School Education System in India

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Research and Analysis Team, NITI Aayog
Dr. Sonia Pant, Programme Director (Education)
Dr. Shashank Shah, Senior Specialist, shashank.shah@gov.in
Ms. Nisha Sharma, Consultant
Ms. Tarini Gupta, Consultant
Peer Reviewers:
Dr. I.V. Subba Rao, Distinguished Fellow, NITI Aayog
Ms. Oshin Dharap, Consultant, NITI Aayog
Interns:
Ms. Priyanka Talwar, Ms. Sai Kripa Giri, Ms. Lavanya Singh, Ms. Priya Agrawal
Suggested Citation:
NITI Aayog. (2026). School Education System in India: Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap For
Quality Enhancement
Copyright:
Copyright@ NITI Aayog, 2026
Disclaimer:
1 This document is not a statement of policy by the National Institution for Transforming India
(hereinafter referred to as NITI Aayog). It has been prepared by the Education Division of NITI
Aayog for the purpose of independent academic and policy-oriented research.
2 Unless otherwise stated, NITI Aayog, in this regard, has not made any representation or warranty,
express or implied, as to the completeness or reliability of the information, data, findings, or
methodology presented in this document. While due care has been taken by the author(s) in the
preparation of this publication, the content is based on independently procured information and
analysis available at the time of writing and may not reflect the most current policy developments
or datasets.
3
The assertions, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the views of NITI Aayog or the Government of India, unless otherwise
mentioned. As such, NITI Aayog does not endorse or validate any of the specific views or policy
suggestions made herein by the author(s).
4
NITI Aayog shall not be liable under any circumstances, in law or equity, for any loss, damage, liability,
or expense incurred or suffered as a result of the use of or reliance upon the contents of this
document. Any reference to specific organisations, products, services, or data sources does not
constitute or imply an endorsement by NITI Aayog. Readers are encouraged to independently verify
the data and conduct their analysis before forming conclusions or taking any policy, academic, or
commercial decisions. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM
IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and

Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
EDUCATION DIVISION
May 2026 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement viii
ixSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Message from Vice Chairman, NITI Aayogii
Message from Member (Education), NITI Aayogiii
Message from CEO, NITI Aayogiv
Message from Programme Director (Education), NITI Aayogv
Executive Summaryxix
Recommendationsxxii
Chapter I - School Education in India: Introduction1
1.1 Evolution of Education in India 3
1.1.1 Ancient India 3
1.1.2 Colonial Influence and the Reorientation of Indian Education 3
1.1.3 Post-Independence Rebuilding and Constitutional Vision 3
1.1.4 Education in the First Three Five-Year Plans (1951-1966) 4
1.1.5 Expansion through National Policies and Planning (1968-1995) 4
1.1.6 Towards an Inclusive Education System (2000-2010) 5
1.1.7 From Consolidation to Transformation (2010-2020) 6
1.1.8 National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Laying the Foundation for 21st Century Schooling 6
1.1.9 Conclusion 8
Chapter II - Methodology and Stakeholder Consultations9
2.1 Analytical Framework and Data Sources 10
2.2 Analytical Approach 10
2.3 Stakeholder Consultations 10
2.4 Case Studies and State Inputs 11
2.5 Integration of Evidence and Consultation Insights 11
2.6 Conclusion 12
Chapter III - School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis13
3.1 Overview 14
3.2 Access 15
3.2.1 School Distribution and Institutional Landscape 15
3.2.2 Enrolment  18
3.2.3 Retention and Continuity 29
3.2.4 Infrastructure and Basic Resources 42
3.3 Equity and Inclusion 55
3.3.1 Gender-Wise Enrolment 55
3.3.2 Enrolment by Social Group (SC/ST) 63
3.3.3 Children with Special Needs (CwSN) 67
Table of Contents SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement x
Table of Contents
3.4 Quality 71
3.4.1 Learning Outcomes 73
3.4.2 Teacher Availability and Deployment 103
3.5 Funding 106
Chapter IV - Challenges and Bottlenecks109
4.1 Systemic Challenges 110
4.1.1 Fragmented Schooling Structures and Discontinuity 110
4.1.2 Infrastructure Gaps 114
4.1.3 Gaps in Equity and Inclusion 116
4.1.4 Gaps in Governance and School Leadership 118
4.1.5 Challenges in Teacher Workforce Management 120
4.1.6 Increased Dependency on Private Education Systems and Change in Perception
of Government Schools 122
4.2 Academic Challenges 123
4.2.1 Misalignment in Pedagogy, Curriculum, and Learning Outcomes 123
4.2.2 Weak Inference and Interpretation Skills in Early Grades 125
4.2.3 Gaps in Student Well-being and Holistic Development 126
4.2.4 Challenges in Early Childhood Care and Education 127
4.2.5 Challenges in Vocational Education 129
Chapter V - Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and
Performance Success Indicators133
5.1 Systemic Recommendations 137
5.1.1 Reform School System and Ensure Structural Continuity 137
5.1.2 Strengthen School Infrastructure 143
5.1.3 Reform Governance and Enhance Administrative Capacity 148
5.1.4 Institutionalise a “Whole-of-Society” Approach through State and District Task
Forces on School Quality 155
5.1.5 Strengthen School Management Committees (SMCs/SDMCs) and Institutionalise
Bottom-Up Planning 157
5.1.6 Elevate Teacher Deployment, Professional Capacity, and Career Progression 159
5.1.7 Strengthen and Expand Digital and Broadcast-Based Learning for Inclusive Education 162
5.1.8 Promote Equity and Inclusion 164
5.2 Academic Recommendations 174
5.2.1 Transform Pedagogy, Assessment, and Foundational Learning 174
5.2.2 Promote Holistic Education and Student Wellbeing 179
5.2.3 Strengthen Vocational Education and Skill Integration in Schooling 186
5.2.4 Strengthen ECCE 190
5.2.5 Integrate Artificial Intelligence for Pedagogical Innovation and System Readiness 195
Annexures198
References201 xiSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Timeline of Educational Policies and Interventions Post Independence 2
Figure 3.1: Snapshot of India’s School Education System (2024-25) 14
Figure 3.2: Number of Schools over the years (2015-2025) 15
Figure 3.3: Management-wise enrolment in India 19
Figure 3.4: Level-wise enrolment in India 20
Figure 3.5: Gross Enrolment Ratio Across School Levels 20
Figure 3.6: Decadal Overview: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level 21
Figure 3.7: Decadal Overview: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Upper-Primary Level 23
Figure 3.8: Decadal Overview: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Secondary Level 25
Figure 3.9: Decadal Overview: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Higher Secondary Level 27
Figure 3.10: Decadal Overview: Transition Rate: Primary to Upper-Primary 30
Figure 3.11: Decadal Overview: Transition Rate: Upper-Primary to Secondary 32
Figure 3.12: Decadal Overview: Transition Rate: Secondary to Higher Secondary 34
Figure 3.13: Dropout Rates across School Levels in India (2024-25) 36
Figure 3.14: Decadal Overview: Dropout Rate: Primary 36
Figure 3.15: Decadal Overview: Dropout Rate: Upper Primar 38
Figure 3.16: Decadal Overview: Dropout Rate: Secondary 40
Figure 3.17: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools with Functional Electricity 43
Figure 3.18: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools with Functional Boys’ Toilet 45
Figure 3.19: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools with Functional Girls’ Toilet 47
Figure 3.20: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools having Computers 49
Figure 3.21: Decadal Overview - Percentage of Schools having Internet Facility 51
Figure 3.22: Availability of Functional Smart Classroom across states/UTs 53
Figure 3.23: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Girls at Primary Level 56
Figure 3.24: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Girls at Upper Primary Level 58
Figure 3.25: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Girls at Secondary Level 60
Figure 3.26: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Girls at Higher Secondary Level 62
Figure 3.27: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for SC at Primary Level 64
Figure 3.28: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for SC at Upper Primary Level 64
Figure 3.29: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for SC at Secondary Level 65
Figure 3.30: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for SC at Higher Secondary Level 65
Figure 3.31: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for ST at Primary Level 65
Figure 3.32: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for ST at Upper Primary Level 66
Figure 3.33: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for ST at Secondary Level 66
Figure 3.34: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for ST at Higher Secondary Level 67 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement xii
List of Figures
Figure 3.35: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools with CwSN-friendly Toilets 68
Figure 3.36: Decadal Overview - Availability of ramps for CwSN 70
Figure 3.37: Reading Proficiency Trends in Grade 3 by School Type (2014-2024) 74
Figure 3.38: Reading Proficiency Trends in Grade 5 by School Type (2014-2024) 74
Figure 3.39: Reading Proficiency Trends in Grade 7 by School Type (2014-2024) 75
Figure 3.40: Arithmetic Skill Trends in Grade 3 by School Type (2014-2024) 76
Figure 3.41: Arithmetic Skill Trends in Grade 5 by School Type (2014-2024) 76
Figure 3.42: Arithmetic Skill Trends in Grade 8 by School Type (2014-2024) 77
Figure 3.43: Smartphone Availability and Use by Gender (2024) (in percentage) 78
Figure 3.44: Smartphone use by activity and digital safety awareness by gender (2024) (in percentage) 78
Figure 3.45: Students who can do digital tasks(2024) (in percentage) 79
Figure 3.46: Average Language Competency at Foundational Stage 84
Figure 3.47: Average Mathematics Competency at Foundational Stage 85
Figure 3.48: Performance at Foundational Stage by Gender 86
Figure 3.49: Performance at Foundational Stage by Location 86
Figure 3.50: Performance at Foundational Stage by School Management 87
Figure 3.51: Performance at Foundational Stage by Social Category 87
Figure 3.52: Average Language Competency at Preparatory Stage 89
Figure 3.53: Average Mathematics Competency at Preparatory Stage 90
Figure 3.54: Average The World Around Us Competency at Preparatory Stage 91
Figure 3.55: Performance at Preparatory Stage by Gender 92
Figure 3.56: Performance at Preparatory Stage by Location 92
Figure 3.57: Performance at Preparatory Stage by School Management 93
Figure 3.58: Performance at Preparatory Stage by Social Category 93
Figure 3.59: Average Language Competency at Middle Stage 95
Figure 3.60: Average Mathematics Competency at Middle Stage 96
Figure 3.61: Average Science Competency at Middle Stage 97
Figure 3.62: Average Social Science Competency at Middle Stage 98
Figure 3.63: Performance at Middle Stage b-y Gender 100
Figure 3.64: Performance at Middle Stage by Location 100
Figure 3.65: Performance at Middle Stage by Social Category 101
Figure 3.66: Performance at Middle Stage by School Management 101
Figure 3.67: Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) (2021) 107
Figure 3.68: Central and State Government spending on Education as % share of GDP over the years 107
Figure 4.1: List of Challenges 110
Figure 4.2: Number and Percentage of Schools by Stage 111
Figure 4.3: Infrastructure Gaps 114
Figure 4.4: Gaps in Equity and Inclusion 116
Figure 4.5: Misalignment in Pedagogy, Curriculum, and Learning Outcomes 123
Figure 4.6: Student Well-being 126
Figure 4.7: Challenges in Early Childhood Care and Education 128
Figure 4.8: Cascading Impact of weak ECCE 129 xiii
List of TablesSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
List of Tables
Figure 5.1: Pyramidical to Cylindrical Schooling Structure 137
Figure 5.2: School Consolidation Models as suggested under SATH-E 138
Figure 5.3: Resource sharing via Nodal Schools 141
Figure 5.4: Strengthen school infrastructure 143
Figure 5.5: Digital Broadcast- Based Learning for Inclusive Education 162
Figure 5.6: Equity and Inclusion 164
Figure 5.7: Holistic Health and Student Well-Being 179
Figure 5.8: Three Pillars of ECCE Implementation Roadmap 190
Table 3.1: Number of Schools by Management Type (In lakhs ) (2014-15 to 2024-25) 16
Table 3.2: Grade Coverage of Schools in India (2024-25) 17
Table 3.3: Enrolment over the years 19
Table 3.4: Transition Rates in India (2024-25) 29
Table 3.5: NAS Scores for Grade 3 (2017-2021) 80
Table 3.6: NAS Scores for Grades 5 (2017, 2021) 81
Table 3.7: NAS Scores for Grade 8 (2017, 2021) 82
Table 3.8: Language Competencies at Foundational Stage 84
Table 3.9: Mathematical Competencies at Foundational Stage 85
Table 3.10: Foundational Stage 88
Table 3.11: Language Competencies at Preparatory Stage 89
Table 3.12: Mathematical Competencies at Preparatory Stage 90
Table 3.13: The World Around Us Competencies at Preparatory Stage 91
Table 3.14: PARAKH 2024 Score 94
Table 3.15: Language Competencies at Middle Stage 96
Table 3.16: Mathematics Competencies at Middle Stage 96
Table 3.17: Science Competencies at Middle Stage 97
Table 3.18: Social Science Competencies at Middle Stage 98
Table 3.19: PARAKH 2024 Scores for Middle Stage (2024) (In percentage) 102
Table 3.20: State-wise Teacher Vacancies in India (Government Schools) 104
Table 3.21: Stage-Wise PTR (2024-25) 105
Table- 4.1: Percentage of Schools across various Enrolment brackets 111
Table 4.2: Zero Enrolment and Single Teacher Schools 112 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement xiv
List of Maps
Map 3.1: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level across States/UTs 22
Map 3.2: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level across States/UTs 22
Map 3.3: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Upper Primary Level across States/UTs 24
Map 3.4: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Upper Primary Level across States/UTs 24
Map 3.5: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Secondary Level across States/UTs 26
Map 3.6: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Secondary Level across States/UTs 26
Map 3.7: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs 28
Map 3.8: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs 28
Map 3.9: Transition Rate - Primary Level to Upper Primary Level across States/UTs (2014-15) 30
Map 3.10: Transition Rate - Primary Level to Upper Primary Level across States/UTs (2024-25) 31
Map 3.11: Transition Rate - Upper Primary to Secondary Level across States/UTs (2014-15) 32
Map 3.12: Transition Rate - Upper Primary Level to Secondary Level across States/UTs (2024-25) 33
Map 3.13: Transition Rate - Secondary to Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs (2014-15) 34
Map 3.14: Transition Rate - Secondary Level to Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs (2024-25) 35
Map 3.15: Dropout Rates at Primary Level across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 37
Map 3.16: Dropout Rates at Primary Level across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 37
Map 3.17: Dropout Rates at Upper Primary Level across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 39
Map 3.18: Dropout Rates at Upper Primary Level across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 39
Map 3.19: Dropout Rates at Secondary Level across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 41
Map 3.20: Dropout Rates at Secondary Level across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 41
Map 3.21: Availability of functional electricity across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 43
Map 3.22: Availability of functional electricity across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 44
Map 3.23: Availability of functional boys’ toilet facility across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 45
Map 3.24: Availability of functional boys’ toilet facility across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 46
Map 3.25: Availability of functional Girls’ toilet facility across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 47
Map 3.26: Availability of functional Girls’ toilet facility across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 48
Map 3.27: Availability of Computer Facility across states/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 49
Map 3.28: Availability of Computer Facility across states/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 50
Map 3.29: Availability of Internet Facility across states/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 51
Map 3.30: Availability of Internet Facility across states/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 52
Map 3.31: Availability of functional Smart Classrooms across states/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 53
Map 3.32: Availability of functional Smart Classrooms across states/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 54
Map 3.33: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Primary Level across States/UTs 56
Map 3.34: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Primary Level across States/UTs 57 xv
List of MapsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.35: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Upper Primary Level across states/UTs 58
Map 3.36: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Upper Primary Level across states/UTs 59
Map 3.37: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Secondary Level across states/UTs 60
Map 3.38: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Secondary Level across states/UTs 61
Map 3.39: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs 62
Map 3.40: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Higher Secondary Level across states/UTs 63
Map 3.41: Availability of functional CwSN-friendly toilet facilities across states/UTs(2018-19)
(in percentage) 68
Map 3.42: Availability of functional CwSN-friendly toilet facilities across states/UTs (2024-25)
(in percentage) 69
Map 3.43: Availability of ramps for CwSN across states/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage) 70
Map 3.44: Availability of ramps for CwSN across states/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage) 71 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement xvi
List of Abbreviations
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation Full Form
ABCAcademic Bank of Credits
AICTE All India Council for Technical Education
AMBAnemia Mukta Bharat
ASER Annual Status of Education Report
ASUs Academic Support Units
ATLsAtal Tinkering Labs
AWCAnganwadi Centre
AWWAnganwadi Workers
BaLABuilding as Learning Aid
BBBPBeti Bachao Beti Padhao
BE Budget Estimate
BEOBlock Education Officer
BRPBlock Resource Persons
CBOs Community-Based Organisations
CBSECentral Board of Secondary Education
CIET Central Institute of Educational Technology
CPDContinuous Professional Development
CRCs Cluster Resource Centres
CRP Cluster Resource Person
CSOs Civil Society Organisations
CTS Child Tracking System
CwSN Children with Special Needs
DBTDirect Benefit Transfer
DEODistrict Education Officer
DIETDistrict Institute of Education and Training
DIKSHA Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing
DoSE&L Department of School Education & Literacy
DPEP District Primary Education Programme
DPOs Disabled People’s Organisation
DSERT Department of State Educational Research and Training xvii
List of AbbreviationsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Abbreviation Full Form
DSDPs District Skill Development Plans
ECCE Early Childhood Care and Education
EFA Education for All
EMIS Education Management Information System
EMRSEklavya Model Residential Schools
EWSEarly Warning System
FLN Foundational Literacy and Numeracy
GCED Global Citizenship Education
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GER Gross Enrolment Ratio
GIS Geographic Information System
GLP Graded Learning Program
HBE Home Based Education
HDI Human Development Index
HPC Holistic Progress Card
HRMIS Human Resource Management Information System
ICDS Integrated Child Development Services
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IERPs Inclusive Education Resource Person
IEP Individualised Education Plan
IGNOU Indira Gandhi National Open University
ISLIndian Sign Language
ITIs Industrial Training Institutes
JJM Jal Jeevan Mission
KGBVs Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas
LFP Low Fee Private School
LMS Learning Management System
MeitY Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
MOE Ministry of Education
MSDEMinistry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
MSME Ministry of Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises
MWCD Ministry of Women and Child Development
NASNational Achievement Survey SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement xviii
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation Full Form
NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training
NCF National Curriculum Framework
NCF-FS National Curriculum Framework for Foundational Stage
NCF-SE National Curriculum Framework for School Education
NCSLNational Centre for School Leadership
NCPFECCE National Curricular and Pedagogical Framework for ECCE
NCrFNational Credit Framework
NCVET National Council for Vocational Education and Training
NEP National Education Policy
NETF National Educational Technology Forum
NFHS National Family Health Survey
NUEPA National University of Educational Planning and Administration
NIEPID National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities
NIOS National Institute of Open Schooling
NIPCCD National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development
NIPUN National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy
NISHTHA National Initiative for School Heads’ and Teachers’ Holistic Advancement
NPST National Professional Standards for Teachers
NSDCNational Skill Development Corporation
NSQFNational Skills Qualifications Framework
OCR Optical Character Recognition
ODOPOne District One Product
PABProject Approval Board
PARAKH
Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development
PBPBPoshan Bhi Padhai Bhi
PHCs Primary Health Centres
PIG Performance Incentive Grants
PLCs Professional Learning Communities
PLFS Periodic Labour Force Survey
PM POSHAN Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman
PM SHRI Pradhan Mantri Schools for Rising India
PRIs Panchayati Raj Institutions
PTR Pupil-Teacher Ratio
RBSKRashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram
RE Revised Estimate xix
List of AbbreviationsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Abbreviation Full Form
RIDF Rural Infrastructure Development Fund
RKSK Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram
RMSA Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan
RPWD Rights of Persons with Disabilities
RTE Right to Education
SATH-E Sustainable Action for Transforming Human Capital - Education
SBM Swachh Bharat Mission
SCERT State Council of Educational Research and Training
SCCs School Complex Centres
SDMIS Student Database Management Information System
SDMC School Development and Management Committee
SDPSchool Development Plan
SEDG Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Groups
SEL Social and Emotional Learning
SHWP School Health and Wellness Programme
SMC School Management Committee
SPNIWCD Savitribai Phule National Institute of Women and Child Development
SQAAF School Quality Assessment and Assurance Framework
SSA Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
SSDMs State Skill Development Missions
SSSAState School Standards Authority
STEMScience, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
SWAYAM Study Webs of Active-Learning for Young Aspiring Minds
TaRL Teaching-at-the-Right-Level
TEIsTeacher Education Institutions
Tele-MANAS Tele Mental Health Assistance and Networking Across States
TLMs Teaching Learning Materials
ULBsUrban Local Bodies
UDISE Unified District Information System for Education
UGCUniversity Grants Commission
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
VECVillage Education Committee
VSKVidyalaya Shiksha Samiti
WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
WIFSWeekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation EXECUTIVE SUMMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement xxii
“Education, to be complete, must be human; it must include not only the training of
the intellect but the refinement of the heart and the discipline of the spirit. No education
can be regarded as complete if it neglects heart and spirit."
