injustice: How informal E-waste recycling impacts human rights, Norton Rose Fulbright, https://www .nortonrosefulbright.com/
en/knowledge/publications/f54afc62/environmental-injustice-how-informal-e-waste-recycling-impacts-human-rights
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 35
Fig.16: Economic Value Loss in the current E-waste ecosystem (REDSEER, 2025)
Fig. 17: Heavy Metal Contamination at Informal E-waste Processing Sites
(Monday et al., 2025; Sambyal & Sohail, 2015; Shikarpur, 2016)
Given the disadvantages of the informal sector, which operates outside legal and
environmental norms, efforts have been made to formalise the informal recycling system.
However, it faces certain challenges, as discussed below.
8.1
Regulatory Barriers for Informal Sector Integration
Current Status/Legal Position:
The government has launched an integrated portal for mandatory registration
under the EWMR, 2022, and the BWMR, 2022.
Issue:
The informal sector faces challenges in navigating the multi-stage registration
process for entering the formal E-waste recycling ecosystem. Complex
regulatory compliance and document requirements also pose significant
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 36
barriers to the informal sector’s participation in and operation within the
formal system. In addition, the absence of provisions to recognise and
legitimise informal workers discourages their transition into the formal
recycling framework.
Analysis:
These regulatory hurdles perpetuate informality, limiting the reach and
inclusivity of the country’s E-waste management ecosystem. Simplifying
registration procedures and lowering entry barriers can facilitate the
formalization of informal recycling units, broadening the base of authorised
recyclers, and enhancing regulatory compliance across the sector.
Key Recommendation:
MSME, State Governments, CPCB, and SPCBs to:
(a)
Utilise the single window registration system for recyclers and the state
government to facilitate their registration process.
(b) Provide a one-time waiver of liability and registration fees to informal units.
8.2 Underutilization of Government Schemes for Sector
Formalization
Current Status/Legal Position: The government has launched the Recycling Incentive Scheme (RIS) under
the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) and Micro and Small Enterprises
- Cluster Development Programme (MSE-CDP). Issue:
The predominant informal operations limit the availability of quality feedstock
for authorised recyclers, suppressing margins and undermining the commercial
viability of the formal sector. Also, eligibility conditions for incentives, “the
minimum investment (in KTPA) threshold (` 25 crores)” under section 6 of
National Critical Mineral Mission- Recycling Incentive Scheme, are too high
for smaller and informal units.
Analysis:
Inadequate access to compliant feedstock constrains capacity expansion
and dampens investment in formal recycling infrastructure. Adopting cluster-
based interventions under government schemes, such as the MSE-CDP and
the NCMM - Recycling Incentive Scheme, can help balance this structural
imbalance by enabling shared access to safe infrastructure, skill development,
and institutional finance for informal units. Linking financial and policy incentive
mechanisms to verify sourcing would strengthen feedstock availability for
formal recyclers, improve operational viability, and accelerate sector-wide
formalization across the E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery recycling ecosystem.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 37
Key Recommendation:
MoM, MeitY, MoEFCC, SPCBs to:
(a) Establish cluster-based Common Facility Centres (CFCs) for E-waste
and
Lithium-ion Battery that provide training and safe facilities for
informal workers under MSE-CDP.
(b)
Another category may be added in 6.1.1 as Group C (1 KTPA capacity)
with a minimum investment threshold (` 1 crore), along with the addition
of a revised methodology for Capex and Opex Incentive Allocation
(Section 7) to benefit small informal units from the scheme for E-waste
and Lithium-ion Battery waste recycling. Handholding of informal units
for credit access is required under schemes with a cluster approach.
(c)
Establish a separate vertical in MoM/National Critical Mineral Mission
(NCMM) only on recycling.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 38
9. Strengthening E-waste Collection and
C
onsumer Awareness
Current Status/Legal Position:
No established template or framework for E-waste collection. Urban Local
Bodies (ULBs) are conducting door-to-door collection only in a few major
cities. Also, consumer awareness of safe E-waste disposal practices remains
low in India.