1
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
As India moves towards the goal of becoming a Viksit Bharat by 2047, the quality and reach of its school education
system will play a decisive role in shaping social and economic progress. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020
provides a comprehensive framework for achieving universal access, raising learning standards, and ensuring equity
across all stages of schooling. This Report reviews the present state of the system, identifies the challenges that
must be addressed, and recommends policy interventions and implementation roadmap to achieve this vision.
Drawing on data from the Unified District Information System for Education (UDISE) 2014-15 to UDISE+ 2024-
25, Performance Assessment, Review and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development (PARAKH) Rashtriya
Sarvekshan 2024, National Achievement Survey (NAS) 2017, 2021, and the Annual Status of Education Report
(ASER) 2024, this Report presents a detailed picture of the sector. India’s 14.71 lakh schools serve over 24.69
crore students. While near-universal access has been achieved at the primary stage, enrolment at the higher
secondary level, with a national Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of 58.4% and variations across States, presents a
significant opportunity to further expand participation. Strengthening transition rates at each stage, particularly
after upper primary, through integrated school complexes can help ensure smoother progression and sustained
engagement in schooling.
Learning outcomes show signs of recovery across grades. Foundational literacy and numeracy have improved
following the pandemic, and ongoing initiatives provide a strong platform to consolidate gains and move towards
higher benchmarks. National Surveys indicate that students are increasingly able to perform foundational tasks,
with continued efforts needed to deepen conceptual understanding and real-life application of knowledge.
Focused strategies in rural areas, tribal communities, and economically disadvantaged households can accelerate
equitable learning gains. Infrastructure expansion has been significant, with most schools now equipped with
electricity and toilets. Further investments in inclusive facilities for children with special needs and expansion of
digital access, particularly in smaller and remote schools, can help create more enabling learning environments
across the country.
A major impetus for this Report came from the National Workshop on Quality Education, convened by NITI Aayog
on 28 February 2025 at the Dr. Ambedkar International Centre, New Delhi. Chaired by Dr. V.K. Paul, Member
(Education), NITI Aayog, the workshop brought together over 150 participants, including Principal Secretaries from
several States, SCERT Directors, national education bodies, policy makers, international agencies such as UNESCO,
civil society organisations, and teachers. A Special Address was delivered by Shri Sanjay Kumar, Secretary, Department
of School Education & Literacy, Govt. of India. Four thematic panels examined key reform areas: strengthening
1 Radhakrishnan, S. (1956). Occasional speeches and writings. New Delhi.
Executive Summary xxiiiSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Executive Summary
foundational learning, empowering teachers as instructional leaders, building effective school leadership, and
leveraging technology for learning. States shared innovations and candidly discussed implementation hurdles,
offering a rich base of ideas for collaborative action. A subsequent stakeholder consultation with representatives
from government, UNICEF, and NGOs further informed and strengthened the finalisation of this Report.
The opening chapter of this Report traces the historical evolution of school education in India, outlines major
policy milestones since Independence, and presents an analytical overview of the current landscape in access,
quality, equity, and funding. The second chapter describes the methodology and stakeholder consultations, drawing
on national datasets and State-level inputs to frame the analysis. The third chapter provides a decadal analysis of
the institutional landscape, enrolment trends, and the quality of education, highlighting how patterns have evolved
over time and where critical gaps persist. The fourth chapter provides a synthesis of key challenges: fragmented
school structures, foundational learning deficits, inequities in inclusion, gaps in teacher and leadership ecosystems,
infrastructure disparities, and governance weaknesses.
The concluding chapter provides a consolidated set of policy recommendations with a phased implementation
roadmap: short-term, medium-term, and long-term, accompanied by clearly defined responsibilities for national,
state, and local actors, along with measurable performance indicators. The 33 policy recommendations aim to move
the system beyond incremental adjustments towards sustained, structural transformation. They are grounded in
the conviction that every child, regardless of geography or background, must have access to schools that provide
not only infrastructure but also the knowledge, skills, and human values required to lead purposeful lives.
Taken together, the evidence shows that while India has made steady progress in strengthening school education
over the years, the unfinished agenda remains significant. Reaching the goal of Viksit Bharat will require quality
education to be seen not merely as a sectoral responsibility, but as a societal mission. This effort must draw in a
broad set of contributors, governments at all levels, academic institutions, civil society organisations, philanthropy,
industry, and local communities. Incremental change will not be sufficient; meeting the aspirations of a resurgent
India will demand a system-wide transformation of school education. Such a transformation calls for a shared
sense of purpose, sustained political and administrative resolve, and coordinated action, with the Central and
State Governments working in close partnership, and local governments playing an active role.
The vision for Viksit Bharat@2047 will be realised only when classrooms become spaces where potential is
recognised early, talent is nurtured consistently, and ambition is met with opportunity. With collective effort, the
promise of universal, high-quality and values-based school education can be fulfilled, laying the foundation for a
generation that is confident, capable, and committed to shape our nation’s future.
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Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement xxiv xxvSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Executive Summary
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SCHOOL EDUCATION
IN INDIA:
INTRODUCTION National Policy
on
EducationSarva Shiksha
Abhiyan
Mudaliar
Commission
National Policy
on
Education
Mid-Day Meal
Scheme
2:63
Kothari
Commission
2:75.772:792:97
Programme
of
Action
2::32::63112
National Education
Policy
National Curriculum
Framework
Rashtriya
Madhyamik Shiksha
Abhiyan
National Curriculum
Framework
3116
Right of Children
To Free and
Compulsory
Education Act
Samagra Shiksha
Abhiyan
NIPUN Bharat
Mission
311:31233129313231313134 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 2
Chapter I
School Education in India: Introduction
Education in India has never been confined to classrooms or curriculum; it has long served as the moral and
intellectual anchor of our civilisation. From ancient Gurukuls, where learning was guided by experiences and
spiritual reflection, to the evolving forms of modern schooling, education has been the medium through which
values are lived, identities are shaped, and the social fabric of society is held together across generations.
The legacy continues through an education system that spans every corner of the country, as reflected in UDISE
2024-25, which reports over 14.71 lakh schools serving more than 24.69 crore students. As India prepares to
commemorate 100 years of Independence in 2047, its progress will not be measured by the number of schools
or students in a classroom, but rather by what happens inside those classrooms, how every child is empowered
to shape their life, and in doing so, the future of the nation.
The NEP 2020, in alignment with the national aspiration of Viksit Bharat @2047, reimagines school education as
the foundation of a just, inclusive, and future-ready society rooted in cultural values, yet responsive to the demands
of the 21st century. To achieve this transformation, India must focus on strengthening school education through
universal access, adequate infrastructure, quality education, teacher training, and effective use of technology.
To understand the challenges and aspirations of school education today, it is important to reflect on where we
began. This chapter traces the evolution of the Indian school education system, from ancient learning traditions
to the most recent NEP 2020.
Figure 1.1: Timeline of Educational Policies and Interventions Post Independence 3SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Chapter I School Education in India: Introduction
1.1 Evolution of Education in India
1.1.1 Ancient India
In ancient India, Vidya (knowledge) was regarded as the foundation of both individual growth and societal
progress, combining both intellectual training with moral discipline and spiritual insight. Knowledge was
described as life’s most reliable companion - “नास्ति विद्यासमो बन्धुर्नास्ति विद्यासमः सुहृत्। नास्ति विद्यासमं वित्तं
नास्ति विद्यासमं सुखम्॥” greater than friendship, wealth, or pleasure. It was revered as sacred, captured in the
dictum “विद्या परं दैवतम्,” which elevated education to the status of divinity itself. The tradition also stressed
the progressive impact of learning: “विद्या ददाति विनयम् विनयाद्याति पात्रताम्। पात्रत्वाद्धनमाप्नोति धनाद्धर्मं ततः
सुखम्॥” Knowledge gives rise to humility, humility to worthiness, worthiness to prosperity, prosperity to
righteousness, and righteousness to lasting happiness. These ideals reveal that education in ancient India
was not a utilitarian pursuit but the supreme wealth and guiding principle of civilisation.
1.1.2 Colonial Influence and the Reorientation of Indian Education
This indigenous and holistic approach was disrupted during the colonial era, when education was restructured
to serve administrative goals. Elphinstone’s Minutes (1823) and Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835)
2

institutionalised a model that marginalised vernacular knowledge systems and reoriented learning toward
clerical and English-medium proficiency. As a result, education lost its rootedness in local culture, equity,
and experiential learning.
1.1.3 Post-Independence Rebuilding and Constitutional Vision
Post-colonial India faced several challenges in the field of education, including inadequate infrastructure,
limited access to quality education, and the poor quality of teachers. Socio-economic disparities further
impacted access and quality, yet Education became the driving force of development for a nation that had
to rebuild from scratch.
“If the poor boy cannot come to education,
education must go to him.”
3
Swami Vivekananda
Taking inspiration from our thought leaders, the Indian Constitution, under Article 45, made a commitment
to make elementary education (for students ages 6-14) free and universal by 1960. While progress in
areas such as literacy and universalisation of elementary education was gradual, sustained efforts by the
Government, irrespective of the frail socio-economic conditions, were responsible for our continued
improvement in the sector.
In pursuit of our constitutional goals, early commissions were constituted to plan and subsequently strengthen
various aspects of school education. Mudaliar Commission, 1952, introduced General Science as a compulsory
subject, promoted using mother tongue as the medium of instruction, and focused on improving teacher
training, service conditions, and the provision of educational and vocational guidance in schools.
4
2 Woodrow, H. (1862). Macaulay’s minutes on education in India, written in the years 1835, 1836 and 1837. C. B. Lewis at the Baptist Mission Press.
3 Vivekananda, S. (1948). Our duty to the masses. In The complete works of Swami Vivekananda (Vol. 4). Advaita Ashrama.
4 Government of India, Ministry of Education. (1953). Report of the Secondary Education Commission: October 1952-June 1953 (A. L. Mudaliar, Chair). Government of India. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 4
Chapter I School Education in India: Introduction
1.1.4 Education in the First Three Five-Year Plans (1951-1966)
The first three Five-Year Plans
5
were instrumental in translating constitutional and philosophical commitments
into concrete educational programmes. The First Plan (1951-1956) prioritised universal primary education,
expansion of teacher training, and adult literacy, especially for rural and disadvantaged groups. Special
attention was given to improving access for girls and Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SC/STs).
The Second Plan (1956-1961) responded to the nation’s industrial aspirations by expanding technical and
vocational education, particularly through engineering colleges and polytechnic institutions. At the same
time, it maintained a continued focus on elementary education and adult literacy.
Building on the first two plans, the Third Plan (1961-1966) emphasised the universalisation of elementary
education, improvement of secondary schooling, and strengthening of curriculum and teacher education.
It also introduced state-level education planning units, which created a more coordinated framework for
implementation and paved the way for the landmark Kothari Commission.
1.1.5 Expansion through National Policies and Planning (1968-1995)
The Kothari Commission
6
(1964-1966), significantly shaped Indian education. It stated that “India’s destiny is
being made in its classrooms.” Although implementation faced delays, its recommendations led to improvements
in vocational, agricultural, teacher, and science education, and laid the foundation for the National Policy
on Education (NPE).
7
Formulated in 1968 through the recommendations of the Kothari Commission, the NPE was India’s first
comprehensive policy on Education.
It proposed the following:
1. Adoption of the three-language formula.
2. Provision of free and compulsory education up to the age of 14.
3. Prioritisation of investment in science education and teacher training.
4. Allocation of 6% of the national income to education.
The National Policy on Education 1986 (later revised in 1992) reinforced these priorities with a sharper
focus on access, equity, and quality. It aimed at universalisation of elementary education, targeted school
infrastructure, and introduced ‘Operation Blackboard’
8
with the explicit goal of ensuring that primary
schools had the bare minimum amenities. The policy also introduced Navodaya Vidyalayas to nurture rural
talent, expanded vocational education at the secondary level, and strengthened teacher education through
DIETS and SCERTs. It also advocated for decentralised planning through Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).
India’s policy trajectory during this period was also shaped by the emerging global commitment to universal
education. The Education for All (EFA) programme, launched at the 1990 World Education Conference in
Jomtien, Thailand, recognised education as a fundamental human right and underscored the need to move
beyond enrolment to address quality, relevance, and equity.
9
In the Indian context, these principles reinforced
the drive towards universalising elementary education, improving literacy, and enhancing learning outcomes,
and subsequently informed flagship initiatives such as the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
and the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
5 Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. Five Year Plans (Statistical Year Book India, Chapter 7). Government of India. 
6 Education Commission, 1964 -1966, Vol. I, Ch. 1, Sec. 1.01
7 Government of India. (1986). National Policy on Education 1986. Ministry of Human Resource Development.
8 Government of India, National Council of Educational Research and Training. (1988). Operation Blackboard: Essential facilities at the primary stage — Norms and specifications.
9 Key conference outcomes in education: World Conference on Education for All, Jomtien, Thailand, 5-9 March 1990. 5
Chapter I School Education in India: IntroductionSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Apart from recommending curricular and structural reforms, efforts were made to address the socio-
economic barriers that denied access to marginalised communities. The Mid-day Meal Scheme (1995)
encouraged all primary schools to provide cooked mid-day meals. The initiative significantly improved the
academic performance of rural school children by improving attendance, reducing absenteeism and dropout
rates. Additionally, the scheme lowered financial burden on families.
1.1.6 Towards an Inclusive Education System (2000-2010)
The early years of the new millennium marked a decisive shift in India’s education policy towards universalising
access and addressing long-standing inequities. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA),
10
launched in 2001-02,
was a flagship programme that aimed to provide useful and relevant elementary education for all children
in the 6 to 14-year age group by 2010. It sought to bridge social, regional and gender gaps through active
community participation in school management. The key objectives of SSA were as follows:
¨
Ensure that every child in the 6-14 age group has access to a neighbourhood school, with special focus
on reaching out to children from disadvantaged and marginalised groups.
¨Reduce dropout rates and ensure that all children complete eight years of elementary schooling.
¨
Promote equity and inclusion by bridging gaps in enrolment, retention, and learning outcomes across
gender and social categories.
¨Improve the quality of teaching and learning through teacher training, curriculum reform, improved
learning materials, and continuous assessment.
¨Provide adequate physical infrastructure (classrooms, toilets, drinking water, boundary walls, ramps,
etc.) and learning resources in all schools.
¨
Ensure inclusive education by integrating children with disabilities into mainstream schools and providing
appropriate support services.
¨Involve local communities, parents, and School Management Committees (SMCs) in planning,
implementation, and monitoring of school activities.
India’s commitment was reinforced by its role as a signatory to the United Nations Millennium Declaration
(2000), which set Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 2 to achieve universal primary education by 2015.
11

The MDG target called for every child, boys and girls alike, to complete a full course of primary schooling.
In alignment with this goal, SSA was scaled up nationally, and the Mid-Day Meal Scheme was expanded to
boost enrolment, attendance, and retention, particularly among children from disadvantaged groups.
This period also overlapped with the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development
(2005-2014), led by UNESCO.
12
The initiative encouraged the integration of principles and practices of
sustainable development into curricula, teacher training, and school activities, fostering environmental
awareness, social responsibility, and civic engagement from the early years of schooling.
Building on these global and national commitments, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act (RTE), 2009 made education a justiciable right, guaranteeing free and compulsory education for all children
aged 6-14 years. It mandated 25% reservation in private schools for children belonging to economically
weaker sections and disadvantaged groups. Moving further, India became one of the 135 countries to make
education a fundamental right in April 2010, with the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights
monitoring its implementation.
10 Ministry of Education, Government of India. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan framework for implementation
11  United Nations General Assembly. (2000). United Nations Millennium Declaration (Res. 55/2).  
12  United Nations. Shaping the future we want: UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014).  SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 6
Chapter I School Education in India: Introduction
The post-RTE years saw a consolidation of earlier gains in access and infrastructure, accompanied by a
sharper focus on quality and learning outcomes. The Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), launched
in 2009 and scaled up during this period, sought to extend the universalisation agenda to the secondary
stage. It aimed to ensure a secondary school within a reasonable distance of every habitation, upgrade
infrastructure, improve teacher quality, and enhance student retention.
13
1.1.7 From Consolidation to Transformation (2010-2020)
The decade following the enactment of the RTE 2009, saw a consolidation of earlier gains in access and
infrastructure, alongside a growing recognition that quality and learning outcomes required urgent attention.
RMSA, launched in 2009, was scaled up during this period to expand access to secondary education, upgrade
infrastructure, improve teacher quality, and raise retention rates.
In 2015, the adoption of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) at the global level broadened the education
agenda to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for
all” by 2030. SDG 4 went beyond enrolment targets to include specific goals for free and quality primary and
secondary education, early childhood care and education, vocational and tertiary education, and teacher
development, with a strong focus on marginalised groups. These priorities are closely aligned with India’s
emerging emphasis on universal access, foundational learning, equity, and skill development. By the end of
this period, the need for a unified, outcome-oriented approach to school education had become evident,
setting the stage for the launch of Samagra Shiksha in 2018.
The launch of Samagra Shiksha brought a much-needed shift in how school education is planned and delivered
across India. Instead of treating pre-primary, elementary, and secondary education as separate concerns, it
brought them all under a single, unified framework. The programme integrated three major schemes: SSA,
RMSA, and Teacher Education into one integrated programme. The scheme focused on improving learning
outcomes, supporting teacher development, and bridging social and gender gaps.
14

1.1.8 National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Laying the Foundation for
21
st
Century Schooling
While these reforms expanded access and created a more coherent system, they also revealed a deeper
challenge: ensuring that all children develop core cognitive capacities, including foundational literacy and
numeracy, as well as higher-order skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving, alongside social, ethical,
and emotional dispositions. This recognition set the stage for NEP 2020.
NEP 2020 seeks to transform the education system so that it prepares learners not only for academic
achievement but also for meaningful participation in society, charting a pathway towards inclusive and high-
quality education for all children by 2040. Key provisions of the policy are as follows:
(i) Foundational Literacy and Numeracy as a National Mission
The Policy mandated achieving universal foundational literacy and numeracy by Grade 3 by 2025, to
be implemented through the NIPUN Bharat Mission.
15
State/UT Governments are required to prepare
implementation plans with stage-wise targets and robust tracking mechanisms.
13 Ministry of Education, Government of India. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA).
14 Press Information Bureau. (2025, February 4). Leap in rural school enrolment: Key Findings (ASER) 2024 [Press release]. Ministry of Education, Government of India.
15 Press Information Bureau. (2021, July 5). Union Education Minister launches NIPUN Bharat Programme today [Press release]. Ministry of Education, Government of India.  7
Chapter I School Education in India: IntroductionSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
(ii) Revised School Structure
The Policy replaces the existing 10+2 model with a 5+3+3+4 curricular structure covering ages 3-18,
aligning school stages with child development needs:
¨Foundational Stage (3 years pre-school/Anganwadi + Grades 1-2)
¨Preparatory Stage (Grades 3-5)
¨Middle Stage (Grades 6-8)
¨Secondary Stage (Grades 9-12)
(iii) Curriculum and Pedagogy Reform
The Policy emphasises reducing curricular content to core concepts, fostering critical thinking, and promoting
experiential, inquiry-based, and application-oriented pedagogy. Arts, sports, and vocational education are
to be integrated into the mainstream curriculum to promote holistic development.
(iv) Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)
The Policy envisages universal access to quality ECCE for all children aged 3-6 years by 2030.
16
Anganwadi
centres are to be strengthened, co-located with primary schools where possible, and integrated within
school complexes to ensure school readiness.
(v) Language Policy
The Policy stipulates that, wherever possible, the medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, and preferably
till Grade 8 and beyond, will be the mother tongue or home/local language. The three-language formula
is retained with flexibility, and bilingual proficiency is encouraged through high-quality language teaching.
(vi) Equity and Inclusion
The Policy provides for targeted interventions to address the needs of socio-economically disadvantaged
groups (SEDGs), including SC/ST, OBC, minorities, children with special needs (CwSN), and girls. It mandates
the creation of Special Education Zones and a Gender-Inclusion Fund.
(vii) Teacher Recruitment and Professional Development
The Policy mandates a four-year integrated B.Ed. degree as the minimum qualification for teachers, transparent
and merit-based recruitment, structured career progression pathways, and continuous professional
development for all teachers.
(viii) Assessment Reforms
The Policy calls for a shift from high-stakes, rote-based examinations to competency-based assessments
focused on the application of knowledge. It establishes the National Assessment Centre, Performance
Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development (PARAKH), to set norms and
guide student assessment at all levels.