Issue:
A fragmented and underdeveloped formal E-waste collection network and
insufficient consumer awareness regarding responsible end-of-life E-waste
and Lithium-ion Battery management perpetuate informal and unregulated
material handling practices, leading to poor recovery rates and undermining
the effectiveness of the EPR framework.
Analysis:
The consumer awareness gap is also evident from the fact that only 22%
of E-waste enters authorised recycling facilities. Nearly 60% of consumers
retain unused devices, resulting in an estimated 1.3 MMT of E-waste withheld
from circulation. Key deterrents include the perception that devices might
be useful later (31%), concerns over data privacy and data theft during
disposal (28%), and the low perceived resale value of discarded electronics
(24%). It is also evident from Fig. 18 that the retention rate is higher among
older individuals, suggesting a greater awareness of formal waste disposal
mechanisms among the younger populations.
Fig. 18: Age group-based consumer behaviour on E-waste disposal
(Namo eWaste, 2026; Toxics Link, 2016)
The poor accessibility of formal E-waste disposal mechanisms (only one formal collection
point per 4.9 lakh people) further hinders convenient E-waste disposal for consumers.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 39
However, as shown in Table 12, global experience suggests that the larger the number
of collection centres, the higher the collection rate.
Table 12: Comparison of global and Indian E-waste collection load (REDSEER, 2025).
Country Collection
No. of Collection Centres
(for every 1 lakh population)
Germany 85% 45
Japan 78% 38
India 11% 0.1
Furthermore, the rural population has lower consumer awareness of formal waste management (<5%) than the urban population (~32%), which is directly linked to the number of formal collection points in the area. The area-wise optimised number of collection centres is presented in Fig. 19.
Fig. 19: Required number of collection points for optimised collection by population category
(REDSEER, 2025)
Therefore, government support for collection infrastructure is required to increase formal
collection. Also, wider exposure to formal E-waste management systems is necessary to sensitise citizens to the responsible disposal of E-waste.
Key Recommendation:
MoEFCC, MeitY, MHI, State Governments, and ULBs to:
(a) Support formal E-waste collection efforts (such as Selsmart, ReLoop, Bino,
KaroSambhav) by establishing collection centres run on a PPP model.
(b) Provide details of collection centres and consumer-facing platforms
on central and state government websites (such as Greene
).
(c)
Provide targeted advertisements in newspapers and digital media
containing information and contact details (Phone number, QR Code, Hyperlinks) for formal E-waste collection platforms.
(d)
Mandate the compulsory inclusion of E-waste disposal details on product
packaging and manufacturers’ websites.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 40
10. Conclusion – Summary of
Rec
ommendations
As India moves forward to integrate the circular economy framework within the waste
management landscape, sustainable E-waste and Lithium-ion Batteries management
present a complex policy challenge and a priority resource imperative. This report has
examined the current policy framework, institutional mechanisms, technological aspects,
the requirement for a skilled workforce, incentivization routes, and behavioural dimensions
shaping the E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery ecosystem. This report identifies persistent
gaps that limit the formal collection, processing, and recovery of high-value materials
from E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scraps. The recommendations are designed
to guide coordinated action by the designated implementing agencies to ensure the
sustainable management of E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery scraps. A summary of the
recommendations on E-waste and end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery management has
been provided in Table 13.
Table 13: Summary of the recommendations on E-waste and
end-of-life Lithium-ion Battery management
Recommendations Implementation Agency
Addressing Gaps in Waste Management Rules
Monitoring of recyclers through audits
Empanel third-party agencies to ensure unit-wise periodic audits.
MoEFCC
E-waste Management Rules (EWMR)
Expand E-waste EPR coverage to other high-value metals.
Develop a phased plan to expand the EPR mandate for other
high-value metals.
MoEFCC
Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR)
GSTN–EPR portal integration
Enhance the EPR portal by integrating GSTN-based invoice verification.
MoEFCC; CPCB
Enhanced EPR pricing for Low-Value Lithium-ion Battery chemistries
Develop a chemistry-specific EPR pricing framework for LFP
and other low-value chemistry Lithium-ion Batterys.
MoEFCC
EPR compliance cycle for LFP EV (4W) batteries
Introduce EPR compliance provision for LFP batteries used in
EV (4W), with the compliance cycle aligned with the battery
life offered by OEMs (e.g., 15 years by Tata/Mahindra).
MoEFCC
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 41
Recommendations Implementation Agency
Chemistry-wise metal composition and labelling requirements for Lithium-ion Battery
Notify chemistry-wise (e.g., NMC, LFP, etc.) metal composition.MoEFCC; CPCB
Update BIS certification (IS 16046) to include mandatory
chemical composition testing as part of the assessment for
recycled Lithium-ion Battery.
BIS
Guidelines for Safe Handling of Lithium-ion Battery
Issue detailed guidelines for the collection, storage,
transportation, refurbishment, and recycling of waste batteries,
including specific provisions for Lithium-ion Battery.
MoEFCC; CPCB
Nurturing the Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Industry
Standardising protocols for recycled-content verification
Establish purity standards for recycled materials in Lithium-
ion Batteries.
BIS
Promoting recycled-content uptake
Upcoming battery manufacturing schemes (e.g., the Production
Linked Incentive scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cells)
may consider supporting additional incentives for utilizing
domestically recycled Cathode Active Material (CAM).
MHI
Leveraging carbon markets for Lithium-ion Battery recycling
Develop a methodology for integrating Lithium-ion
Battery recycling within the ICM through MoEFCC’s
Technical Committee.
BEE
Enhancing Skilling in E-waste Management
Skill Development for E-waste Recycling
Establish recycling-focused material engineering and e-waste
management electives across all engineering colleges and
technical universities.
MeitY; MoE
Skilled informal workers certification for better employability in the formal sector
Develop an industry-aligned certification and Recognition of
Prior Learning (RPL) system with digital credentials to facilitate
the transition of informal workers into formal employment
and advanced skilling.
Ensure recognition and registration of informal workers
involved in dismantling and recycling.
MSDE;
NSDC; CPCB; SPCBs
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 42
Recommendations Implementation Agency
Formalising the Informal Sector
Regulatory Reforms for Informal Sector Integration
Utilise a single-window registration system for recyclers and
the state government to facilitate their registration process.
Provide a one-time waiver of liability and registration fees
to informal units.
MSME;
State Governments;
CPCB; SPCBs
Leveraging Government schemes for sector formalisation
Leverage the following schemes:
Establish cluster-based Common Facility Centres (CFCs) for
E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery that provide training and
safe facilities for informal workers under MSE-CDP.
Another category may be added in 6.1.1 as Group C (1 KTPA
capacity) with a minimum investment threshold (`1 crore),
along with the addition of a revised methodology for Capex and
Opex Incentive Allocation (Section 7) to benefit small informal
units from the scheme for E-waste and Lithium-ion Battery
waste recycling. Handholding of informal units for credit
access is required under schemes with a cluster approach.
MoM; MeitY;
MoEFCC; SPCBs
Establish a separate vertical in MoMines/National Critical
Mineral Mission (NCMM) only on recycling.
MoM
Strengthening E-waste Collection and Consumer Awareness
Support collection and increasing awareness about E-waste disposal
Support formal E-waste collection efforts (such as Selsmart,
ReLoop, Bino, KaroSambhav) by establishing collection
centres run on a PPP model.
Provide details of collection centres and consumer-facing
platforms on central and state government websites (such
as Greene).
Provide targeted advertisements in newspapers and
digital media containing information and contact details
(Phone number, QR Code, Hyperlinks) for formal E-waste
collection platforms.
Mandate the compulsory inclusion of E-waste disposal details
on product packaging and manufacturers’ websites.