16 Ministry of Education, Government of India. Early childhood care and education (ECCE): Background note SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 8
Chapter I School Education in India: Introduction
(ix) Vocational Education
The Policy mandates the integration of vocational education from Grade 6 onwards, with opportunities
for internships and practical exposure to local trades and skills.
(x) Use of Technology
The Policy provides for the promotion of digital and online learning through platforms such as Digital
Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing (DIKSHA) and the National Educational Technology Forum (NETF),
to enhance pedagogy, accessibility, and teacher training.
(xi) Infrastructure and Support Systems
The Policy mandates ensuring adequate, inclusive, and safe infrastructure, including barrier-free access for
CwSN, digital enablement of classrooms, and provision of adequate teaching and learning materials.
1.1.9 Conclusion
Over the past five years, NEP 2020 has brought about significant changes to the school education system. The
NIPUN Bharat Mission has been rolled out to achieve foundational literacy and numeracy for all children,
and several States have started implementing school complex and cluster models to support decentralised
planning. Curriculum renewal has moved forward with the release of the National Curriculum Frameworks,
and teachers are receiving continuous professional training through National Initiative for School Heads’
and Teachers’ Holistic Advancement (NISHTHA)
17
and digital platforms such as DIKSHA.
18
The creation of
PARAKH has begun the shift towards competency-based assessments that focus on actual learning. While
progress varies across States, these reforms collectively are shaping a more inclusive and outcome-focused
education system, aimed at ensuring quality learning for every child by 2047.
17 Ministry of Education, Government of India. NISHTHA: National Initiative for School Heads’ and Teachers’ Holistic Advancement.
18 Ministry of Education, Government of India. DIKSHA: Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing. Chapter II
METHODOLOGY
AND STAKEHOLDER
CONSULTATIONS SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 10
This Report draws on multiple sources of evidence, combining data analysis with inputs from the field and
consultations with key stakeholders in school education. The aim was to capture both the quantitative trends
and on-ground experiences that shape implementation. The findings are based on official data, discussions with
central and state agencies, and contributions from institutions and experts working in the sector.
2.1 Analytical Framework and Data Sources
The analysis is based on multiple national datasets that collectively provide a detailed picture of India’s
school education system. The Unified District Information System for Education Plus (UDISE+) provides the
primary statistical base, covering school-level data on enrolment, infrastructure, teachers, and management.
Learning outcomes have been studied using PARAKH and the National Achievement Survey (NAS), while
insights from the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) help situate learning levels within broader social
and household contexts.
The data is reviewed across a ten-year period (2014-15 to 2024-25) to capture temporal changes in
access, equity, and quality. This exercise helped build a coherent view of progress and emerging challenges
across States.
2.2 Analytical Approach
The study follows a mixed-method approach. Quantitative indicators were analysed to understand trends
in enrolment, transition, pupil-teacher ratios, and availability of basic facilities. Alongside, qualitative
insights were drawn from state case studies, official correspondence, and the deliberations held during
the stakeholder consultations.
This combination allowed the Report to interpret data not as isolated figures but as reflections of institutional
realities, how policies translate into classrooms, how schools function within their communities, and how
teachers and students experience change. In many cases, the numerical trends were read alongside narratives
from States to understand why similar interventions produced different outcomes in different contexts.
2.3 Stakeholder Consultations
Consultations were a central component in the preparation of this Report. The National Workshop on
Quality Education, held on 28 February 2025 at the Dr. Ambedkar International Centre, New Delhi,
served as the primary platform for dialogue and collaboration.
19
The workshop was chaired by Dr. V. K.
Paul, Member (Education), NITI Aayog, and attended by Shri Sanjay Kumar, Secretary, Department of School
Education & Literacy (DoSE&L), Government of India.
19 Source : NITI-State Workshop Series Compendium
Chapter II
Methodology and Stakeholder Consultations 11SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Chapter II Methodology and Stakeholder Consultations
It brought together over 150 participants, including the Director, National Council for Education Research
and Technology (NCERT); Chairperson, Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE); Vice-Chancellor,
National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA); Joint Secretary, DoSE&L; and
Principal Secretaries and Secretaries of School Education Departments from more than 15 States and UTs,
as well as Directors, SCERTs. Representatives from international agencies, such as UNESCO, development
partners, and non-governmental organisations, also participated, ensuring a constructive exchange among
policy leaders, administrators, and field practitioners.
Four thematic panels framed the deliberations:
1.
Getting the Basics Right: Focussed on Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE), Foundational
Literacy and Numeracy (FLN), and school infrastructure.
2.
Teachers as Instructional Leaders: Examined professional development, mentorship, and leadership
among teachers.
3.
Nurturing School Leadership: Explored governance reforms, school rationalisation, and community
participation.
4.
Technology for Education: Examined digital learning, AI, and scalable innovations for equity and access.
Each panel drew on the collective experience of government institutions and non-government organisations.
The participation of the State Governments ensured that systemic perspectives were captured, and the
contributions of NGOs and development partners added lessons from practice and innovation.
An additional stakeholder consultation was convened on 2
nd
December 2025, as part of the finalisation
process for this Report. The meeting was convened by Dr I. V. Subba Rao, Distinguished Fellow, NITI Aayog.
Representatives from the NCERT, UNICEF, and the Central Square Foundation (CSF) participated in the
consultation.
2.4 Case Studies and State Inputs
Case studies on good practices by States and UTs were collected through NITI Aayog’s NITI For States
Portal and submissions made by States and UTs.
2.5 Integration of Evidence and Consultation Insights
Quantitative analysis and stakeholder feedback were integrated throughout the drafting process. Patterns
observed in national datasets informed the structure of the consultations, while the insights gathered
during the workshop helped interpret the data more meaningfully. For example, the prevalence of small
and single-teacher schools was discussed alongside States’ rationalisation efforts during the workshop, and
NAS results were analysed in light of classroom-level issues raised by teachers and SCERTs. This iterative
process ensured that the findings are grounded in both numbers and lived realities. It also enabled the
Report to reflect the diversity of India’s education system, where challenges are often shared, but solutions
must remain context-specific. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 12
2.6 Conclusion
The preparation of this Report reflects a collaborative exercise that brings together evidence, experience,
and reflection from across India’s education landscape. The data provide the foundation, but it is the dialogue
with those implementing policy on the ground that gives meaning to the analysis. The insights from the
National Workshop on Quality Education have shaped not only the understanding of key issues but also
the direction of the recommendations that follow. Chapter III
SCHOOL EDUCATION
IN INDIA:
A TEMPORAL
ANALYSIS 24.69 Crore
Students
14.71 Lakh
Schools
7,57,624
Govt Aided
1.01 Crore
Teachers
12,15,89,911
Government
3,39,583
Private
79,349
Govt Aided
9,58,56,710
Private
2,52,911
Others
39,219
Others
47,24,533
Others
39,62,114
Private
2,47,61,526
Govt Aided
51,49,771
Government
10,13,322
Government
TYPESTUDENTS SCHOOLS TEACHERS
Government49.2% 68.1% 50.9%
Government Aided10%5.4%7.5%
Private38.8% 23.1% 39.1%
Others1.9%2.7%2.5% SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 14
3.1 Overview
Over the past several decades, India’s school education system has undergone steady expansion, emerging
as one of the largest in the world with more than 14.71 lakh schools and nearly 24.69 crore students, as per
the UDISE+ Report of 2024-25. This transformation reflects a sustained national commitment to improving
educational access and participation across diverse geographies and population groups.
Figure 3.1: Snapshot of India’s School Education System (2024-25)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
The UDISE+ 2024-25 presents a comprehensive overview of the current status of school education in
India. While the data for 2024-25 serves as a key reference year, a single-year snapshot does not provide
an adequate reflection of the sector’s progress or the persistence of gaps over time. Accordingly, this
chapter presence a decade-long temporal analysis from 2014-15 to 2024-25 to assess trends in enrolment,
retention, and infrastructure across States. It examines key indicators of school education across three
dimensions: access (number of schools, enrolment, and infrastructure), equity (gender, children with special
needs, and SCs/STs), and quality (learning outcomes and teacher availability).
20
The analysis identifies the
major improvements achieved over the past decade and the challenges that persist, along with variations
across States.
20 The three dimensions are the bedrock features of the NEP 2020 policy highlighted in its fundamental principles. Press Information Bureau. (2022, August 1). Salient features of NEP,
2020 [Press release]. Ministry of Education.
Chapter III
School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis 15SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
3.2 Access
Expanding access to schooling has long been a core priority in India’s education policy, with considerable
efforts directed toward expanding the institutional reach of schools across the country. Over time, this
has resulted in the establishment of an extensive network of primary, upper primary, secondary, and higher
secondary schools. These institutions vary in terms of management type, geographic spread, and levels of
schooling offered.
3.2.1 School Distribution and Institutional Landscape
(i) Trends in the Number of Schools (2015-2025) (In Lakhs)
Figure 3.2: Number of Schools over the years (2015-2025)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
Figure 3.2 shows a two-phase trend in the total number of schools over the last decade. Between
2014-15 and 2017-18, the number of schools expanded steadily, increasing from 15.16 lakh to
a peak of 15.58 lakh. This reflected the cumulative impact of earlier policy initiatives aimed at
expanding institutional access and ensuring schooling facilities within reasonable distances for
children, particularly at the primary and upper primary levels.
21
From 2018-19 onwards, however, the trend reversed, with the total number of schools showing a
consistent decline. By 2022-23, the figure had dropped to 14.66 lakh, representing a contraction
of nearly 92,000 institutions compared to the 2017-18 peak. While there was a modest uptick in
2023-24, the overall number remained broadly stable in 2024-25 at 14.71 lakh, significantly lower
than the earlier peak.
This decline is not necessarily indicative of reduced access. Instead, it reflects a consolidation of
schooling infrastructure, particularly through measures such as school rationalisation, merging of
under-enrolled institutions, and efforts to optimise resources under schemes like Samagra Shiksha
with a focus on improving quality, efficiency, and sustainability rather than only increasing the absolute
number of institutions.
22
21 Including the Right to Education Act (2009), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (2009), and other initiatives to promote the inclusion of children with special needs in education.
22 Schemes like PM SHRI under SSA have strengthened the school ecosystem by encouraging healthy competition and improving infrastructure and resources. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 16
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
(ii) Number of Schools by Management Type 
Schools in India are classified into four broad categories based on their management structure, as
defined below. Their distribution is presented in Table 3.1.
¨Government School: A school that is funded and administered by the central or
state government.
¨Government-Aided School: A school managed by a private body but receiving partial
financial support from the government.
¨
Private Unaided School: A school that is privately established, financed, and managed, with
no financial assistance from the government.
¨Others: This category includes madrasas, schools run by religious or charitable institutions,
unrecognised private schools, and alternative education centres.
Table 3.1: Number of Schools by Management Type (In lakhs ) (2014-15 to 2024-25)
Management Type (2014-15)(2024-25)
Government 11.07 (73%)10.13 (68.9%)
Government Aided0.83 (5.5%)0.79 (5.4%)
Private Unaided Recognised2.88 (19%)3.39 (23%)
Others (incl. Madrasas, etc.)0.38 (2.5%)0.39 (2.7%)
Total15.1614.71
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15, 2024-25
Table 3.1 shows that government schools continue to account for more than two-thirds of the
total number of schools in the country. At the same time, their absolute number has declined
from 11.07 lakh in 2014-15 to 10.13 lakh in 2024-25, reflecting the impact of consolidation and
rationalisation measures undertaken by States. In contrast, private unaided schools have recorded
steady growth, indicating the expanding role of the private sector in school education. Government-
aided schools constitute only a small share of the total, while the “Others” category, comprising
madrasas and institutions managed by religious or charitable organisations, remains marginal. 
(iii) Grade Coverage of Schools
Schools in India are also classified based on the range of grades they offer. This classification provides
insights into the structure and continuity of schooling across different educational stages. Table 3.2
presents the category-wise distribution of schools.
¨Primary Only: Schools offering Grades 1to 5.
¨Upper Primary Only: Schools catering to Grades 6 to 8.
¨Primary to Upper Primary:Schools offering continuous education from Grade 1 to 8.
¨Primary to Secondary: Schools providing uninterrupted education up to Grade 10.
¨Upper Primary to Secondary: Schools offering Grades 6 to 8.
¨Secondary Only: Standalone institutions offering only Grades 9 and 10.
¨Primary to Higher Secondary: Schools with complete coverage from primary through
higher (1to12) secondary levels.
¨Upper Primary to Higher Secondary: Schools offering Grades 6 to 12.
¨Secondary to Higher Secondary: Institutions offering Grades 9 to12.
¨Higher Secondary Only: Schools offering only the Grades 11 and 12. 17
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Table 3.2: Grade Coverage of Schools in India (2024-25)
India/State /
UT
Total Primary Upper Primary SecondaryHigher Secondary
(1 to 5) (1-8) (6-8) (1-10)(6-10)(9-10)(1-12)(6-12)(9-12)(11-12)
All India 1,471,4737,30,5183,45,74988,26473,37942,54126,82979,98041,78426,43715,992
Andaman &
Nicobar Islands
408 200 84 0 51 3 0 49 15 6 0
Andhra Pradesh61,317 38,212 7,498 12 5,585 5,946 0 557 780 0 2,727
Arunachal
Pradesh
3,229 1,446 1,234 21 268 67 0 89 66 38 0
Assam 55,283 35,866 5,164 3,952 3,803 1,958 1,308 1,464 882 155 731
Bihar 94,339 39,035 42,613 257 720 151 453 1,325 938 8,460 387
Chandigarh 207 11 26 0 66 0 0 100 3 1 0
Chhattisgarh 56,802 32,380 3,512 13,175 840 39 1,824 2,264 254 2,505 9
DD&DNH 433 167 160 3 26 3 15 21 7 30 1
Delhi 5,556 2,528 773 30 243 83 0 1,329 509 61 0
Goa 1,479 854 67 3 198 228 1 16 2 0 110
Gujarat 53,355 13,371 26,125 692 943 52 3,359 2,443 349 5,301 720
Haryana 23,494 9,569 2,655 2,217 1,783 925 0 3,7822,557 4 2
Himachal
Pradesh
17,330 10,390 647 1,775 814 961 0 714 2,012 10 7
Jammu &
Kashmir
24,192 10,554 9,043 102 2,856 303 26 681 149 474 4
Jharkhand 44,376 23,149 15,857 57 2,368 546 334 884 498 354 329
Karnataka 74,859 22,515 29,773 225 6,936 1,264 8,399 783 192 964 3,808
Kerala 15,757 6,359 3,768 644 1,417 360 157 1,5201,002 474 56
Ladakh 961 366 419 10 88 24 1 16 9 27 1
Lakshadweep 36 15 10 0 0 0 0 3 3 5 0
Madhya
Pradesh
1,22120 60,377 35,840 7,323 5,250 939 2,009 6,8651,4062,145 6
Maharashtra 1,08,250 49,478 28,956 82 11,1205,925 924 7,7511,307 181 2,526
Manipur 4,666 2,454 908 37 865 86 22 180 37 10 67
Meghalaya 14,587 9,083 295 3,253 231 258 1,023 70 67 93 214
Mizoram 3,974 1,442 467 1,089 30 6 689 6 12 6 227
Nagaland 2,750 1,172 763 17 470 108 2 166 51 1 0
Odisha 61,565 28,407 18,601 2,251 3,687 3,265 2,308 432 453 67 2,022
Puducherry 763 299 68 1 153 32 0 144 52 8 6
Punjab 27,281 13,457 1,955 2,629 2,207 1,716 3 3,0402,075 56 143
Rajasthan 1,06,302 36,778 33,784 215 6,955 59 7 27,889 491 122 2
Sikkim 1,245 658 313 0 142 3 0 117 12 0 0
Tamil Nadu 57,935 34,289 9,168 77 1,759
3,733 6 4,4474,392 49 15
Telangana 43,154 20,521 7,705 7 6,401 5,222 0 974 506 0 1,818
Tripura 4,943 2,453 1,260 1 660 5 0 509 55 0 0
Uttar Pradesh2,62,3581,35,658 52,054 38,189 3,629 4,650 3,659 7,61012,1644,729 16
Uttarakhand 22,452 12,673 2,701 2,914 322 832 288 883 1,741 140 18
West Bengal 93,715 74,332 1,483 7,004 493 2,789 0 857 6,736 1 20
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 18
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
As shown in Table 3.2, 50% of India’s schools offer only primary education (Grades 1-5), suggesting
a strong foundational presence. However, there is a significant decline in the number of schools
offering education beyond the primary level. Only 5.4% of schools provide continuous schooling
from Grade 1 to 12. This fragmented progression structure compels students to change institutions
multiple times, which contributes to transition inefficiencies and increases the risk of dropout.
Rajasthan accounts for the largest share of integrated schools covering Grades 1 to 12, with 27,889
institutions representing nearly 35% of the country’s total and reflects sustained progress toward
vertical integration in school education. In contrast, States with large overall school networks show
substantial gaps at higher levels. West Bengal has only 0.91% (857) of its 93,715 schools integrated;
Bihar records 1.40% (1,325) out of 94,339 schools; and Uttar Pradesh, despite having the largest
school system in the country with 2,62,358 schools, provides integrated Grades 1-12 in just 2.90%
(7,610) of institutions. These disparities illustrate persistent structural challenges in ensuring access
and progression beyond the primary stage.
3.2.2 Enrolment 
Enrolment trends provide a lens to assess the reach, equity, and effectiveness of the school education
system and reveal deeper insights into parental preferences, institutional access, and inclusion
outcomes. These patterns also highlight systemic imbalances and inform planning for targeted
interventions under NEP 2020 and Samagra Shiksha.
Summary of Insights
1. System transition from expansion to consolidation
The recent moderation in overall enrolment reflects demographic stabilisation and marks a transition
from an expansion-driven schooling model to one requiring consolidation and optimisation. Secondary
education as the critical participation gap
While elementary participation remains robust, enrolment ratios decline substantially at secondary
and higher secondary levels. The principal systemic challenge is therefore concentrated in ensuring
sustained participation beyond Grade 8, particularly during early adolescence.
2. Rising attrition at the secondary stage signals structural barriers
The sharp increase in dropout rates at the secondary level indicates that retention gains achieved at
the primary stage are not fully translating into completion outcomes. This suggests the presence of
academic, economic, or access-related barriers that intensify at higher grades.
3. Transition from upper primary to secondary represents a key risk point
Evidence from transition patterns highlights weakening progression into secondary education. This
stage constitutes a decisive inflection point where targeted academic support, financial assistance, and
institutional preparedness become critical to sustaining enrolment.
4. Institutional fragmentation may influence continuity
The limited presence of fully integrated schools offering a continuous Grades 1-12 pathway suggests
that students often navigate multiple institutional transitions. Such structural discontinuity may be
contributing to enrolment attrition at higher stages and warrants greater alignment with integrated
school complex models.
Collectively, the enrolment evidence indicates that India’s schooling challenge has evolved from ensuring
access to sustaining participation through the full secondary cycle, with particular emphasis on strengthening
continuity, retention, and system responsiveness at higher grades 19
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
(i) Trends in Enrolment (2014-15 to 2024-25)
As shown in Table 3.3, overall school enrolment remained stable at around 26 crore for much of
the past decade but has declined to 24.69 crore by 2024-25. This reduction is partly attributable
to demographic shifts, particularly falling fertility rates leading to a smaller school-age population,
alongside the effects of school consolidation and challenges in retention at higher levels of education.
Table 3.3: Enrolment over the years
YearEnrolment (In crores)
2014-201526.95
2015-201627.10
2016-201726.13
2017-201826.16
2018-201926.02
2019-202026.45
2020-202126.44
2021-202226.52
2022-202325.17
2023-202424.80
2024-202524.69
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
(ii) Enrolment by School Management Type
The distribution of enrolment across different management types reflects not only patterns of
access but also household choices and broader education provisions. These choices are shaped by
perceptions of quality, affordability, and trust in governance.
2014-15
Figure 3.3: Management-wise enrolment in India
As shown in Figure 3.3, government schools continue to serve as the primary providers of education,
though their share has declined over the decade, from 54.3% in 2014-15 to 49.25% in 2024-25.
Government-aided schools account for about one-tenth of total enrolment, registering a slight
reduction in their share during the same period. In contrast, private unaided institutions, while fewer
in number, have expanded their enrolment share considerably from 31.7% in 2014-15 to 38.8%
in 2024-25. This reflects rising household demand for private schooling. The “Others” category,
including Madrasas, unrecognised institutions, and alternative schools, continues to serve a small
proportion of students, with their share declining marginally from 2.4% to 1.9%. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 20
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis(iii) Level-Wise Enrolment
An analysis of level-wise enrolment reveals a consistent decline in the number of students at
successive stages of schooling, as shown in Figure 3.4. In 2014-15, primary education (Grades 1-5)
accounted for nearly half of total enrolment, while by 2024-25 this share had fallen to 42.3%. Upper
SULPDU\DQGVHFRQGDU\OHYHOVKDYHPDLQWDLQHGDUHODWLYHO\VWDEOHVKDUHWKRXJKZLWKRXWUH?HFWLQJ
the expected growth that should have occurred as earlier cohorts progressed.
Under normal progression, the large enrolment recorded at the primary and upper primary stages
LQVKRXOGKDYHEHHQUH?HFWHGLQVLJQL?FDQWO\KLJKHUSDUWLFLSDWLRQDWWKHVHFRQGDU\DQG
higher secondary levels by 2024-25. However, this has not materialised, as attrition across the school
cycle has reduced the pool of students transitioning to higher grades. The share of enrolment at the
higher secondary stage has increased from 8.7% in 2014-15 to 11.2% in 2024-25, suggesting some
improvement in transitions, yet only a small fraction of the initial cohort continues to this stage.
Figure 3.4: Level-wise enrolment in India
(iv) Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) Trends
GER measures the total enrolment in a particular level of education, regardless of age, expressed as
DSHUFHQWDJHRIWKHRI?FLDODJHJURXSSRSXODWLRQIRUWKDWOHYHO:KLOH,QGLDKDVGHPRQVWUDWHGVWURQJ
SHUIRUPDQFHLQDFKLHYLQJQHDUXQLYHUVDODFFHVVDWWKHSULPDU\OHYHO*(5?JXUHVUHYHDOWKDWWKHUH
is a steady decline across higher levels of schooling, signaling persistent gaps in school continuity,
retention, and progression.
Figure 3.5: Gross Enrolment Ratio Across School Levels
6RXUFH8',6(
Figure 3.5 highlights the steep attrition of students as they move through successive stages of
schooling. At the primary stage, enrolment stands at 90.9% and remains nearly unchanged at the
upper primary stage (90.3%), suggesting near-universal participation at the elementary level. However, 21
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
participation drops considerably thereafter: enrolment falls to 78.7% at the secondary level and
further to 58.4% at the higher secondary stage. This indicates that nearly four out of every ten
children who enter the school system are unable to continue through to higher secondary education.
Note 1: In specific cases, GER may exceed 100% and even reach unusually high levels. This occurs
when enrolment counts include over-age or under-age students, repeaters, adult learners, and in-
migrants, while the denominator is based on projected age-group populations. Small population
groups, such as Scheduled Tribes, are particularly sensitive to such distortions, as even minor
enrolment shifts or projection errors can inflate ratios. These challenges are further compounded
by reliance on assumptions about fertility and mortality trends, and unaccounted migration flows,
based on 2011 Census data.
Note 2: The analysis in this Report is based on UDISE+ data. As clarified by the Ministry of Education
in UDISE+ 2022-23, data from 2023 onwards is not strictly comparable with earlier years. This
is because it represents the first national-level exercise using a student-wise database, unlike the
school-level consolidated data used until 2021-22. With the introduction of unique student IDs,
duplication has been reduced, beneficiary targeting improved, and monitoring of attendance, outcomes,
and progression strengthened. This methodological shift partly explains the decline observed in
enrolment and related indicators after 2022-23, as earlier overestimations were corrected. Fully
aligned with NEP 2020, UDISE+ 2022-23 onwards offers a more realistic and accurate picture of
the education system.
Note 3: The 2014-15 data used in this Report corresponds to the period immediately following
the creation of Telangana in June 2014. During this transition, state-level education statistics were
undergoing adjustments, and some anomalies are visible in the datasets for Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh. These arise primarily from the redistribution of institutions, students, and teachers between
the two States, as well as from the realignment of administrative and statistical reporting systems.
As a result, caution is required in interpreting the 2014-15 baseline figures for these two States,
since they may not fully reflect the settled distribution of enrolments and infrastructure.
Note 4: A discrepancy has been observed between the figures presented in the UDISE 2020-21
Report and those available on the UDISE+ portal. For the purpose of ensuring data consistency,
the figures cited in this Report are based on the UDISE 2020-21 Report.
A. Primary
Figure 3.6: Decadal Overview: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
GER at the primary level, as seen in Figure 3.6 has shown a steady decline over the past decade. It
remained above 100% between 2014-15 and 2021-22, peaking at 106.9% in 2015-16, largely due to
the inclusion of over-age and under-age students. From 2022-23 onward, however, GER fell below
100%, reaching 90.9% in 2024-25. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 22
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
The continued near-universal GER at the primary stage has been enabled by the Right to Education
(RTE) Act, which guarantees free and compulsory education for all children in the 6-14 age group.
However, the vision envisaged under RTE remains incomplete, with nearly one in ten children still
outside formal schooling at this stage.
Map 3.1: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
Map 3.2: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25 23
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
In 2024-25, primary GER is highest in Meghalaya (180.7%), Manipur (140.5%), Mizoram (138.0%),
Tripura (117.9%), Goa (117.8%), Telangana (114%), Jammu & Kashmir(113.7%), Arunachal Pradesh
(113.2%) and Uttarakhand (109.9%). The lowest ratios are recorded in Madhya Pradesh (76.3%),
Bihar (77.2%), Gujarat (79.6%), Uttar Pradesh (83.1%), Andaman & Nicobar Islands (85.1%), and
Rajasthan (88.3%).
Over the past decade, the strongest relative gains were seen in Lakshadweep (76.57% → 101.6%),
Jammu & Kashmir (87.22%→113.7%,), Meghalaya (141.69% → 180.7%,), Dadra & Nagar Haveli and
Daman & Diu (91.23%, 94.15 → 108.7%,). The steepest relative declines were in Madhya Pradesh
(109.31% → 76.3%, - 30.2%), Bihar (108.26% → 77.2%, - 28.7%), Uttar Pradesh (112.09%→83.1%,
-25.9%), Delhi (123.89% → 101.8%, -22.09%), and Gujarat (100.21% → 79.6%, -20.6%).
These trends highlight stark regional contrasts in primary GER, with certain northeastern States
recording enrolments far above the age-specific cohort, while large States like Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh have witnessed steep declines. Sustained attention is required to address
under-enrolment in lagging States while consolidating the gains achieved in high-performing regions.
B. Upper-Primary
Figure 3.7: Decadal Overview: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Upper-Primary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
As indicated in Figure 3.7, the situation at the upper primary level has remained relatively stable over
the past decade, showing less volatility than at the primary stage. In 2014-15, GER stood just above
88 and hovered close to this level until 2019-20. A notable improvement was recorded in 2020-21
and 2021-22, when enrolment rose, before moderating again in subsequent years. By 2024-25, GER
stood at 90.3, broadly consistent with levels observed through the decade. This stability suggests
that participation at the upper primary level has been sustained, though the figures indicate that
not all children completing primary education are transitioning further. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 24
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Map 3.3: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Upper Primary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
Map 3.4: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Upper Primary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25 25
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.4 highlights Enrolment is highest in Chandigarh (120.3%), Delhi (117.1%), Goa (116.2%),
Meghalaya (115.6%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu (111.8%), and Telangana (111.6%). At the
lower end, Bihar (68.9%), Nagaland (71%), Sikkim (75.8%), Jammu & Kashmir (77.3%), Lakshadweep
(81.1%) and Madhya Pradesh (81.8%) emerge as the weakest performers in 2024-25.
Maps 3.3 and 3.4 highlight that, during the last decade, the largest relative increases occurred in
Telangana (87.92% → 111.6%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu (100.26,89.68% → 111.8%),
Andhra Pradesh (81.36% → 101.0%), Meghalaya (98.59% → 115.6%), and Uttarakhand (90% → 103.9%).
The steepest relative declines were in Sikkim (113.55% → 75.8%), Madhya Pradesh (98.24% → 81.8%),
Bihar (82.03% → 68.9%), Arunachal Pradesh (99.12% → 86.9%), and Nagaland (78.92% → 71.0%).
While enrolment at the upper primary level has expanded in several regions, sharp declines in
others point to uneven progress. The mixed trajectory over the past decade points towards the
need for consistent efforts to sustain gains, prevent reversals, and secure balanced participation
across the country.
C. Secondary
Figure 3.8: Decadal Overview: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Secondary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
At the secondary stage, according to Figure 3.8, GER has shown only marginal improvement, rising
from 75.68% in 2014-15 to 78.7% in 2024-25. The trend has remained largely unchanged, with only
minor fluctuations.
Unlike the primary and upper primary stages, the secondary level is not covered under the RTE
Act, which guarantees free and compulsory education only up to age 14. As a result, the financial
burden of continuing beyond Grade 8: tuition, uniforms, books, and transport falls on households,
often leading to withdrawal of children, particularly from low-income and marginalised families. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 26
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Map 3.5: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Secondary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
Map 3.6: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Secondary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25 27
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.6 reveals disparities across States in secondary-level enrolment. At the upper end, GER
exceeds 100% in Chandigarh (110.1%), Goa (107.5%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu
(104.9%), Himachal Pradesh (102.6%), Karnataka (101.3%), and Delhi (101.1%). States nearing
universal levels include Telangana (99.9%), West Bengal (99.4%), and Kerala (98.7%). At the lower
end, Bihar (51.1%), Nagaland (61.8%), Uttar Pradesh (64.3%), Jammu & Kashmir (66.1%), Madhya
Pradesh (68.2%), and Arunachal Pradesh (69.3%), emerge as weak performers in 2024-25, with GER
levels slipping further below the national average.
As highlighted in the Maps 3.5 and 3.6, the past decade witnessed significant relative improvements
in West Bengal (75.26% → 99.4%), Telangana (76.7% → 99.9%), Karnataka (78.84% → 101.3%),
Andhra Pradesh (71.09% → 89.4%), and Meghalaya (70.62% → 86.2%). The steepest relative declines
were in Lakshadweep (115.76% → 79.5%), Sikkim (95.88% → 72.0%), Tripura (105.81% → 80.2%),
Chhattisgarh (90.32% → 77.5%), and Bihar (59.22% → 51.1%).
The decadal movement highlights that secondary education remains the most fragile link in the
schooling cycle, where economic constraints, social factors, and weak institutional support converge
to limit participation.
D. Higher Secondary
Figure 3.9: Decadal Overview: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Higher Secondary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
GER at the higher secondary level has shown a gradual but steady improvement over the past decade,
as evident in Figure 3.9. Starting from a low base of 46.37 in 2014-15, enrolment rose incrementally,
crossing 50 by 2018-19 and reaching 58.4 in 2024-25.
Despite these improvements, participation at the higher secondary stage continues to lag behind
other levels of schooling, with enrolment covering only a little over half of the eligible age group.
This persistent gap indicates that while access to primary and upper primary education has been
consolidated, ensuring smooth transition and retention through the secondary cycle remains a
critical challenge. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 28
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Map 3.7: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
Note: For Odisha, the GER values represented in the heatmap have been sourced from UDISE 2015-16 data. This adjustment has been
made in view of identified anomalies in the corresponding dataset, to ensure consistency and reliability of the analysis.
Map 3.8: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25 29
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
State-level data, as illustrated in Map 3.8, shows that higher secondary GER is highest in Chandigarh
(107.4%), followed by Puducherry (95.5%), Goa (93.8%), Kerala (89.5%), Andaman & Nicobar Islands
(85.8%), Himachal Pradesh (84.7%), Tamil Nadu (83.4%), Delhi (82.7%), and Uttarakhand (80.9%).
In contrast, the lowest levels are observed in Bihar (38.1%), Meghalaya (39.7%), Nagaland (39.8%),
Assam (43.5%), Arunachal Pradesh (43.7%), Jammu & Kashmir (44.8%), Madhya Pradesh (45.0%),
Gujarat (47.3%), Jharkhand (48.6%), and Sikkim (49.6%).
As per the Maps 3.7 and 3.8, the largest relative improvement in enrolment during the past decade
was observed in Karnataka (29.68% → 61.4%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu (38.21,
38.07% → 68.4%), Bihar (22.38% → 38.1%), and Assam (28.55% → 43.5%). The steepest relative
declines were in Lakshadweep (75.75% → 51.1%), Arunachal Pradesh (54.67% → 43.7%), Sikkim
(58.43% → 49.6%), Jammu & Kashmir (48.58% → 44.8%), and Himachal Pradesh (86.37% → 84.7%).
Overall, most States have advanced over the past decade, but the momentum has been uneven.
States that began from very low levels have registered some of the steepest gains, yet continue to
remain at the lower end, while those with stronger baselines have built further on their advantage
and are now close to universal coverage.
3.2.3 Retention and Continuity
Enrolment numbers show how many children enter the school system, but transition and dropout
trends reveal how many are able to stay and progress through each stage.
(i) Transition Rate
The transition rates indicate the proportion of students who progress from one educational level
to the other. Table 3.4 shows the transition rates across key educational stages in India for the
year 2024-25.
Table 3.4: Transition Rates in India (2024-25)
TransitionBoys Girls Total
Primary → Upper Primary (Grades 5→6)91.5% 93.0% 92.2%
Upper Primary → Secondary ( Grades 8→9)85.9% 87.3% 86.6%
Secondary → Higher Secondary (Grades 10→11)72.4% 77.9% 75.11%
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
There is a consistent decline in transition rates as students advance through successive stages of
schooling. While 88.8% of students’ progress from primary to upper primary, the rate drops to
83.3% at the secondary level, and further to 71.5% at the higher secondary level, indicating increased
attrition in later years. Notably, girls have higher transition rates than boys at both the primary to
upper primary (89.2%) and secondary to higher secondary (73.9%) stages. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 30
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
A. Primary to Upper Primary
Figure 3.10: Decadal Overview: Transition Rate: Primary to Upper-Primary
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The transition rate from primary to upper primary level, as shown in Figure 3.10, has improved
from 89.74% in 2014-15 to 92.2% in 2024-25, reflecting steady progress over the decade. This
indicates that most children completing primary are now able to move into upper primary, though
gaps remain in certain States.
Map 3.9: Transition Rate - Primary Level to Upper Primary Level across States/UTs (2014-15)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 31
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.10: Transition Rate - Primary Level to Upper Primary Level across States/UTs (2024-25)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.10 shows that the transition from primary to upper primary has reached universal levels in
Daman & Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Puducherry, Chandigarh, Telangana, and Goa. Near-universal
levels are observed in Himachal Pradesh (99.5%), Maharashtra (99.5%), Kerala (99.3%), Haryana
(99.0%), West Bengal (98.9%), Andaman & Nicobar Islands (98.7%), Karnataka (97.9%), Delhi (97.7%),
Uttarakhand (97.3%), Lakshadweep (97.0%), Tamil Nadu (96.7%), Odisha (96.6%), Chhattisgarh
(96.6%), Punjab (96.4%), and Gujarat (95.3%).
As can be seen in Maps 3.9 & 3.10, between 2014 and 2024, the sharpest increases were recorded
in Andhra Pradesh (51.98% → 94.5%), Nagaland (78.69% → 91.5%), Uttar Pradesh (78.46% →
91.0%), Jharkhand (82.75% → 89.6%), Madhya Pradesh (85.83% → 91.9%), Rajasthan (88.23% →
93.8%). Whereas, the steepest declines were observed in Meghalaya (94.51% → 75.5%), Bihar
(82.55% → 71.8%), Arunachal Pradesh (98.54% → 90.4%), Mizoram (94.27% → 91.1%), and Sikkim
(92.34% → 89.6%).
While transition from primary to upper primary has reached or approached universal levels in
many States, progress is uneven. Sustained policy focus is needed to secure progression across all
States and prevent widening disparities. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 32
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
B. Upper Primary to Secondary
Figure 3.11: Decadal Overview: Transition Rate: Upper-Primary to Secondary
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The transition rate from upper primary to secondary has declined from 91.58% in 2014-15 to
86.6% in 2024-25, as depicted in Figure 3.11, indicating a weakening in progression at this stage.
The national average, which had remained around 90-92% for most of the decade, fell steadily after
2020-21, indicating growing challenges in retaining children beyond Grade 8. This pattern is also
reflected in the stagnant GER at the secondary level, where only modest improvements have been
recorded over the same period.
Map 3.11: Transition Rate - Upper Primary to Secondary Level across States/UTs (2014-15)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 33
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.12: Transition Rate - Upper Primary Level to Secondary Level across States/UTs (2024-25)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.12 reveals that the transition from upper primary to secondary has reached the highest
levels in Puducherry (99.6%) and Kerala (99.6%), followed by Lakshadweep (99.0%) and Chandigarh
(99.0%). Telangana (98.9%), Maharashtra (98.4%), Himachal Pradesh (98.0%), and Goa (98.0%) are
also at near-universal levels, while Andaman & Nicobar Islands (97.1%), Karnataka (96.7%), and Tamil
Nadu (96.6%) remain close behind. By contrast, transition rates are comparatively low in Meghalaya
(65.0%), Bihar (66.7%), Mizoram (77.8%), Madhya Pradesh (77.8%), Uttar Pradesh (78.1%), Jharkhand
(81.3%), Arunachal Pradesh (83.3%), and Nagaland (83.8%).
Between 2014 and 2024, transition from upper primary to secondary rose sharply in several States,
including Andhra Pradesh (52.7% → 94.2%), Tamil Nadu (89.46% → 96.6%), Nagaland (78.31% →
83.8%), Manipur (86.21% → 90.9%), Assam (83.82% → 87.3%), Jammu & Kashmir (88.2% → 90.7%),
Karnataka (94.25% → 96.7%), Jharkhand (79.86% → 81.3%), and Lakshadweep (97.66% → 99.0%).
Whereas Bihar (90.8% → 66.7%), Meghalaya (82.08% → 65.0%), Mizoram (93.95% → 77.8%), Uttar
Pradesh (93.82% → 78.1%), Tripura (99.23% → 88.9%), Delhi (95.36% → 86.9%), Sikkim (95.88%
→ 87.7%), and Arunachal Pradesh (89.67% → 83.3%) registered declines over the same period.
Overall, the transition from upper primary to secondary has improved nationally, with several
States reaching or approaching universal levels. These disparities highlight the need for targeted
interventions to ensure that gains in access translate into consistent advancement across all regions. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 34
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
C. Secondary to Higher-Secondary
Figure 3.12: Decadal Overview: Transition Rate: Secondary to Higher Secondary
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The transition rate from secondary to higher secondary rose from 67.7% in 2014-15 to 75.1%
in 2024-25, as Figure 3.12 highlights. The decade was marked by fluctuations, with the rate falling
to 61.73% in 2016-17, recovering gradually, and peaking at 78.4% in 2021-22, before declining to
71.3% in 2022-23, a decline that may in part reflect improved data accuracy under UDISE+ with
the introduction of student-wise records.
23
This stage remains a critical point of attrition in the
school cycle. Although the GER at higher secondary improved from 46.4% to 58.4% over the same
period, the expansion has been tempered by a weak transition from Grade 10.
Map 3.13: Transition Rate - Secondary to Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs (2014-15)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
23 Aligned with NEP 2020, Unique and individual student records provide a more accurate picture of enrolment and transition rates, highlighting differences from previous years and thereby
correcting data inaccuracies. Source - UDISE+ 35
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.14: Transition Rate - Secondary Level to Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs (2024-25)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.14 shows that in 2024-25, the transition from secondary to higher secondary has reached
100% in Delhi and Chandigarh. High transition levels are also observed in Andaman & Nicobar Islands
(92.5%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu (91.4%), and Lakshadweep (91.3%). Goa (90.9%),
Punjab (90.7%), Kerala (90.2%), and Puducherry (90.1%) follow closely, while Uttarakhand (89.9%)
and Rajasthan (88.2%) report slightly lower though still high coverage. However, transition
rates remain lowest in Meghalaya (47.8%), followed by West Bengal (57.4%), Mizoram (58.5%),
Arunachal Pradesh (60.7%), Assam (61.4%), Ladakh (61.6%), Karnataka (62.5%), Bihar (65.8%),
and Madhya Pradesh (68.9%).
Maps 3.13 and 3.14 indicate that between 2014 and 2024, the most notable improvements in
transition from secondary to higher secondary were observed in Odisha (2.25% → 71.9%), Dadra
& Nagar Haveli (45.6% → 91.4%), Andhra Pradesh (40.79% → 76.0%), Tripura (49.5% → 83.5%), Bihar
(44.35% → 65.8%), Daman & Diu (64.77% → 91.4%), Rajasthan (64.44% → 88.2%), and Karnataka
(45.72% → 62.5%). The steepest declines were recorded in Arunachal Pradesh (81.8% → 60.7%),
Jammu & Kashmir (93.38% → 72.9%), West Bengal (75.35% → 57.4%), Sikkim (89.88% → 80.1%),
Meghalaya (54.41% → 47.8%), and Goa (97.54% → 90.9%).