MoEFCC, MeitY,
MHI, State
Governments, and ULBs
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 43
References
1. Eninrac. (2025). India Critical Minerals Market 2025-2030: Domestic, Export, Value
Chain, Investment Trends and China Comparison. https://www.eximbankindia.in/
sites/default/files/2025-07/211file (1).pdf
2. EXIM Bank. (2025). India’s Need to Secure Critical Minerals for Energy Transition
(No. 230; Occasional Paper). https://www.eximbankindia.in/sites/default/files/2025-
07/211file (1).pdf
3.
ICEA. (2023). Pathways to Circular Economy in Indian Electronics Sector.
4.
ITU, & UNITAR. (2024). Global E-Waste Monitor 2024: Electronic Waste Rising Five
Times Faster Than Documented E-Waste Recycling. https://globalewaste.org/
5. Monday, S., Khajuria, A., Elliason, E. K., Gagan, & Kamanda, J. S. (2025). A Study on
Heavy Metal Contamination in Workers Handling Electronic Waste in North India.
OmniScience: A Multi-Disciplinary Journal, 15(2). https://journals.stmjournals.com/
osmj/article=2025/view=214877
6.
Namo eWaste. (2026). E-waste Management Habits of Indians and Their Awareness
Level. https://namoewaste.com/e-waste-management-habits-of-indians-and-
awareness-level/#:~:text=About 82%25 of the respondents,complete and responsible
recycling services.
7. Panchal, R., Singh, A., & Diwan, H. (2021). Economic potential of recycling e-waste
in India and its impact on import of materials. Resources Policy, 74, 102264. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102264
8.
REDSEER. (2025). Consumer led E-Waste Market Assessment.
9. Sambyal, S. S., & Sohail, S. (2015). E-toxic Trail. DownToEarth.
10. Shikarpur, D. (2016). eWaste - A New Digital Threat to Environment (No. 8).
11. Toxics Link. (2016). What India Knows About E-Waste.
12. Yang, J.-L., Zhao, X.-X., Ma, M.-Y., Liu, Y., Zhang, J.-P., & Wu, X.-L. (2022). Progress
and prospect on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries: Ending is begining. Carbon Neutralization, 1(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/cnl2.31
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 44
Annexure I
Importance of E-waste Management and Circular Economy
E-waste management is crucial in advancing the circular economy, ensuring that materials
retain their highest value for as long as possible through reuse, refurbishment, and
recycling, rather than being disposed of linearly. This transition holds importance across
several dimensions of sustainable development and economic competitiveness.
(i)
Circular Economy Integration: The E-waste circular economy goes beyond material
recovery to encompass design innovation, producer responsibility, and consumer
behaviour change. Integrating E-waste management creates synergies with renewable
energy and advanced manufacturing. Recovery of critical materials also reduces
dependence on imports, aligning environmental and economic goals.
(ii)
Economic Opportunity: The current E-waste management system causes significant
economic losses by foregoing value recovery. Electronic devices hold far higher concentrations of valuable metals than conventional ores, showing the formal sector’s potential to generate safer, better-paying jobs and enhance efficiency
and environmental performance. However, innovation and technology upgradation
are limited by insufficient domestic investment.
(iii) Strategic Material Security: E-waste management is crucial for India’s material
security, particularly for resources essential to clean energy and advanced
manufacturing. Materials such as rare earths and specialty alloys in electronic devices
remain underutilised or lost due to limited domestic processing, reinforcing import
dependence and strategic vulnerability.
(iv)
Environmental Concerns: Improper E-waste processing releases persistent toxic
substances (lead, mercury, cadmium, brominated flame retardants) that cause long-term environmental harm. Soil contamination renders land unusable; toxic
leachates critically contaminate groundwater; and fumes (from burning plastics and
chemical processing) cause severe community health impacts, including respiratory
and neurological damage, as well as increased cancer risks.