Despite notable improvements, persistent challenges remain in ensuring retention through the
higher secondary stage. As participation beyond Grade 10 lies outside the mandate of the RTE
Act, financial constraints, early entry into the workforce, and social pressures continue to impede
progression, underscoring the need for sustained policy and institutional support. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 36
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
(ii) Dropout Patterns
The dropout rate refers to the percentage of students who discontinue education at a particular
stage during an academic year. Lower rates reflect improved retention and sustained participation
across schooling levels.
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Figure 3.13: Dropout Rates across School Levels in India (2024-25)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Figure 3.13 shows that at the primary level, dropout remains low at 0.3%, indicating strong retention
during the foundational years. This figure climbs to 3.5% at the upper primary stage, where more
students begin to leave the system. The issue becomes more acute at the secondary level, where
the dropout rate rises sharply to 11.5%, highlighting significant barriers to completion at higher
stages of schooling.
A. Primary
Figure 3.14: Decadal Overview: Dropout Rate: Primary
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The dropout rate at the primary level, as depicted in Figure 3.14, has demonstrated a pronounced
improvement over the last decade. The national average declined from 4.34% in 2014-15 to just
0.3% in 2024-25, reflecting significant progress in retaining children in school. While there were
fluctuations in the trend, including a peak at 6.35% in 2016-17 and a sharp rise to 7.8% in 2022-23,
the most recent years indicate a steep fall, bringing dropout levels close to zero in most parts of
the country. 37
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.15: Dropout Rates at Primary Level across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
Map 3.16: Dropout Rates at Primary Level across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 38
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
As shown in Map 3.16, for primary education, 22 States and UTs report zero or near-zero dropout
rates, reflecting near-universal retention at this stage. However, some States continue to face
challenges, with Mizoram (10.8%) reporting the highest incidence, followed by Arunachal Pradesh
(4.8%), Meghalaya (4.2%), Assam (3.8%), Rajasthan (3.6%), Bihar (2.9%), Manipur (2.9%), Nagaland
(2.8%), Tamil Nadu (2.7%), Ladakh (2.6%), and Punjab (2.5%).
Maps 3.15 & 3.16 show that primary dropout rates have fallen dramatically in many States over
the decade. Nagaland (19.41% → 2.8%), Manipur (18% → 2.9%) and Rajasthan (8.4% → 3.6%) saw
remarkable progress. Other States, such as Odisha (2.93% → 0.7%), Uttarakhand (3.07% → 0.9%),
and Sikkim (4.57% → 1.5%), brought rates down to very low levels. Large States including Uttar
Pradesh (7.09% → 0.0%), Madhya Pradesh (10.14% → 0.0%), and Jharkhand (6.41% → 0.0%) eliminated
primary dropouts altogether, highlighting sustained gains in universal retention.
B. Upper Primary
Figure 3.15: Decadal Overview: Dropout Rate: Upper Primar
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The dropout rate at the upper primary level has fluctuated over the past decade, as illustrated in
Figure 3.15. It rose from 3.77% in 2014-15 to a peak of 5.68% in 2016-17, before gradually declining
to 1.9% in 2020-21. The rate then increased again to 8.1% in 2022-23, before falling steadily to
3.5% in 2024-25, bringing it close to the 2014-15 level but highlighting the persistent volatility in
retention at this stage. 39
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.17: Dropout Rates at Upper Primary Level across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
Map 3.18: Dropout Rates at Upper Primary Level across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 40
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
State-level data shown in Map 3.18 reveal at the upper primary stage, dropout patterns reveal
marked variation across States. Out of 36 States and UTs, 20 record rates below 3%, with nine
reporting close to zero incidence. The highest dropout levels are observed in Mizoram (11.6%),
Bihar (9.3%), and Meghalaya (7.8%), followed by Madhya Pradesh (6.3%), Gujarat (5.8%), Arunachal
Pradesh (5.1%), and Assam (5.0%). Moderate rates are seen in Nagaland (4.7%), Ladakh (4.5%),
Andhra Pradesh (3.7%), Rajasthan (3.6%), and Chhattisgarh (3.4%), while several others remain at
minimal levels, underscoring uneven progress in ensuring retention.
As can be seen from Maps 3.17 and 3.18, several States have registered sharp reductions in upper
primary dropouts, with declines most pronounced in Manipur (7.02% → 0.6%), Jharkhand (7.42%
→ 1.7%), Nagaland (17.85% → 4.7%), and Sikkim (5.14% → 2.7%). Notable progress is also evident
in Madhya Pradesh (11.7% → 6.3%) and Rajasthan (6.04% → 3.6%), alongside steady reductions
across Tamil Nadu (4.52% → 2.8%). Uttar Pradesh (0.52% → 3.0%) and Bihar (2.98% → 9.3%)
show the steepest rises. Smaller yet notable reversals are visible in Lakshadweep (1.86% → 2.3%),
Tripura (2.72% → 3.2%), and Odisha (2.8% → 3.2%) and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (0.52% → 1.1%)
Meghalaya too registered a rise (6.84% → 7.8%) in dropout rates at this stage.
It is observed that attrition often begins to set in at the upper-primary level, where transition
pressures, household responsibilities, and limited school continuity contribute to early exits from
the education system.
C. Secondary

Figure 3.16: Decadal Overview: Dropout Rate: Secondary
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The trend in dropout rates at the secondary stage shows a clear though uneven improvement over
the decade, as evident in Figure 3.16. After peaking midway, rates have gradually declined, with the
national average reducing to 11.5% in 2024-25. This reflects significant progress in retaining students
through the secondary cycle. However, secondary education continues to record the highest
dropout rate among all stages of schooling. Despite recent gains, one in ten students still leaves
the system at this level. The persistence of relatively high attrition underscores the vulnerability of
this stage, where economic pressures, early entry into the labour market, and weak institutional
support converge to limit participation. 41
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.19: Dropout Rates at Secondary Level across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
Map 3.20: Dropout Rates at Secondary Level across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 42
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
As evident from Map 3.20, secondary dropout rates in 2024-25 present a deeply concerning
picture. While Chandigarh (2.0%), Jharkhand (3.5%), Lakshadweep (4.1%), Uttarakhand (4.6%) and
Kerala (4.8%) have managed to contain attrition, most States reflect far higher levels. It is highest in
West Bengal (20.0%), Arunachal Pradesh (18.3%), Karnataka (18.3%), and Assam (17.5%). Mizoram
(17.4%), Meghalaya (17.4%), Gujarat (16.9%), Madhya Pradesh (16.8%), and Ladakh (16.2%) also
report concerning levels, alongside Andhra Pradesh (15.5%), Chhattisgarh (15.3%), and Odisha
(15.0%). High rates are further observed in Telangana (13.2%), Jammu & Kashmir (12.9%), Dadra &
Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu (12.5% each), and Nagaland (12.1%). Maharashtra (11.5%), Sikkim
(11.4%), and Tripura (11.3%) mark the lower end of this high-burden group.
Maps 3.19 and 3.20 reveal strong progress in States such as Andhra Pradesh (52.8% → 15.5%) and
Odisha (49.5% → 15.0%). Significant reductions are also evident in Nagaland (35.1% → 12.1%) and
Jharkhand (23.2% → 3.5%). Bihar (25.3% → 6.9%) and Rajasthan (18.8% → 7.7%) likewise report
marked declines, while Kerala demonstrates a more modest but steady improvement (14.5% →
4.8%). These trends highlight meaningful progress, yet secondary dropout remains elevated in most of
the States, indicating that while gains have been achieved, there is still considerable ground to cover.
3.2.4 Infrastructure and Basic Resources
The quality and equity of school education are closely tied to the availability of essential infrastructure.
Adequate classrooms, electricity, safe drinking water, functional toilets, ICT facilities, and internet
access form the foundation of a secure and supportive learning environment. NEP 2020 places
strong emphasis on improving school infrastructure to strengthen foundational learning, enable
blended modes of instruction, and expand access across all regions.
Summary of Insights
1. The infrastructure agenda is transitioning from expansion to saturation
Foundational facilities such as electricity and sanitation have reached high levels of coverage across most
States. The remaining gaps are concentrated in specific geographies, indicating that the policy challenge is
now centred on last-mile delivery rather than broad-based expansion.
2. Gender-responsive infrastructure has strengthened, but localised deficits persist
The widespread provision of girls’ sanitation facilities reflects sustained policy attention to gender equity.
However, residual gaps in certain regions continue to have implications for adolescent attendance, dignity,
and retention at upper primary and second-ary levels.
3. Digital access has expanded rapidly but remains structurally uneven
The growth in access to computers and internet connectivity signals an accelerated push towards digital
enablement.
4. Advanced digital integration is at an early stage of systemic adoption
Although smart classroom adoption has increased, it has yet to achieve broad institutionalisation across
the country.
5. Inter-State variation constitutes the principal equity challenge in infrastructure provision
Improvements at the national level coexist with significant regional divergence across infrastructure and
digital indicators. Addressing these will require geographically differentiated strategies rather than uniform
provisioning approaches.
6. Effective utilisation should now complement physical provisioning
As baseline coverage strengthens, policy emphasis must increasingly shift towards ensuring meaningful
usage of infrastructure, particularly digital assets through teacher capacity building, system integration,
and robust monitoring frameworks.
Collectively, the infrastructure and digital readiness trends indicate substantial systemic progress, accompanied
by persistent equity and functionality challenges that warrant sustained, targeted policy attention. 43
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
A. Functional Electricity in Schools
Figure 3.17: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools with Functional Electricity
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
Electricity is a foundational enabler of school functionality. It powers classroom lighting and ventilation,
allows for the use of teaching aids and digital tools, and is vital for ensuring continuity during
extreme weather.
As shown in Figure 3.17, the share of schools with electricity has improved consistently over the
last decade. It rose from just 55.96% in 2014-15 to 91.9% in 2024-25. This trajectory highlights
significant infrastructure improvement, though the fact that nearly 7% of schools remain unelectrified
underlines the need for full saturation, especially to support digital and technology-enabled learning.
Map 3.21: Availability of functional electricity across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 44
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Map 3.22: Availability of functional electricity across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.22 shows that by 2024-25, electricity coverage in schools is complete in Haryana, Goa, Delhi,
Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, and Puducherry. 15 other States
have also achieved near-universal provision. At the other end of the spectrum, the lowest current
levels are observed in Meghalaya (28.1%), Arunachal Pradesh (62.3%), Manipur (63.3%), Nagaland
(78.2%), Ladakh (76.4%), and Jammu & Kashmir (87.2%).
Over the past decade, the sharpest gains were recorded in Jharkhand (14.7% → 92.7%), Bihar (23.6%
→ 97.1%), Odisha (28% → 96.9%), Assam (20.1% → 88.8%), Jammu and Kashmir (25.1% → 87.2%),
and Madhya Pradesh (26.3% → 87.8%). Coverage remained largely unchanged in Punjab (99.9%
→ 99.9%), Maharashtra (87.1% → 88.9%), Karnataka (96.5% → 98.3%), Goa (98.5% →100%), and
Gujarat (99.7% → 99.9%), where saturation had already been reached earlier.
The overall trend highlights sustained policy push, investment in school infrastructure, and greater
convergence with rural electrification schemes.
24
Yet, bridging the last-mile gaps in challenging
geographies remains critical to achieving true universality.
24 Schemes like DDUGJY, Saubhagya, PIB report 45
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
B. Functional Boys’ Toilet Facilities
Figure 3.18: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools with Functional Boys’ Toilet
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
Figure 3.18 suggests that the proportion of schools with functional boys’ toilets has improved
markedly over the past decade. In 2014-15, only about four in five schools had such facilities; within
a year, coverage rose sharply and has since remained consistently above 90%. As of 2024-25, 92.4%
of schools reported functional toilets for boys. This reflects substantial progress in strengthening
school infrastructure. Yet nearly one in twelve schools continue to lack this basic facility. Ensuring
universal access is critical not only for hygiene and dignity but also for sustaining attendance and
retention, particularly in rural and underserved areas.
Map 3.23: Availability of functional boys’ toilet facility across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 46
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Map 3.24: Availability of functional boys’ toilet facility across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
As shown in Maps 3.23 and 3.24, progress across States has been uneven. By 2024-25, coverage of
functional boys’ toilets is complete in Chandigarh and Lakshadweep, with near-universal levels in
Haryana and Goa (99.9%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu (99.8%), Delhi (99.7%), West
Bengal (99.5%), Kerala (99.3%), and Bihar (97.5%). Several other States, including Himachal Pradesh,
Sikkim, Punjab, Gujarat, Odisha, and Karnataka, have also reached near-universal provision. At the
other end of the spectrum, gaps persist in Meghalaya (72%), Tripura (74.1%), Arunachal Pradesh
(75.5%), Manipur (76.4%), and Nagaland (80.7%), pointing to the need for targeted interventions
in these regions.
Over the past decade, the sharpest gains were recorded in Assam (40.3% → 93.6%), Bihar (62.8%
→ 97.5%), Andhra Pradesh (56% → 88.8%), Odisha (66% → 96.5%), and Telangana (57% → 86.7%).
In contrast, the largest declines were observed in Tamil Nadu (97.2% → 90.9%), and Rajasthan
(91.3% → 86.3%).
Overall, the data highlights that while most States now report very high levels of coverage, progress
has been uneven, with some registering sharp improvements and others experiencing a decline. 47
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
C. Functional Girls’ Toilet Facilities
Figure 3.19: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools with Functional Girls’ Toilet
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The availability of functional girls’ toilets in schools has seen sustained improvement over the past
decade. In 2014-15, 85.17% of schools were equipped with these facilities; within a year, coverage
rose sharply to above 93% and has since remained consistently high. As of 2024-25, 94% of schools
reported having functional girls’ toilets.
This stability at a high level reflects the strong policy emphasis placed on gender-responsive
infrastructure under programmes such as Swachh Vidyalaya Abhiyan
25
and Samagra Shiksha. However,
the fact that around one in fifteen schools still lack such facilities signals the need for continued
efforts to achieve full coverage. Universal provision of safe and functional toilets for girls remains
essential not only for health and dignity but also for improving attendance, retention, and transition
rates, particularly at the upper primary and secondary levels.
Map 3.25: Availability of functional Girls’ toilet facility across States/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
25 Press Information Bureau. (2016, October 01). Swachhta Vidyalaya initiative by Department of School Education & Literacy [Press release]. Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Government of India. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Map 3.26: Availability of functional Girls’ toilet facility across States/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
As evident in Map 3.26, in 2024-25, functional girls’ toilets have achieved full coverage in Andaman
& Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Chandigarh, and Delhi. Several other States, including Goa (99.9%)
Puducherry (99.9%), Haryana (99.8%), and West Bengal (99.6%), have achieved near-universal coverage.
At the other end of the spectrum, the lowest levels are recorded in Meghalaya (68.7%), Arunachal
Pradesh (73.7%), Manipur (74.5%), Tripura (75.4%), and Mizoram (79.1%).
Maps 3.25 and 3.26 show that over the past decade, the sharpest gains were recorded in Bihar (65.7%
→ 98.1%), Assam (65.9% → 94.3%), Odisha (73.7% → 98.1%), Telangana (70.7% → 92.9%), and
West Bengal (79.6% → 99.6%). In contrast, the most significant declines were observed in Tripura
(90.9% → 75.4%), Manipur (88.5% → 74.5%), Arunachal Pradesh (87.7% → 73.7%), Nagaland (92.1%
→ 80.6%), and Rajasthan (94.9% → 87.3%).
Overall, the data points to widespread provision of functional girls’ toilets across most States,
alongside concentrated pockets of decline that highlight the need for sustained monitoring and
maintenance. 49
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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D. Availability of Functional Computers
Figure 3.20: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools having Computers
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
Access to functional computers is a key enabler of technology-integrated learning and digital skill
development. As schools move towards NEP 2020’s vision of blended education, the availability of
functional computers becomes foundational to bridging the digital divide.
The availability of computers in schools has expanded steadily over the last decade, which is
demonstrated in Figure 3.20. Nationally, the share of schools with functional computers increased
from 26.42% in 2014-15 to 64.7% in 2024-25. Growth was modest in the early years, but accelerated
thereafter, with the sharpest gains recorded between 2020-21 (41.2%) and 2024-25 (64.7%). This
rise reflects targeted digital initiatives, increased budgetary support, and the growing emphasis on
ICT integration in classrooms under Samagra Shiksha and NEP 2020.
26
Map 3.27: Availability of Computer Facility across states/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
26  Central Institute of Educational Technology, NCERT. Digital education initiatives.  SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Map 3.28: Availability of Computer Facility across states/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
As shown in Map 3.28, in 2024-25, the availability of computers in schools has reached full coverage
in Lakshadweep (100%), and is virtually universal in Delhi (99.9%), Puducherry (99.5%), Chandigarh
(99.5%), Kerala (99.5%), and Punjab (99%). Gujarat, Haryana, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman &
Diu, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, and Nagaland have also achieved very high levels of provision.
At the other end, the lowest current levels are recorded in Meghalaya (19.7%), West Bengal (25.1%),
Bihar (25.2%), Manipur (38.0%), Jammu & Kashmir (43.1%), and Arunachal Pradesh (47.7%).
As can be seen in Maps 3.27 and 3.28, over the past decade, the sharpest gains were recorded in
Assam (9.8% → 78.7%), Jharkhand (9.7% → 76%), Odisha (13.7% → 76.7%), Uttarakhand (33% →
91.3%), and Dadra & Nagar Haveli (40.1% → 97.2%). In contrast, the smallest improvements were
observed in Karnataka (38.7% → 55.7%), Goa (43.5% → 57.1%), West Bengal (12.1% → 25.1%),
Manipur (25.2% → 38%), and Meghalaya (10.6% → 19.7%).
Overall, the decade marks a rapid expansion of computer facilities across most States. Yet, more
than one-third of schools still lack computers, and wide interstate disparities persist. 51
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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E. Internet Connectivity in Schools
Figure 3.21: Decadal Overview - Percentage of Schools having Internet Facility
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
Internet access is an essential component of digital infrastructure, enabling access to online content,
educational platforms, and ICT-based instruction. As digital pedagogy becomes more central
to classroom practice under NEP 2020, ensuring reliable connectivity in schools has become
increasingly important.
27
Figure 3.21 shows that the past decade has witnessed a sharp expansion in internet connectivity
within schools. Starting from a very low level of 8.05%, growth remained gradual in the initial
years but accelerated significantly after 2019-20. Coverage more than doubled between 2020-21
and 2022-23, crossing 50% for the first time, and continued to rise steadily thereafter. In 2024-25,
nearly two-thirds (63.5%) of schools reported having access to internet facilities. Despite this rapid
progress, the fact that over one-third of schools still remain without connectivity underscores
persistent challenges.
Map 3.29: Availability of Internet Facility across states/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
27 NEP (2020), Sections 24.1-24.5, provides guidelines for developing digital education, emphasizing pedagogy supported by NCERTs and SCERTs. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Map 3.30: Availability of Internet Facility across states/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.30 shows the significant expansion of internet connectivity in schools over the past decade.
Starting from a very low base, where only a small fraction of schools reported access, several States
and UTs have achieved near-universal coverage. Delhi, Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Puducherry,
Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu and Andhra Pradesh have reached or are on the verge of
complete provision. Gujarat (96.5%), Goa (93.2%), Kerala (91.7%), and Punjab (88.9%) have also
achieved near-universal levels. At the other end, the lowest current levels are in West Bengal (18.6%),
Meghalaya (26.4%), Arunachal Pradesh (33.6%), Manipur (36.6%), Tripura (41.7%), Madhya Pradesh
(45.7%), and Uttar Pradesh (45.9%). Karnataka, home to Bengaluru, the country’s leading IT hub,
has only about half of its schools (50.7%) connected to the internet, reflecting a stark contrast
between the State’s global digital profile and its basic educational infrastructure.
Over the past decade, the sharpest gains were recorded in Dadra & Nagar Haveli (6.7% → 99.5%),
Andhra Pradesh (12.3% → 99%), Assam (1.3% → 87.2%), Bihar (1.3% → 84.8%), and Odisha (1.8%
→ 83.8%). In contrast, the smallest improvements were observed in West Bengal (4.1% → 18.6%),
Meghalaya (1.8% → 26.4%), Arunachal Pradesh (4% → 33.6%), and Manipur (5.8% → 36.6%). Internet
connectivity in schools has expanded rapidly over the past decade, moving several States close
to universal provision. Nonetheless, limited access in certain regions continues to constrain the
integration of digital tools in teaching and learning. 53
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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F. Functional Smart Classrooms
Figure 3.22: Availability of Functional Smart Classroom across states/UTs
Source: Source: UDISE+ 2021-22 to 2024-25
Smart classrooms are digitally enabled teaching spaces that integrate tools such as projectors,
interactive whiteboards, audio-visual content, and access to e-resources. Their purpose is to make
classroom learning more interactive, engaging, and effective, while also supporting teachers in
delivering competency-based and technology-driven instruction. By moving beyond traditional
chalk-and-talk methods, smart classrooms are intended to prepare students for the demands of a
digital economy and 21
st
century learning.
As shown in Figure 3.22, the spread of smart classrooms in schools has accelerated in recent years.
It has reached from 14.9% in 2021-22 to 30.6% in 2024-25. While the growth is significant, nearly
seven out of ten schools still lack smart classroom points, which points to the need for sustained
investment to achieve wider coverage. It may also be noted that data on functional smart classrooms
has been made available only from 2021-22 onwards.
Map 3.31: Availability of functional Smart Classrooms across states/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Map 3.32: Availability of functional Smart Classrooms across states/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
The adoption of smart classrooms in India’s school system shows wide interstate variation, with
digital teaching infrastructure still at an early stage in many parts of the country. Map 3.32 indicates
that in 2025, in most States and UTs, fewer than 30% of schools were equipped with functional smart
classrooms, pointing to limited progress in technology integration. The highest levels are reported in
Chandigarh (95.2%), Lakshadweep (86.1%), Punjab (80.1%), Delhi (75.7%), and Puducherry (72.5%).
At the other end, the lowest levels are observed in Meghalaya (4.3%), West Bengal (5.7%), Mizoram
(11.3%), Jharkhand (14.8%), Bihar (14.9%), Jammu and Kashmir (16.5%), Manipur (18.6%), Madhya
Pradesh (19.6%), and Uttar Pradesh (19.8%).
Over the past four years, the sharpest gains were recorded in Tamil Nadu (0% → 60.8%), Chandigarh
(41.2% → 95.2%), and Maharashtra (17.3% → 63.6%). In contrast, the smallest improvements were
seen in Meghalaya (2.3% → 4.3%), Andaman & Nicobar Islands (37.3% → 44.4%), Jharkhand
(10.5% → 14.8%), and Bihar (4.6% → 14.9%).
The evidence points to significant interstate disparities: while some States have rapidly expanded
smart classroom adoption, most continue to show minimal coverage, highlighting persistent gaps
in technology integration. 55
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
3.3 Equity and Inclusion
Ensuring that all children, regardless of gender, caste, location, or ability, have equal opportunities to access
and complete school education is a central goal of national policy. This section examines patterns of
enrolment and progression among girls, children from Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), minority
communities, and children with disabilities, highlighting areas where focused interventions are still needed.
Summary of Insights
1. Gender parity has been achieved in access, creating a strong foundation for
universal progression
Girls’ participation across stages reflects a stable and positive trajectory, indicating that structural
barriers to entry have substantially narrowed. The next phase of reform can build on this foundation
by strengthening support during adolescence to ensure continuity through secondary and higher
secondary education.
2. Elementary inclusion is largely consolidated, with increasing momentum at post-
elementary stages
Participation at primary and upper primary levels across gender and social groups reflects broad-
based access. Continued improvements at secondary and higher secondary stages indicate gradual
strengthening of retention, with scope for further acceleration through targeted transition support.
3. SC and ST enrolment trends demonstrate sustained inclusion with opportunities for
upward mobility
Access at foundational stages for SC and ST children remains aligned with system-wide trends, reflecting
progress in inclusive outreach. Enhancing academic support, financial assistance, and local mentoring at
higher stages can further consolidate these gains and expand participation in senior secondary education.
4. Inclusion of children with special needs is progressing through expanding
accessibility measures
Improvements in physical infrastructure such as ramps signal steady movement toward more inclusive
school environments. Continued scaling of accessible facilities and specialised support systems will
further strengthen the integration of children with special needs into mainstream schooling.
Taken together, the evidence suggests that the foundation for inclusive schooling has been laid. The next
phase of reform must prioritise sustained participation, strengthened transitions, and universal accessibility
to realise the vision of equitable and comprehensive school education for all.
3.3.1 Gender-Wise Enrolment
The gender-wise GER provides a clear view of how girls’ participation evolves across the different
stages of the school structure. It shows that enrolment among girls begins to taper off as they progress
through successive school stages, despite high participation at the primary level. The Gender Parity
Index (GPI), defined as the ratio of female to male GER, serves as a measure of gender balance in
enrolment, where a value of 1 indicates parity, values above 1 reflect higher participation of girls,
and values below 1 reflect lower participation. Notably, the GPI for both 2014-15 and 2024-25 has
remained above 1 across all States, indicating that girls have consistently achieved equal or higher
enrolment compared to boys over the past decade. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
A. Primary
Figure 3.23: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Girls at Primary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
GER for girls at the primary level has declined from 107.38% in 2014-15 to 92.3% in 2024-25, as
shown in Figure 3.23. For much of the past decade, enrolment levels hovered above 100%, reflecting
both strong participation and the presence of over-age or under-age enrolments. A sharp
decline is visible from 2022-23 onwards, which is partly attributable to demographic changes,
including falling fertility rates and shrinking cohorts of children entering primary school. At the
same time, improved accuracy in record-keeping and the reduction of duplication may also explain
the correction from previously inflated ratios.
Map 3.33: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Primary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 57
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.34: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Primary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.34 shows the GER for girls at the primary level, with 19 States recording values above 100
and 11 States achieving near-universal coverage. However, several States/UTs remain below the
National Average including Madhya Pradesh (76.4%), Bihar (78.9%), Gujarat (81.9%), Uttar Pradesh
(83.9%), Andaman & Nicobar Islands (85.2%), Rajasthan (89.7%), and Chhattisgarh (89.9%), all of
which continue to fall short of the desired levels.
As can be seen in Maps 3.33 and 3.34, several States have recorded a decline in GER for girls at
the primary level between 2014-15 and 2024-25. The steepest declines are observed in Madhya
Pradesh (107.43 → 76.4) and Bihar (110.41→ 78.9), followed by Uttar Pradesh (115.28 → 83.9)
and Gujarat (100.08 → 81.9). Jharkhand (111.68 → 93.1) and Chhattisgarh (106.61 → 89.9) also
reflect sizeable declines. Delhi (124.63 → 107.2), Sikkim (110.25 → 95.6), and Rajasthan (102.52 →
89.7) show similar downward trends. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
B. Upper Primary
Figure 3.24: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Girls at Upper Primary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The GER for girls at the upper primary level has shown modest improvement over the past decade,
rising from 89.98% in 2014-15 to 92.5% in 2024-25 as shown in Figure 3.24
These levels reflect near-universal participation, though a small proportion of girls continue to be
excluded from upper primary schooling. The challenge lies in sustaining this coverage and ensuring
smooth progression into secondary education, particularly for girls from disadvantaged communities
who remain vulnerable to dropping out due to socio-economic pressures and early marriage.
Map 3.35: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Upper Primary Level across states/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 59
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.36: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Upper Primary Level across states/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.36 shows that18 States report GER for girls at the upper-primary level above 100, and 11 States
have reached near-universal coverage. However, several States remain below the National Average
including Uttar Pradesh (86.3%), Jharkhand (85.3%), Madhya Pradesh (82.7%), and Lakshadweep
(81.3%). Jammu & Kashmir (80.0%) and Sikkim (77.5%) also fall short of desired levels, while Nagaland
(75.2%) and Bihar (72.2%) record the lowest GER for girls at this stage.
As evident from Maps 3.35 and 3.36, several States and UTs have registered notable improvements
in GER for girls at the upper-primary stage. Gains are most visible in Chandigarh (111.65 → 131.2)
and Meghalaya (105.13 → 126.8), followed by Goa (101.74 → 120.3), Telangana (88.91 → 113.5)
and Uttarakhand (91.73 → 107.2). Karnataka (90.58 → 103.9), Andhra Pradesh (81.47 → 102.0),
and Rajasthan (76.65 → 93.5) also reflect strong advances, having crossed the 100 mark or moved
substantially closer to universal coverage.
Whereas Sikkim (118.4 → 77.5) shows one of the sharpest falls, followed by Madhya Pradesh
(100.05 → 82.7) and Bihar (86.93 → 72.2). Arunachal Pradesh (100.39 → 90.5) and Nagaland (81.3
→ 75.2) also record significant decline. Chhattisgarh (100.22 → 93.0) reflects a similar trend, while
Jharkhand (89.56 → 85.3) and Lakshadweep (84.86 → 81.3) report relatively smaller reductions. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
C. Secondary 
Figure 3.25: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Girls at Secondary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
Figure 3.25 depicts that GER for girls at the secondary stage has improved gradually from 75.5% in
2014-15 to 80.2% in 2024-25. The growth over the decade has been steady, with minor fluctuations,
but the gains have been modest compared to primary and upper primary levels. After crossing the
80% mark in 2021-22, the rate dipped slightly in 2023-24 before recovering to 80.2% in the latest year.
This trajectory indicates progress in bringing more girls into secondary education, yet participation
is still short of universalisation. Social and economic barriers, including household responsibilities,
early marriage, and limited access to schools at the secondary stage, continue to affect retention.
Addressing these constraints is critical to ensuring that the gains at the primary and upper primary
levels translate into sustained participation through secondary education.
Map 3.37: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Secondary Level across states/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 61
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.38: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Secondary Level across states/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.38 shows that GER starts falling at the secondary stage in several states. Although12 States
have crossed the 100 mark in GER for girls at the secondary level, and 8 States are near universal.
However, several States including Bihar (54.8%), Uttar Pradesh (64.3%), Nagaland (67.2%), Jammu
& Kashmir (67.5%), and Madhya Pradesh (68.2%) report the lowest coverage.
As seen from Maps 3.37 & 3.38, Meghalaya (76.1 → 100.1), Karnataka (78.19 → 102.0), and Telangana
(78.58 → 101.5) have crossed the 100 mark, while Chandigarh (92.64 → 118.7) shows even stronger
gains. West Bengal (82.95 → 104.8) also reflects substantial progress. Andhra Pradesh (71.63 →
89.6), Assam (74.95 → 89.7), Rajasthan (65.35 → 81.2), and Manipur (69.25 → 81.2) remain below
the threshold, though they too register notable upward movement. Lakshadweep (125.74 → 81.1)
and Sikkim (102.19 → 73.6) record some of the steepest declines, followed by Tripura (107.11 →
85.0) and Chhattisgarh (92.4 → 81.5). Madhya Pradesh (76.92 → 68.47), Bihar (61.5 → 54.8) and
Uttar Pradesh (69.0 → 64.3) also reflect considerable reductions. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
D. Higher Secondary
Figure 3.26: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Girls at Higher Secondary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
As shown in Figure 3.26, the GER of girls at the higher secondary stage has improved steadily over
the past decade. From a low of 45.99% in 2014-15, enrolment increased to 60.9% in 2024-25, with
consistent gains from 2017-18 onwards. The most significant rise occurred between 2016-17 and
2021-22, when participation grew from 43.74% to 58.23%.
Despite this progress, enrolment at the higher secondary stage remains well below universal levels,
with nearly four out of ten girls still outside the system. The data points to the need to strengthen
retention mechanisms in the transition from secondary to higher secondary, ensuring that gains
achieved in earlier stages translate into continued participation at the higher secondary level.
Map 3.39: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Higher Secondary Level across States/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15
Note: For Odisha, the GER values represented in the heatmap have been sourced from UDISE 2015-16 data. This adjustment has been
made in view of identified anomalies in the corresponding dataset, to ensure consistency and reliability of the analysis. 63
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Map 3.40: Gross Enrolment Ratio of Girls at Higher Secondary Level across states/UTs
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
As seen in Map 3.40, only a limited set of States and UTs report strong participation of girls in higher
secondary education. These include Chandigarh (122.8%), Puducherry (104.9%), and Goa (102.6%).
Relatively higher levels are also evident in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands (97.9%), Dadra & Nagar
Haveli (94.8%), Daman & Diu (94.8%), and Kerala (91.7%). Tamil Nadu (89.1%), Himachal Pradesh
(88.7%), Delhi (87.2%), and Uttarakhand (84.9%) represent comparatively better performance
than most other States.
Bihar (40.4%), Nagaland (43.4%), and Arunachal Pradesh (45.8%) represent the poorest levels of
female participation in higher secondary education. Meghalaya (46.5%), Jammu & Kashmir (46.6%),
and Madhya Pradesh (46.9%) perform only marginally better and, Assam (47.4%) and Gujarat
(49.7%) also fall into the deficient category, while Jharkhand (50.9%), Lakshadweep (51.8%), and
Sikkim (54.9%) remain below acceptable norms. Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (57.2% each),
Mizoram (58.8%), Manipur (59.3%), Chhattisgarh and Tripura (60.8% each), Odisha (63.7%), and
Rajasthan (65.1%) shows concerning outcomes. Although these States have improved compared
to the extremely low levels recorded in 2014-15, their current GER for girls in higher secondary
education remains low. The marginal gains achieved are insufficient, leaving them far behind national
goals of equitable access.
3.3.2 Enrolment by Social Group (SC/ST)
Article 46 of the Constitution of India directs the state to promote the educational and economic
interests of Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and other weaker sections, and to
protect them from social injustice. This commitment is reinforced through the Right of Children SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, which guarantees access to quality elementary
education for all children aged 6-14 years, irrespective of caste or social group. Caste and social
group dynamics play a significant role in access to education. It is found that children from STs, SCs,
and Other Backwards Classes are more likely to drop out due to economic disadvantages, social
discrimination, and lower levels of parental education.
28
(i) Scheduled Caste (SC)
A. Primary
Figure 3.27: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for SC at Primary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The GER for SC children at the primary level has declined over the decade, shown in Figure 2.25,
from 121.3% in 2014-15 to 92.7% in 2024-25.
B. Upper Primary
Figure 3.28: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for SC at Upper Primary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
Figure 3.28 highlights that enrolment of SC children at the upper-primary level has remained relatively
stable over the past decade. GER was 98.9% in 2014-15 and declined marginally to 96.1% in 2024-25.
The overall pattern indicates that access at this stage has been largely sustained, with SC participation
broadly aligned to or above the national average. However, the mild decline in recent years signals
the need to strengthen retention during the transition from primary to upper primary, particularly
to ensure that SC children do not slip out of the system after initial enrolment gains.
28 Soni, R. B. L. (2013). Special provisions: Effects on education of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (NCERT).  65
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
C. Secondary

Figure 3.29: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for SC at Secondary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The enrolment of SC students at the secondary stage, as shown in Figure 3.27, has exhibited little
change over the last decade. The GER stood at 81.89% in 2014-15 and 82% in 2024-25.
D. Higher Secondary
At the higher secondary stage, as shown in Figure 3.28, the GER for SC students has improved over
the past decade but remains below universalisation. Enrolment increased from 48.29% in 2014-15
to 59.4% in 2024-25.
Figure 3.30: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for SC at Higher Secondary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
(ii) Scheduled Tribe (ST) 
A. Primary
Figure 3.31: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for ST at Primary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
As portrayed in Figure 3.31, the GER for children belonging to STs at the primary stage has
declined from 113.77% in 2014-15 to 98.8% in 2024-25, gradually aligning closer to 100% in recent
years. This decline does not indicate a reduction in access but rather a correction from earlier
overestimations caused by factors such as over-age or under-age enrolment and grade repetition.
Current levels demonstrate that access has been sustained, even as enrolment figures have become
more realistic over time.
B. Upper Primary
Figure 3.32: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for ST at Upper Primary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
According to Figure 3.32, GER for children belonging to the ST community at the upper primary
level has increased from 89.97% in 2014-15 to 99.5% in 2024-25, consolidating close to universal
participation.
C. Secondary
Figure 3.33: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for ST at Secondary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
GER for children belonging to the ST community at the secondary level increased from 72.1% in
2014-15 to 81.3% in 2024-25. As highlighted in Figure 3.33, after remaining between 72% and 76%
in earlier years, the ratio rose steadily, crossing 78% by 2018-19 and peaking at 81.5% in 2020-21. It
dipped slightly in the following years but recovered to 81.3% by 2024-25. This upward trend reflects
the gradual expansion of secondary education access for ST children, though the level still trails
the overall national average, underlining the need for sustained focus on retention and transition
beyond upper primary. 67
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D. Higher Secondary
Figure 3.34: Decadal Overview - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for ST at Higher Secondary Level
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
GER for children belonging to ST community at the higher secondary level rose from 34.07% in
2014-15 to 51.9% in 2024-25. The ratio improved gradually over the decade, shown in Figure 3.34,
crossing 40% by 2018-19, and peaking at 53.4% in 2022-23 before stabilising around 52% in recent
years. Despite these gains, participation of ST children in higher secondary education remains limited,
with only about half enrolled by 2024-25. This highlights the need for continued policy attention
on bridging post-secondary transitions for disadvantaged groups.
3.3.3 Children with Special Needs (CwSN)
Children with Special Needs (CwSN) are formally recognised under two key legal frameworks in
India: The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (RTE Act) and the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 (RPwD Act).
29

Under the RPwD Act, a person with disability is defined as an individual with a long-term physical,
mental, intellectual, or sensory impairment which, in interaction with various barriers, may hinder
their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others. The RTE Act guarantees
free and compulsory elementary education to all children aged 6-14 years and explicitly includes
children with disabilities within its ambit.
The inclusion of CwSN in the mainstream schooling system is operationalised through Samagra
Shiksha, which outlines specific provisions for their support. These include:
¨Early identification and assessment of disabilities,
¨Preparation of Individualised Education Plans (IEPs),
¨Deployment of special educators and provision of therapeutic services,
¨Resource support such as assistive devices and aids,
¨Capacity-building of teachers in inclusive pedagogy, and
¨Development of accessible school infrastructure.
Ensuring the integration of CwSN into regular school settings is central to the realisation of the NEP
2020 objectives and India’s commitment to SDG 4, which calls for inclusive and equitable quality
education and promotes lifelong learning opportunities for all.
30
Failure to address these barriers
may constrain both learning outcomes and long-term participation in education for children with
disabilities.
29 The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016. (28
th
December 2016). Government of India.
30 Ensuring the inclusion of CwSN in mainstream schools is key to realizing NEP 2020 goals and India’s commitment to SDG 4.UNICEF Regional Office for South Asia. (2021). Disability‑inclusive
education practices in India SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
A. CwSN Friendly Toilets
Accessible toilet infrastructure is a critical component of inclusive school environments, especially
for children with physical and mobility-related disabilities. The presence of CwSN-friendly toilets is
directly linked to school participation, safety, and dignity, and remains a key determinant of retention
for children with special needs.
Figure 3.35: Decadal Overview: Percentage of Schools with CwSN-friendly Toilets
Source: UDISE+ 2018-19 to 2024-25
The share of schools equipped with CWSN-friendly toilets has risen from 16.64% in 2018-19 to
33.4% in 2024-25, marking more than a two-fold increase over six years, as seen in Figure 3.35. While
this reflects steady progress, the current coverage remains inadequate to meet the requirements
of inclusive education.
Map 3.41: Availability of functional CwSN-friendly toilet facilities across states/UTs (2018-19) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2018-19 69
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Map 3.42: Availability of functional CwSN-friendly toilet facilities across states/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.42 shows that CwSN toilet availability remains inadequate across most States and UTs, with
32 reporting coverage below 70%. Within this group, 7 states/UTs fall below 10%, and another 6
lie between 10%-20%, indicating a near-complete absence of facilities. A further 8 are in the 20%-
30% range, while 4 fall between 30-40%. In the 40%-60% range, 6 States/UTs are clustered, and just
4 are above 60%. Even in the upper bands, availability remains far from universal, highlighting the
persistence of deep infrastructural gaps for children with special needs. Coverage has improved in
several states, but the overall national average remains low, and large regional disparities persist.
B. Availability of Ramps 
The construction of ramps is a vital step toward ensuring physical accessibility. It is equally important
that these ramps adhere to prescribed standards. This includes the provision of handrails, the
availability of ramps across all relevant areas within the school, not just at entrances and exits, and
the use of slip-resistant surfaces. Only when such features are integrated comprehensively can
schools offer a truly inclusive and barrier-free environment for children with special needs.  SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Figure 3.36: Decadal Overview - Availability of ramps for CwSN
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 to 2024-25
The availability of ramps in schools has improved steadily over the last decade, rising from 59.77%
in 2014-15 to 79.1% in 2024-25. Figure 3.36 reflects a notable 20 percent point increase, marking
progress in creating more accessible infrastructure for children with special needs.