(v)
Occupational Health Hazards and Social Justice in the Informal Sector: Workers
in informal E-waste processing face severe occupational risks due to hazardous exposure (inhalation of fumes/particulates, skin/chemical contact, ingestion) and unsafe conditions/lack of protection. Adverse health effects include respiratory disorders, neurological damage, skin disorders, and reproductive issues. Child
labour is a critical concern, exposing children to toxins during development. Gender
dimensions include women’s sorting/dismantling work in homes, contaminating entire families.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 45
Annexure II
Methods for Recovering E-waste and Limitations
(i) Hydrometallurgy (Water-Based Processing) - This approach utilizes specialized
chemical solutions to selectively dissolve and separate metals from E-waste
components. (Fig. 19) The process works optimally for the extraction of Gold,
Silver, copper, cobalt, and lithium, producing very pure metals with lower energy
requirements than thermal methods. Hydrometallurgical processes achieve only
35% efficiency, compared to the 80% standard, primarily due to limited chemical
processing capabilities and the absence of selective extraction systems. Current
facilities lack the sophisticated chemical control systems necessary for high-efficiency
metal extraction. This prevents the achievement of material purity levels demanded
by secondary metal markets.
(ii)
Pyrometallurgy (Heat-Based Processing) - High-temperature smelting operations
melt E-waste to separate metals through density and chemical property differences.
This method excels for mixed waste streams and high-volume processing of Gold, copper, platinum, and palladium. Current pyrometallurgical capabilities operate at only 45% efficiency, compared to the global benchmark of 85%, resulting in a
substantial loss of value in high-temperature processing operations. These deficiencies
prevent the processing of specialized electronic components containing high-value
alloys, forcing recyclers to either export materials for processing abroad or accept
significantly reduced recovery rates.
(iii) Bioleaching - Emerging biological processes use microorganisms to produce
natural acids that dissolve metals from E-waste, offering energy efficiency and environmental benefits. However, these methods remain slow and require specific
waste compositions. Indian research institutions are exploring bioleaching as a potential
solution for low-grade PCBs and mining tailings, with the aim of commercial scaling.
The current biometallurgical capabilities operate at only 5% efficiency in research
stages, far below the 75% global efficiency achievable in biological metal extraction.
Despite zero commercial deployment, bioleaching presents a critical opportunity for sustainable metal recovery, particularly for complex electronic components
where biological processes offer higher selectivity and lower environmental impact
than conventional chemical methods.
(iv)
Mechanical Separation – A physical process that involves shredding E-waste and
sorting the fragments by size, density, or other physical properties to recover metals, plastics, and other materials. Its effectiveness is limited by inconsistent waste segregation, inadequate access to high-precision sorting equipment, and an inability to recover high-purity trace elements.
(v)
Electrorefining – An electrochemical technique used to purify metals such as copper
and Silver recovered from E-waste by dissolving impure metal and redepositing it in a refined form. This process faces challenges due to high energy requirements,
chemical management issues, and limited availability of pure input streams.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 46
(vi) V – A method of recovering rare or volatile metals from E-waste
by processing them under vacuum conditions, which allows for controlled melting,
evaporation, and condensation of valuable elements. High capital costs and limited
domestic expertise have constrained its adoption.
(vii) Cryogenic Crushing – A technique that uses extremely low temperatures to make
materials brittle, enabling efficient separation of plastics and metals from E-waste
through controlled crushing. Its use is minimal owing to high operational costs and
limited infrastructure for cryogenic processing.
Fig. 20: Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy Processes for E-waste Recycling
(Yang et al., 2022)
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 47
Annexure III
Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Technologies
Several key recycling technologies are currently available for lithium-ion batteries, as outlined
below. These technologies play essential roles in recovering valuable materials and supporting
circularity in the battery value chain. However, despite the availability of multiple technologies,
their actual uptake remains limited due to broader economic, operational, and viability-relat
ed considerations that continue to restrict large-scale adoption by recyclers.
Hydrometallurgy
In this method, the black mass is dissolved in chemical solutions, followed by leaching,
solvent extraction, and crystallization to recover high-purity lithium, cobalt, nickel, and
manganese. It offers high recovery efficiency with lower energy consumption compared
to Pyrometallurgy. The approach, however, is more complex, requiring precise process
control and adjustments for variations in battery chemistry, which can challenge
standardisation at scale.
Advantage: High recovery efficiency; lower energy consumption than pyrometallurgy.