Map 3.43: Availability of ramps for CwSN across states/UTs (2014-15) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2014-15 71
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Map 3.44: Availability of ramps for CwSN across states/UTs (2024-25) (in percentage)
Source: UDISE+ 2024-25
Map 3.44 shows that progress is visible at the State level, but it is uneven across states. Delhi
(99.2%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu (98.4%) report the highest coverage, followed
by Lakshadweep (97.2%), Odisha (95.3%), and Chandigarh (95.2%). Maharashtra (94.0%) Madhya
Pradesh (93.1%), and Tamil Nadu (92.7%) are on their way to universal coverage. At the other end
of the spectrum, Arunachal Pradesh (28.2%) and Meghalaya (32.8%) record the lowest availability
while Nagaland (42.1%), Manipur (42.6%), Mizoram (44.4%), Sikkim (44.5%), Jammu & Kashmir
(45.4%) are deficient, and even States/UTs such as Tripura (63.6%), Goa (65.3%), and the Andaman &
Nicobar Islands (66.2%) are also in the lower coverage bracket. This shows gaps in basic accessibility
for children with special needs.
The top performers in relative improvement include Sikkim (7.5% → 44.5%), Andaman & Nicobar
Islands (22.0% → 66.2%), and Andhra Pradesh (32.5% → 88.8%). Telangana (28.3% → 76.7%) also
shows substantial gains: Among UTs, Chandigarh (54.8% → 95.2%) and Daman & Diu (58.6% →
98.4%) report consistently high expansion: Uttarakhand (48.4% → 81.7%) and Goa (39.9% →
65.3%), have also recorded significant improvements. In Uttar Pradesh (73.1% → 71.2%) coverage
has slipped slightly, while Gujarat (78.5% → 81.1%) shows marginal improvement. Mizoram (41.7%
→ 44.4%) and Puducherry (63.7% → 68.5%) also record very limited change. Meghalaya (29.2% →
32.8%) and Manipur (37.6% → 42.6%) continue at low levels despite small increases.
3.4 Quality
Beyond access and participation, the quality of schooling determines the effectiveness of the education
system. This section focuses on two critical aspects: learning outcomes and teacher availability. Learning
outcomes indicate the extent to which students acquire foundational literacy, numeracy, and higher-order
skills. Teacher availability reflects the capacity of schools to provide consistent and effective instruction, as
the presence of adequately trained teachers is a key input for quality. Together, these dimensions provide
an overview of progress as well as continuing challenges in strengthening school education. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Summary of Insights
1. Foundational competencies demonstrate measurable recovery and system responsiveness
Evidence across assessments indicates improvement in early grade literacy and numeracy following the
learning disruption period. The recovery observed, particularly within government schools, reflects the
capacity of structured foundational interventions to generate system-wide gains when implemented
with focused intent.
2. Stage-wise progression presents a structural consolidation challenge
While foundational outcomes show improvement, proficiency levels at preparatory and middle stages
indicate slower progression. This pattern suggests the need to strengthen academic continuity and
reinforce conceptual learning across grade transitions.
3. Mathematics and higher-order application domains require focused strengthening
Across ASER, NAS, and PARAKH, quantitative reasoning, fraction operations, division, algebraic thinking,
spatial reasoning, and applied problem-solving display comparatively lower attainment than language
competencies. Enhancing conceptual mathematics and analytical reasoning is central to sustained
improvement in overall learning quality.
4. Learning trajectories exhibit cumulative characteristics
Findings indicate that gaps emerging at the primary stage tend to become more visible at upper primary
and middle stages in the absence of structured reinforcement. Ensuring mastery at each stage is therefore
critical to preventing progressive learning compression.
5. Inter-state variation is wide and policy-relevant
Substantial performance differentials across States and UTs reflect variations in instructional processes,
implementation depth, and institutional capacity. High-performing education systems provide valuable
institutional practices that may inform broader system strengthening.
6. Equity differentials influence learning trajectories
Gender differences are limited at early stages, with girls frequently performing comparably to or better
than boys in language domains. However, performance variation across social categories and geographic
contexts indicates the continuing influence of structural inequities on learning outcomes.
7. Government schools demonstrate capacity for scalable academic strengthening
Observed improvements in foundational grades within government schools affirm the effectiveness of
coordinated public interventions and highlight the potential for sustained system-wide enhancement.
8. Digital access expansion provides an enabling base for instructional integration
High levels of household device access indicate infrastructure readiness; however, variation in educational
use and digital autonomy points to the importance of structured pedagogical integration and digital
competency development.
9. Competency-based assessment enhances diagnostic precision and reform alignment
The shift towards competency benchmarking through large-scale assessments provides clearer
identification of stage-wise and domain-specific gaps, enabling evidence-based planning and targeted
academic support.
10.
The reform emphasis is shifting from expanding access to strengthening learning quality.
With near-universal primary access achieved, the current phase of reform prioritises strengthening
learning quality, deepening conceptual depth, ensuring stage-wise mastery, and promoting equitable
learning outcomes across the country. 73
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3.4.1 Learning Outcomes
Learning outcomes serve as a core metric for assessing the quality of education, reflecting not merely
what students are taught but what they have actually learned and are able to apply in real-world
contexts. By shifting focus from input to measurable outputs, learning outcomes help identify gaps
in students’ understanding and inform targeted interventions aimed at building core competencies. 
The outcome-based approach is in alignment with the NEP 2020.
This section analyses the outcomes of India’s large-scale assessments to track the quality
of student learning. The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) highlights household-level
evidence of enrolment and basic learning, while the National Achievement Survey (NAS), now being
institutionalised as PARAKH, provides nationally representative diagnostics of student competencies.
Taken together, the findings from these assessments reveal systemic strengths and persistent gaps,
offering critical insights into the progress and challenges of improving learning outcomes.
A. Annual Status of Education Report (ASER)
ASER is a nationwide, citizen-led survey that tracks enrolment and basic learning outcomes in rural
India.
31
Conducted every alternate year since 2005, it assesses children aged 3-16 years across
government and private schools, as well as those not enrolled, through household-based tests in
reading and arithmetic. In 2014, ASER covered 577 rural districts, visiting 16,497 villages and surveying
5.7 lakh children across 3.4 lakh households. By 2024, its reach had expanded to 605 rural districts
across 26 States and 2 Union Territories, covering 17,997 villages and 6.5 lakh children.
This section analyses ASER findings over the decade from 2014 to 2024, highlighting trends in
reading and arithmetic competencies, and situating them within the broader discourse on learning
outcomes and quality of education.
(i) Reading Competencies
At the national level, the share of Grade 3 children in government and private schools who can
read at least a Grade 2 level text has shown a mixed trend over the last decade. In 2014, 23.6% of
children in Std III could read a Grade 2 level text. This rose marginally to 25.2% in 2016 and further
to 27.3% in 2018, before dropping sharply to 20.5% in 2022. By 2024, the figure recovered to 27.1%,
matching the earlier peak of 2018.
31 About ASER survey. Pratham Education Foundation. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Figure 3.37: Reading Proficiency Trends in Grade 3 by School Type (2014-2024)
Source: ASER 2014-2024
As seen in Figure 3.37, differences between school types are significant. In government schools,
reading levels were 17.2% in 2014, increased to 20.9% in 2018, but fell to 16.3% in 2022. By 2024,
they improved to 23.4%, the highest recorded in the decade. Private schools reported higher levels
throughout, with 37.8% in 2014, 40.6% in 2018, falling to 33.1% in 2022, and recovering modestly to
35.5% in 2024. This shows that while private schools remain ahead, the recent recovery has been
sharper in government schools.
Figure 3.38: Reading Proficiency Trends in Grade 5 by School Type (2014-2024)
Source: ASER 2014-2024
At the national level, reading proficiency in Std V shows signs of recovery after the pandemic-related
decline as shown in Figure 3.38. The share of children able to read at least a Std II level text across
government and private schools dropped from 50.5% in 2018 to 42.8% in 2022 but rose again to
48.8% in 2024. Government schools maintained relatively steady performance across the decade,
with levels moving from 42.2% in 2014 to 44.8% in 2024, despite a dip to 38.5% in 2022. Private 75
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schools continued to perform significantly better, although with a marked contraction. Reading
proficiency peaked at 65.1% in 2018, declined to 56.8% in 2022, and recovered only partially to
59.3% in 2024. The gap between government and private schools remains wide, which is noticed
in Figure 2.36, but the sharper recovery in government schools after 2022 has contributed to
narrowing this difference.
Figure 3.39: Reading Proficiency Trends in Grade 7 by School Type (2014-2024)
Source: ASER 2014-2024
As depicted in Figure 3.39, at the upper primary stage, reading proficiency in Std VIII has seen a
gradual decline over the past decade, with only limited signs of recovery in recent years. Nationally,
the share of children able to read a Std II-level text dropped from 74.7% in 2014 to 71.1% in 2024.
Government schools recorded the sharpest fall, with levels declining from 71.5% in 2014 to 67.5%
in 2024, reflecting a downward trend without meaningful recovery. Private schools continued to
show higher performance but also witnessed contraction. After peaking at 82.9% in 2018, proficiency
declined to 80% in 2022 and remained at that level in 2024.
While the gap between government and private schools persists, the fact that both categories
registered declines points to systemic challenges cutting across school types. Even by Std VIII, a
sizeable share of children continues to struggle with basic reading fluency, such as reading a Grade
2 level text.
(ii) Arithmetic Competencies
At the national level, as depicted in Figure 3.40, the share of Grade 3 children who can solve at
least a basic subtraction problem has shown a gradual but clear improvement over the decade. The
proportion rose from 25.4% in 2014 to 28.2% in 2018, dipped to 25.9% in 2022, and then reached
33.7% in 2024, marking the highest level recorded in the last ten years. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Figure 3.40: Arithmetic Skill Trends in Grade 3 by School Type (2014-2024)
Source: ASER 2014-2024
Disaggregated by school type, government schools moved from 17.2% in 2014 to 20.9% in 2018,
before falling to 20.2% in 2022. By 2024, however, they showed a marked recovery to 27.6%.
Private schools reported consistently higher levels throughout, ranging between 43-44% until 2018,
dipping slightly to 43.1% in 2022, and climbing to 47.5% in 2024. While private schools maintain a
clear advantage, the sharper gains in government schools have been central to driving the overall
national improvement.
Figure 3.41: Arithmetic Skill Trends in Grade 5 by School Type (2014-2024)
Source: ASER 2014-2024
Figure 3.41 shows that Grade 5 arithmetic outcomes have shown a steady improvement after the
pandemic dip, surpassing earlier levels. At the national level, the proportion of children able to solve
a division problem rose from 27.9% in 2018 to 30.7% in 2024, following a fall to 25.6% in 2022. 77
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Government schools registered a gradual rise over the decade, moving from 20.7% in 2014 to
22.7% in 2018, dropping marginally to 21.6% in 2022, and climbing to 26.5% in 2024. Private schools
consistently reported higher levels, with performance ranging between 38-40% up to 2018, dipping
slightly to 38.7% in 2022, and increasing to 41.8% in 2024. The national gains are thus driven by a
combination of recovery in government schools and consolidation in private schools, signalling
progress in bridging foundational arithmetic competencies.
Figure 3.42: Arithmetic Skill Trends in Grade 8 by School Type (2014-2024)
Source: ASER 2014-2024
For Grade 8, the proportion of children able to solve a basic division problem has remained largely
unchanged over the past decade, as shown in Figure 3.42, and highlights only a marginal upward
shift. At the all-India level, performance was 44.2% in 2014 and stands at 45.8% in 2024. Government
schools recorded very limited movement, from around 40% in 2014 to 41.9% in 2024. Private
schools continued to perform at higher levels throughout the period, beginning at 54.2% in 2014,
dipping slightly to 51.2% in 2016, and then rising steadily to reach 55.8% in 2024. Taken together,
government and private schools showed an overall improvement from 44.2% in 2014 to 45.8% in
2024. This pattern indicates that arithmetic proficiency at the upper primary stage remains low,
with little real progress over time and a persistent gap between government and private schools.
(iii) Digital Literacy
ASER 2024 findings on smartphone access, ownership, usage patterns, and digital safety skills among
children aged 14-16 reveal important shifts in India’s digital landscape. While basic access is now near
universal, significant differences emerge in personal ownership, the nature of use, and the ability to
navigate online spaces safely. The following figures present a detailed breakdown of these trends
by age and gender, offering critical insights into the evolving nature of the digital divide. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Figure 3.43: Smartphone Availability and Use by Gender (2024) (in percentage)
Source: ASER 2024
As evident in Figure 3.43, 90.2% of boys and 88.1% of girls aged 14-16 reported having a smartphone
at home. However, when asked to bring a smartphone with good connectivity to complete digital
tasks during the survey, participation rates dropped to 70.2% among boys and 62.2% among girls,
indicating constraints in device availability and control. While 85.5% of boys and 79.4% of girls could
operate a smartphone, personal ownership among those who can use the smartphone remained
limited at 36.2% and 26.9% respectively, in boys and girls. These gaps highlight that beyond household
access, autonomy and readiness to use devices for learning remain uneven, especially for girls.
Figure 3.44: Smartphone use by activity and digital safety awareness by gender (2024) (in percentage)
Source: ASER 2024
Figure 3.44 highlights that while over three-fourths of children who know how to use a smartphone
engaged with social media in the reference week (76%), a smaller share of 57% used it for education-
related purposes. Across all activities, boys reported higher engagement and digital safety awareness
than girls, with the widest gender gaps in skills like making a profile private (60.3% boys vs. 50.2%
girls) and changing passwords (65.4% vs. 50.1%). These disparities show that beyond access, gendered
differences persist in how smartphones are used and in the ability to apply safety measures effectively. 79
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Figure 3.45: Students who can do digital tasks(2024) (in percentage)
Source: ASER 2024
Figure 3.45 indicates a consistent gender gap in the ability to perform basic digital tasks, with boys
reporting higher proficiency across all activities measured. The difference is most pronounced in
basic operational skills such as setting an alarm, where boys outpace girls by nearly nine percentage
points (81.5% vs 72.4%). The gap narrows in tasks involving information search (80.1% vs 78.6%) and
is smallest in platform-based use, such as browsing YouTube (88.4% vs 85.7%). In the most advanced
step measured, sharing content once found, both boys (93.6%) and girls (90.5%) demonstrate high
proficiency, with the gender difference reduced to just over three points. This pattern suggests that
while girls are largely on par with boys in application-oriented digital tasks, foundational device
handling and operational confidence remain areas where targeted support and practice could help
close the gap.
B. National Achievement Survey (2017, 2021)
NAS
32
was initiated by NCERT in the early 2000s and later integrated into the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
(SSA) as a mechanism to monitor learning achievement. Originally structured around Baseline,
Mid-Term, and Terminal cycles for Grades 3, 5, and 8, NAS gradually shifted its focus from access-
related concerns towards providing system-level diagnostics on the quality of learning outcomes.
Conducted periodically, NAS evaluates competencies in core subjects against the NCERT Learning
Outcomes framework. It benchmarks performance across States and UTs, identifying systemic
strengths and gaps without grading individual learners. The 2017 cycle marked the transition to
competency-based assessment, while NAS 2021 incorporated pupil, teacher, and school questionnaires
to contextualise learning outcomes.
This section analyses the national average results from NAS 2017 and 2021 to highlight emerging
trends in student learning outcomes. The subsequent section traces the institutional evolution of
NAS into PARAKH, established under NEP 2020 as the permanent framework for competency-
based assessment, thereby transforming NAS from a periodic survey into a sustained national
system of learning evaluation.
32 National Achievement Survey-2021. About NAS. Ministry of Education, Government of India. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
(i) Grades 3
Table 3.5: NAS Scores for Grade 3 (2017-2021)
State/UT
LanguageMathematics Environmental Studies
2017 2021 2017 2021 2017 2021
National Mean336 323 321 306 321 307
A & N Islands326 323 318 290 318 302
Andhra Pradesh 364 311 342 298 336 298
Arunachal Pradesh 307 299 295 277 295 286
Assam350 326 337 314 331 313
Bihar336 317 318 304 317 301
Chandigarh354 335 339 311 343 313
Chhattisgarh332 301 314 283 318 289
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 343 290 328 272 328 277
Daman & Diu330 306 310 294 314 294
Delhi316 302 299 282 303 288
Goa333 327 309 299 319 310
Gujarat347 330 325 310 329 313
Haryana329 315 307 299 313 300
Himachal Pradesh 341 319 320 296 322 302
Jammu & Kashmir 332 333 318 310 310 310
Jharkhand344 314 327 298 325 299
Karnataka360 323 348 306 341 307
Kerala349 342 340 313 346 318
Ladakh- 309 - 283 - 294
Lakshadweep313 318 308 298 301 303
Madhya Pradesh 340 331 316 315 320 316
Maharashtra344 333 325 316 330 316
Manipur341 332 329 310 331 316
Meghalaya327 303 307 279 311 292
Mizoram337 332 315 303 331 310
Nagaland345 319 330 292 327 303
Odisha326 330 316 313 311 309
Puducherry316 331 314 310 310 315
Punjab330 355 306 339 308 334
Rajasthan358 339 339 325 337 322
Sikkim325 331 307 298 308 309
Tamil Nadu325 320 314 304 323 304
Telangana340 294 332 278 327 282
Tripura336 313 318 292 323 297
Uttar Pradesh314 314 309 298 303 300
Uttarakhand347 311 330 291 333 296
West Bengal356 337 337 314 334 314
Source: NAS 2017,2021
NAS results between 2017 and 2021, as seen in Table 3.5, point to a broad decline in learning
outcomes across the country, though the intensity of this decline varies significantly across States
and UTs. A cluster of States/UTs, including Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Arunachal 81
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Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Delhi, Rajasthan, Haryana, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, and Daman & Diu,
experienced particularly sharp reductions across subjects. In contrast, a larger group of States/
UTs such as Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala,
Maharashtra, Manipur, Mizoram, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and West
Bengal recorded moderate decline, indicating that while learning levels fell, the extent of decline
was less severe than in the first group.
A smaller set of States and UTs demonstrated resilience or improvement during this period. Punjab
stands out with consistent improvement across all subjects, while Jammu & Kashmir, Puducherry,
Sikkim, Lakshadweep, and Goa also registered either gains or broadly stable performance. Kerala
and West Bengal, although registering marginal declines, continued to perform relatively better
than the national average and remain among the stronger performers.
(ii) Grades 5
Table 3.6: NAS Scores for Grades 5 (2017, 2021)
State/UT
Language MathematicsEVS
2017 2021 2017 2021 2017 2021
National Mean319 309 310 284 310 283
A & N Islands309 311 302 278 303 283
Andhra Pradesh339 294 333 275 324 270
Arunachal Pradesh 287 300 278 268 282 271
Assam322 312 333 291 327 291
Bihar316 305 309 283 311 280
Chandigarh345 326 336 295 335 293
Chhattisgarh313 295 298 266 303 269
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 335 285 325 264 325 260
Daman & Diu300 296 290 273 288 269
Delhi303 304 287 273 292 274
Goa313 312 295 274 292 278
Gujarat324 307 321 287 314 287
Haryana310 312 294 286 298 283
Himachal Pradesh 328 304 305 270 310 275
Jammu & Kashmir310 323 315 293 307 297
Jharkhand326 303 321 276 326 278
Karnataka351 312 345 285 335 278
Kerala353 313 342 279 336 283
Ladakh- 309 - 280 - 285
Lakshadweep304 300 291 280 285 276
Madhya Pradesh313 316 303 296 305 297
Maharashtra323 317 305 287 304 291
Manipur320 322 316 286 321 288
Meghalaya296 294 284 262 283 265
Mizoram301 302 293 270 302 270
Nagaland312 306 300 267 302 274
Odisha304 305 321 290 311 282
Puducherry300 320 302 291 296 290
Punjab306 339 293 316 297 310 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
State/UT
Language MathematicsEVS
2017 2021 2017 2021 2017 2021
Rajasthan344 326 338 306 339 304
Sikkim297 310 281 268 282 276
Tamil Nadu321 298 300 279 300 277
Telangana314 286 316 265 303 260
Tripura316 304 304 275 308 277
Uttar Pradesh300 302 301 278 300 279
Uttarakhand338 304 326 275 327 278
West Bengal317 318 301 288 304 292
Source: NAS 2017,2021
Table 3.6 shows that learning levels in Grade 5 broadly mirror the patterns observed in Grade
3, with national averages declining across all subjects and most States registering either sharp or
moderate reductions. A small set of States/UTs, such as Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, Puducherry,
Sikkim, and Lakshadweep, demonstrated improvement or stability at both stages.
In Grade 5, sharp reductions were recorded in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Dadra
& Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, Rajasthan, Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and Tripura.
Moderate reductions were reported in Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Jharkhand, Karnataka,
Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Odisha.