Disadvantage: Complex chemical process; requires precise control; variable by
battery chemistry.
Pyrometallurgy
This high-temperature smelting process recovers metals such as cobalt, nickel, and copper,
while organic materials, including electrolytes, separators, and binders, are destroyed
to produce slag. It is highly tolerant of variations in feedstock and can process different
Lithium-ion Battery chemistries without equipment modifications. However, lithium and
aluminium are typically lost in the slag phase, and the process requires advanced gas-
cleaning systems to manage emissions, leading to a higher environmental burden.
Advantage: Robust process tolerates variations; processes different chemistries
without modification.
Disadvantage: High energy use, material losses, and significant environmental control
requirements.
Direct-Recycling
This emerging technology recovers and regenerates cathode active materials such as NMC
and LFP without breaking them down into individual metals. By preserving the structural
integrity of these materials, direct recycling supports a closed-loop manufacturing model,
reducing reliance on primary raw materials and eliminating specific refining steps. The main challenges include the need for uniform battery chemistry to ensure consistent quality and the additional purification needed to meet industry specifications.
Advantage: Preserves cathode integrity; supports closedloop manufacturing and reuse.
Disadvantage: High post-treatment costs; needs uniform chemistry; additional
purification required.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 48
Black Mass Recycling: Main Processes
Based on the above recycling technologies, two dominant processes are currently in use,
enabling the recovery of valuable metals from black mass for reuse in the production
of new batteries.
Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy
Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy are two primary methods used for recycling lithium-
ion batteries. The process begins with collecting and sorting used batteries from various
sources, including electric vehicles, energy storage systems, and consumer electronics.
After collection, batteries are carefully tested, discharged, and dismantled to prepare
them for processing. During Pyrometallurgy, batteries are smelted at high temperatures
to recover valuable metals, such as cobalt, nickel, and copper, as alloys, while other
elements form slag. Hydrometallurgy then utilizes solutions to extract and refine metals,
resulting in compounds like nickel sulfate and cobalt sulfate. Together, these approaches
help recover essential materials and support a circular economy for battery waste.
By combining safe collection, organised dismantling, and advanced processing techniques,
Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy make it possible to recover key resources from
spent batteries, supporting environmental sustainability and resource security.
Fig. 21: Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy: Metal Extraction Pathways
Mechanical and Hydrometallurgy
Mechanical and hydrometallurgical recycling is a stepwise process that begins with the
safe collection and sorting of used batteries from sources such as electric vehicles, energy
storage systems, and consumer electronics. After sorting, the batteries are tested, safely
discharged, and dismantled. Mechanical treatment involves crushing and separating
components to produce “black mass,” containing valuable metals like cobalt, nickel, and
lithium, along with metal foils and plastics. The black mass then undergoes Hydrometallurgy,
where leaching, purification, and crystallization recover essential metals in the form
of salts. This systematic approach enables efficient recovery of critical materials and
supports a sustainable, circular battery value chain.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 49
This method aligns with best practices, emphasizing efficient material recovery with a
lower environmental footprint and reinforcing sustainable battery lifecycle management.
Fig. 22: Mechanical and Hydrometallurgical Processing Pathways
SOP for Utilisation of Black Mass from Lithium-ion Battery
The CPCB issued a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) in January 2025 for the
utilisation of black mass generated from dismantling and recycling of end-of-life-
Lithium-ion Batteries. The SOP, notified under Rule 9 of the Hazardous and Other Wastes
(Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, lays down the mandatory
facilities, authorization process, and compliance requirements for recyclers. It also covers
recovery of carbon/graphite and key metal compounds such as cobalt, manganese, nickel,
lithium, copper, iron, aluminium, and sodium through hydrometallurgy. This provides
a clear regulatory pathway to promote scientific recycling, ensure resource efficiency,
and advance circularity in the Lithium-ion Battery value chain while safeguarding
environmental and occupational health standards.
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 50
Annexure IV
(a) R
CPCB Registration and Fee Structure
Registration Requirements:
• Recycler registration: `15,000 for five years
• Additional charges for renewals and transactions
• Mandatory manifest maintenance and mass balance reporting
• Audit requirements for EPR certificate issuance and retirement
EPR Certificate Pricing Mechanism: CPCB establishes EPR certificate price bands based
on environmental compensation (EC) calculations
6
, which measure the per-unit cost
of collection, transportation, and processing for each material (in Rs/kg for copper,
aluminium, and iron; Rs/gram for Gold). The price floor and ceiling are set at 30% and
100% of the EC, respectively. A key operational constraint is that certificate revenue
is realized post-verification rather than upfront at collection, creating working capital
challenges for formal operators.
Provisions in Union Budget 2025-26
To boost domestic Lithium-ion Battery manufacturing and promote a circular battery
economy, the Government of India, through Notification No. 11/2025-Customs (01.022025),
extended Basic Customs Duty exemption to a wide range of capital goods used in
battery production, including powder dryers, blending systems, slurry transfer systems,
vacuum pumps, and electrode slitting machines. Complementing this, the Union Budget
2025-26 granted full BCD exemption on Lithium-ion Battery scrap and several critical
mineral wastes, including cobalt powder, lead, zinc, and twelve other minerals, to
improve secondary raw material availability, lower production costs, and strengthen
clean-technology industries.
(b)
Global Best Practices and Technology Models
Advanced Recovery Technologies Currently Deployed
Pyrometallurgical Systems
• Rönnskär Smelters (Boliden, Sweden): Processes over 100,000 tonnes annually
using Kaldo furnaces and refining technology, co-treating E-waste with industrial
scrap to achieve economies of scale.
•
Umicore (Belgium): Hybrid pyro-hydrometallurgy facility processing diverse
E-waste streams with high-capacity centralized operations.
Hydrometallurgical Innovations
• Royal Mint (UK, Wales): Ambient leaching technology extracting precious metals
(Gold, copper, Silver) from 4,000 tonnes annually of printed circuit boards with
low-emission processing.
• BARC Resin-Based Process: Continuous, scalable hydrometallurgical method using
polymeric resin to extract high-purity copper oxide nanoparticles from PCBs.
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Rules-2022-25.08.25.pdf.pdf
Advancing Circular Economy of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (E-waste)
and Lithium-Ion Batteries in India 51
Battery-Specific Technologies
• VW/Duesenfeld (Germany): Pilot hybrid pyro-hydrometallurgy achieving ~90%
EV battery recovery through LithoRec process.
• European Battery Recycling Plants: Facilities like Accurec (Germany) and
Nickelhütte Aue, which operate with capacities of 7,000-120,000 tonnes annually,
share capacity for EV and consumer batteries.
Examples of Indian Infrastructure Models
•
C-MET Demonstration Plant (Hyderabad): A publicly operated center featuring
shredding, smelting with a rotary tilting furnace, electrorefining, and leaching.
Achieves copper recovery of ~90% with Silver and Gold at 99.9% purity—accessible
to informal collectors on a fee basis, providing a formalization pathway.
•
Hindalco-Metso Facility (Gujarat, upcoming): Large-scale integrated copper
recovery plant from E-waste using Kaldo furnaces and Hydrometallurgy, targeting
50,000 tonnes annually of low-carbon copper production. Located near existing
copper infrastructure, enabling shared metal extraction networks.Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET)’s Technology Portfolio
The C-MET has developed nine critical technologies at Technology Readiness
Levels (TRL) 5-8, including Lithium-ion Battery recycling system (>95% recovery
efficiency), PCB processing unit (1 tone/ day pilot scale), and hydrometallurgical
systems for precious metals extraction. C-MET’s hydrometallurgical processing
include specialized resin-based systems for extracting high-purity copper oxide
nanoparticles from printed circuit boards. These technologies recover gold and silver
with 99.9% purity, matching international standards for direct use in electronics
manufacturing. However, commercialization remains limited at 15% success rate,
constrained by high capital requirements, lack of innovation financing mechanisms,
and inadequate private sector engagement in bridging the commercialization gap.
NOTES
NOTES