(iii) Grades 8
Table 3.7: NAS Scores for Grade 8 (2017, 2021)
State/UTLanguage Mathematics Science Social Science
2017 2021 2017 2021 2017 2021 2017 2021
National Mean 307 302 269 255 274 250 278 255
A & N Islands 294 307 248 247 254 254 257 246
Andhra Pradesh 308 292 286 250 286 237 291 239
Arunachal Pradesh 280 308 248 242 250 249 261 249
Assam298 289 283 255 289 244 294 256
Bihar307 291 277 262 277 248 287 257
Chandigarh 315 334 277 285 292 285 302 287
Chhattisgarh 303 295 255 237 275 241 282 242
Dadra & Nagar Haveli314 311 279 247 296 246 305 249
Daman & Diu 295 302 242 251 248 246 257 244
Delhi299 316 244 253 248 257 258 254
Goa311 324 248 242 258 259 265 249
Gujarat325 309 281 254 295 253 306 255
Haryana305 325 256 272 268 268 273 268
Himachal Pradesh 312 315 254 247 273 253 279 253
Jammu & Kashmir 275 319 256 264 258 270 258 267
Jharkhand317 298 293 256 302 250 307 254
Karnataka318 297 287 251 297 248 297 256
Kerala322 312 286 240 271 252 264 250
Ladakh- 321 - 253 - 257 - 261
Lakshadweep 289 303 247 247 245 245 247 244 83
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
State/UTLanguage Mathematics Science Social Science
Madhya Pradesh 301 306 264 270 274 258 280 264
Maharashtra 320 310 263 250 266 248 274 257
Manipur293 320 267 259 272 262 275 259
Meghalaya288 280 249 232 252 229 260 231
Mizoram284 297 256 240 250 241 257 242
Nagaland273 312 246 238 247 246 259 253
Odisha299 303 273 261 277 253 272 255
Puducherry 277 315 241 252 242 258 245 256
Punjab299 338 243 297 257 287 258 288
Rajasthan329 320 304 286 326 276 327 288
Sikkim294 312 241 237 257 248 263 247
Tamil Nadu 305 284 251 237 256 232 256 237
Telangana297 289 257 243 259 235 270 235
Tripura300 303 258 252 266 252 265 257
Uttar Pradesh 293 286 262 247 266 237 271 244
Uttarakhand 309 308 262 253 281 250 285 253
West Bengal 303 315 261 258 269 260 265 265
Source: NAS 2017,2021
As seen in Table 3.7, at the national level, Grade 8 results show a decline across all four subjects:
Language, Mathematics, Science, and Social Science between 2017 and 2021. This indicates that
learning challenges observed at the primary stage continue and, in many cases, deepen at the upper
primary level.
A number of States recorded sharp reductions across subjects, including Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Meghalaya, Kerala, Bihar, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka. Declines in
these States were consistent across multiple domains, pointing to sustained difficulties in maintaining
learning levels. Several other States registered moderate reductions, such as Gujarat, Himachal
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Odisha, Mizoram, Nagaland, Uttarakhand, and West Bengal. While
their performance declined, the extent of loss was less pronounced compared to the first group.
A smaller set of States and UTs demonstrated improvement or relative stability. Punjab stood out
with significant gains across subjects, while Chandigarh, Delhi, Goa, Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur,
Puducherry, and Sikkim also recorded improvements or stable scores in at least some domains.
Madhya Pradesh and Haryana managed to hold ground better than most large states.
Overall, the Grade 8 findings reinforce the trend observed in earlier grades: widespread learning
declines with concentrated sharp losses in a group of States, balanced by improvements in a few.
This pattern shows that learning gaps, if not addressed at earlier stages, persist and often widen by
the upper primary level.
C. Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic
Development (PARAKH) 
PARAKH
33
(Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development)
is a nationwide, large-scale assessment designed to measure student learning against clearly defined
competency benchmarks. Aligned with NEP 2020, it shifts the focus from rote memorisation to
33 National Council of Educational Research and Training. About PARAKH. Retrieved from https://parakh.education.gov.in SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
assessing conceptual clarity, application, and problem-solving skills in core subjects. Conducted for
Grades 3, 6, and 9, PARAKH provides comparable learning indicators across states, helping identify
gaps and guiding targeted interventions.
As per PARAKH Dashboard, in 2024, the assessment reached 21,15,022 students across 74,229
schools in 781 districts, spanning 36 States and UTs and covering government, government-aided,
private recognised, and central government schools. Alongside subject assessments, questionnaires
for teachers and school leaders captured contextual insights, enabling a deeper understanding of
factors influencing learning.
C1. Foundational Stage (Grade 3)
(i) Language Competency 
Figure 3.46: Average Language Competency at Foundational Stage
Source: PARAKH 2024
At the national level, students achieved an average score of 64% in language, suggesting steady
improvement in foundational literacy skills.
Table 3.8: Language Competencies at Foundational Stage
Competency Code Competency DescriptionNational Average
C-9.7
Knows and uses enough words to carry out day-to-day interactions
effectively and can guess the meaning of new words by using existing
Vocabulary
67%
C-10.5
Reads short stories and comprehends their meaning - by identifying
characters, storyline and what the author wants to say - on their own
60%
C-10.7
Reads and comprehends the meaning of short news items, instructions
and recipes, and publicity material
61%
Source: PARAKH 2024
Table 3.8 indicates that while 67% students demonstrate basic comprehension and vocabulary
use, there is a noticeable drop in performance when tasks require interpreting implied meanings,
drawing conclusions, or connecting ideas across a text. This suggests that many students are yet to
develop higher-order reading skills such as inference, critical thinking, and reflective engagement,
which are essential for understanding complex or unfamiliar material 85
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(ii) Mathematical Competency 
Nationally, students achieved an average of 60% for mathematical competencies at the foundational
level, indicating a modest base to build upon. 
Figure 3.47: Average Mathematics Competency at Foundational Stage
Source: PARAKH 2024
Table 3.9: Mathematical Competencies at Foundational Stage
Competency CodeCompetency DescriptionNational Average
C-8.1
Sorts objects into groups and sub-groups based on more than one
property
68%
C-8.2
Identifies and extends simple patterns in their surroundings, shapes, and
numbers
69%
C-8.4 Arranges numbers up to 99 in ascending and descending order 55%
C-8.5
Recognises and uses numerals to represent quantities up to 99 with the
understanding of decimal place value system
61%
C-8.6
Performs addition and subtraction of 2-digit numbers fluently using
flexible strategies of composition and decomposition of both numerical
and word problems
58%
C-8.7
Recognises multiplication as repeated addition and division as equal
sharing
54%
C-8.8
Recognises, makes, and classifies basic geometric shapes and their
observable properties, and understands and explains the relative relation
of objects in space
50%
C-8.9
Selects appropriate tools and units to perform simple measurements of
length, weight, and volume of objects in their immediate environment
62%
C-8.10
Performs simple measurements of time in minutes, hours, days, weeks, and
months
61%
C-8.11 Performs simple transactions using money up to INR 100 50%
C-8.12
Develops adequate and appropriate vocabulary for comprehending and
expressing concepts and procedures related to quantities, shapes, space,
and measurements
55%
C-8.13
Formulates and solves simple mathematical problems related to
quantities, shapes, space, and measurements
55%
Source: PARAKH 2024 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
The data on Grade 3 learning outcomes in mathematics, as depicted in Table 3.9, show that while
students perform well in tasks involving classification and pattern recognition, there are notable
gaps in core numeracy skills. Only 55% of students are able to arrange numbers in order up to 99,
and less than half are able to carry out basic arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction.
Conceptual understanding of multiplication and division is limited, with just over half the students
able to grasp these as repeated addition or equal sharing. Performance is weak in areas such as
geometry, spatial reasoning, and handling money skills that are important in both academic and
everyday contexts. These trends suggest that while students are developing some foundational
abilities, they continue to struggle with applying mathematical concepts in practical situations.
This points to the need for focused efforts in the early years to strengthen number sense, arithmetic,
and application-based learning. Without early support, these gaps risk becoming more entrenched
over time. Building on students’ existing strengths, such as visual reasoning, can help bridge these
gaps and ensure a stronger foundation for future learning.
(iii) Observations by Gender, Location, Management and Social Category
Figure 3.48: Performance at Foundational Stage by Gender
Source: PARAKH 2024
The data, as shown in Figure 3.48, reveal that girls performed better than boys in language and that
both performed equally in mathematics. 
Figure 3.49: Performance at Foundational Stage by Location
Source: PARAKH 2024
Learning levels in language and mathematics remain broadly similar across rural and urban areas,
with only marginal differences in proficiency. 87
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Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Figure 3.50: Performance at Foundational Stage by School Management
Source: PARAKH 2024
As shown in Figure 3.50, Language performance remains closely grouped, with State Government
and Private Recognised schools at 64%, Government Aided at 63%, and Central Government at 60%.
Mathematics scores are lower across all categories: State Government at 61%, Private Recognised
at 60%, Government Aided at 58%, and Central Government at 57%. The small variation in both
subjects suggests that foundational learning gaps are present across all types of school management,
with mathematics emerging as the relatively weaker area.
Figure 3.51: Performance at Foundational Stage by Social Category
Source: PARAKH 2024
Students from the ‘Others’ social category recorded the highest performance in both Language
(66%) and Mathematics (61%). As is seen in Figure 3.51, ST students showed relatively lower scores
across both subjects, while OBC and SC students performed comparably, with better outcomes
in Language (64%) than in Mathematics (57%). 
At the foundational stage, SC and ST students record relatively lower performance levels in both
subjects. In language, ST students score 61% and SC students 64%, compared to 66% among the
highest-performing group (‘Others’). In mathematics, ST students score 57% and SC students 60%,
whereas Others’ score 61%. These results indicate that children from SC and ST communities face
relative learning disadvantages from the earliest grades. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
(iv) Performance across States and Union Territories
Table 3.10: Foundational Stage
Indian States/UTsLanguage % Mathematics %
India6460
Andaman and Nicobar Islands6561
Andhra Pradesh6461
Arunachal Pradesh5954
Assam6159
Bihar5654
Chandigarh6560
Chhattisgarh5957
Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu6362
Delhi6257
Goa5651
Gujarat5752
Haryana6258
Himachal Pradesh7672
Jammu and Kashmir5754
Jharkhand5551
Karnataka6057
Kerala7570
Ladakh6460
Lakshadweep5249
Madhya Pradesh6662
Maharashtra6964
Manipur7167
Meghalaya5853
Mizoram6559
Nagaland6357
Odisha6561
Puducherry5552
Punjab8278
Rajasthan7066
Sikkim6253
Tamil Nadu5855
Telangana5854
Tripura5652
Uttar Pradesh6864
Uttarakhand5955
West Bengal5853
Source: PARAKH 2024
For Grade 3 performance, Table 3.10 presents the scores from PARAKH 2024 for the foundational
grade, covering both Language and Mathematics. 89
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Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and Kerala stand out with the strongest outcomes, with more than three-
quarters of children reaching grade-level expectations in both subjects. Maharashtra, Manipur, and
Rajasthan also perform above the national average, reflecting sustained attention to early grade
learning. Smaller UTs such as Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman &
Diu are also performing relatively well. Several States, including Haryana, Nagaland, and Uttarakhand,
are close to the national average. Large States such as Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh record
moderate but encouraging levels, particularly in mathematics, suggesting that recent initiatives on
foundational literacy and numeracy are beginning to take hold.
At the other end, Lakshadweep, Jharkhand, and Puducherry have some of the lowest outcomes, with
fewer than 55% of children demonstrating basic skills. Bihar, Tripura, and Goa also remain below
the national mean, while States such as Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, and Telangana continue to
face gaps in foundational learning. The spread between the highest and lowest performing States is
substantial: 30 percentage points in language (Punjab 82% compared to Lakshadweep 52%) and 29
percentage points in mathematics (Punjab 78% compared to Lakshadweep 49%). These disparities
underline the need for stronger and more targeted efforts so that every child, regardless of location,
acquires foundational skills in the early years.
C2. Preparatory Stage (Grade 6)
(i) Language Competency 
Figure 3.52: Average Language Competency at Preparatory Stage
Source: PARAKH 2024
At the preparatory level, over half the students (57%) are performing at grade level; however,
approximately half of the students are lagging and have shown scope for improvement in vocabulary
and comprehension. 
Table 3.11: Language Competencies at Preparatory Stage
Competency CodeCompetency DescriptionNational Average
C-2.1
Applies varied comprehension strategies to understand different
texts
56%
C-2.2
Understands main ideas and draws essential conclusions from the
material read
58%
Source: PARAKH 2024
As shown in Table 3.11, more than half the students in Grade 6 are demonstrating foundational
reading comprehension skills. The data also reveal that nearly two out of five learners are unable
to engage meaningfully with early texts. This suggests that while decoding ability may be in place
for many, deeper comprehension skills remain fragile.  SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
(ii) Mathematical Competency 
Figure 3.53 indicates that mathematics performance at this stage is struggling at the national level,
with 46% of students achieving grade-level proficiency.
Figure 3.53: Average Mathematics Competency at Preparatory Stage
Source: PARAKH 2024
Table 3.12: Mathematical Competencies at Preparatory Stage
Competency Code Competency DescriptionNational Average
C-1.1
Represents numbers using the place value structure of the Indian number
system, compares whole numbers, and knows and can read the names of
very large numbers
54%
C-1.2
Represents and compares commonly used fractions in daily life (such as ½,
¼) as parts of unit wholes, as locations on number lines and as divisions of
whole numbers
29%
C-1.3
Understands and visualises arithmetic operations and the relationships
among them, knows addition and multiplication tables at least up to 10x10
(pahade) and applies the four basic operations on whole numbers to solve
daily life problems
53%
C-1.4
Recognises, describes, and extends simple number patterns such as odd
numbers, even numbers, square numbers, cubes, powers of 2, powers of 10,
and Virahanka-Fibonacci numbers
49%
C-2.2
Describes location and movement using both common language and
mathematical vocabulary; understands the notion of map (najri naksha)
41%
C-2.4 Discovers, recognises, describes and extends patterns in 2D and 3D shapes48%
C-3.3
Carries out simple unit conversion, such as from centimeter to meters,
within a system of measurement. 
38%
C-3.5
Devises strategies for estimating the distance, length, time, perimeter (for
regular and irregular shapes), area (for regular and irregular shapes), weight
and volume and verifies the same using standard units.
42%
C-4.1
Solves puzzles and daily-life problems involving one or more operations on
whole numbers
38%
C-4.3
Selects appropriate methods and tools for computing with whole numbers,
such as mental computation, estimation, or paper pencil calculation, in
accordance with the context
49%
Source: PARAKH 2024
The analysis of upper primary learning outcomes in mathematics reveals uneven development
across key competencies. According to the competencies explained in Table 3.12, students show
emerging proficiency in basic operations and number patterns; there are persistent conceptual
gaps in areas such as fractions, spatial reasoning, measurement, and real-life problem-solving. These
domains are critical not only for academic progression but also for functional numeracy in daily life. 91
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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The findings point to the need for a shift in pedagogical practice from rote to one that builds
conceptual understanding through contextualised and hands-on learning. Competencies that
rely on abstract reasoning, such as algebraic thinking, estimation, or map reading, are often
underdeveloped, suggesting limited exposure to visual models and applied learning strategies in
classroom environments. Without a solid conceptual foundation at the upper primary level, students
are likely to encounter increasing difficulties in engaging with more advanced mathematical concepts
in secondary school.
(iii) The World Around Us (EVS) Competency
49% of students are performing at grade level for ‘The World Around Us.’ Introduced at the
preparatory stage, the subject covers environmental sciences and social sciences.
34
Figure 3.54: Average The World Around Us Competency at Preparatory Stage
Source: PARAKH 2024
Table 3.13: The World Around Us Competencies at Preparatory Stage
Competency CodeCompetency DescriptionNational Average
C-1.1
Observes and identifies the natural and social components in their
immediate environment
44%
C-1.3
Asks questions and makes predictions about simple patterns observed in
the immediate environment
38%
C-1.4
Explains the functioning of local institutions bank/post office, market, and in
different forms and analyses their roles.
56%
C-2.1 Identifies natural and human made systems that support their lives 51%
C-2.2
Describes the relationship between the natural environment and cultural
practices in their immediate environment
38%
C-3.1
Describes the basic safety needs and protection of humans, birds, and
animals
57%
C-3.2
Discusses how to prepare for emergency situations based on discussions
with family and community, or personal experiences
45%
C-4.1
Observes and describes diversity among plans, and birds and animals in their
immediate environment
54%
C-4.3 Describes usage of natural resources in their immediate environment50%
C-4.7
Learns about basic social and behavioral norms, values, and dispositions
that benefit our social and natural environments and that help our society
function smoothly
51%
C-5.3
Reads simple maps of city, state and country to identify natural and
humanmade features with reference to symbols and directions
46%
Source: PARAKH 2024
34 The NCF has replaced Environmental Studies (EVS) in Grades 3-5 with a holistic, activity-based bridge programme titled “The World Around Us”, designed to integrate work, experiential
learning, and foundational skill-building at the preparatory level.  SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Table 3.13 indicates that students display a moderate level of familiarity with their immediate
surroundings, particularly in recognising natural and social elements and explaining the functioning
of local institutions. Competencies rooted in everyday observation, such as hygiene practices, family
roles, and safety needs, show stronger performance, reinforcing the effectiveness of contextual
learning approaches at this stage.
However, the ability to extend this knowledge to more abstract or applied contexts, such as
interpreting maps, understanding the relationship between culture and environment, or preparing
for emergencies, is limited. These findings highlight the need for more structured experiential
learning, where students are encouraged to observe, inquire, and reflect across a wider set of
cultural, geographical, and ecological contexts. Strengthening local-to-global linkages, promoting
inquiry-based tasks, and integrating environmental and social understanding more holistically will
be essential to deepening students’ conceptual engagement with the world around them.
(iv) Observations by Gender, Location, Social Category
55%
47% 49%
59%
46%
50%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Language MathematicsThe World Around
Us
BoysGirls
Figure 3.55: Performance at Preparatory Stage by Gender
Source: PARAKH 2024
Girls (59%) outperform boys (55%) in language competencies. However, boys (47%) perform slightly
better than girls (46%) in mathematics. Girls (50%) outperform boys (49%) by a slight margin in The
World Around Us. Mathematics and the World Around Us show lower performance than language,
as can be seen in Figure 3.55.
Figure 3.56: Performance at Preparatory Stage by Location
Source: PARAKH 2024 93
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Figure 3.57: Performance at Preparatory Stage by School Management
Source: PARAKH 2024
Similarly, as shown in Figure 3.57, State Government and government-aided schools lag behind private and
Central Government schools, which tend to perform better, possibly due to resource constraints Central
Goverment Schools have the best performance across language, mathematics and EVS.
Figure 3.58: Performance at Preparatory Stage by Social Category
Source: PARAKH 2024
Figure 3.58 shows that ST students underperform across all three subjects, with approximately half
of the students meeting grade-level competencies. Students from 'Other' categories perform better
than their SC, ST, and OBC counterparts, possibly due to a lack of accessibility for these students.  SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
(v) Performance across States and UTs
Table 3.14: PARAKH 2024 Score
Indian States/UTs Language % Mathematics % The World Around Us %
All India574649
Andaman and Nicobar Islands554449
Andhra Pradesh484140
Arunachal Pradesh594448
Assam564548
Bihar524546
Chandigarh685457
Chhattisgarh544247
DNHDD665857
Delhi604751
Goa614752
Gujarat514045
Haryana564549
Himachal Pradesh665358
Jammu and Kashmir463941
Jharkhand534346
Karnataka554547
Kerala766066
Ladakh554548
Lakshadweep594048
Madhya Pradesh574851
Maharashtra625155
Manipur584851
Meghalaya443439
Mizoram473641
Nagaland563847
Odisha645154
Puducherry494042
Punjab746264
Rajasthan605354
Sikkim644353
Tamil Nadu514044
Telangana534444
Tripura554345
Uttar Pradesh554548
Uttarakhand544045
West Bengal57
4248
Source: PARAKH 2024 95
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
As depicted in Table 3.14, Kerala, Punjab, and Himachal Pradesh emerge as the strongest performers,
with more than two-thirds of students achieving grade-level expectations across subjects. Chandigarh,
Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu, and Odisha also perform above the national average,
reflecting relatively stronger learning outcomes at this stage. Several States, including Haryana, Goa,
and Madhya Pradesh, are close to the national mean, while larger States such as Maharashtra and
Rajasthan maintain encouraging levels in line with national performance.
At the other end, Meghalaya, Jammu & Kashmir, Mizoram, Puducherry, and Andhra Pradesh record
some of the lowest outcomes, with fewer than 45% of children demonstrating grade-level skills in
one or more subjects. States such as Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Uttarakhand, and Nagaland also remain
below the national mean, suggesting persistent gaps in preparatory-stage learning. The spread between
the highest and lowest performers is substantial, with a difference of more than 30 percentage
points in Language, over 25 percentage points in Mathematics and over 27 percentage points in The
World Around Us. These disparities signal the need for sustained focus on upper-primary readiness
to ensure that foundational gains are not lost as children progress through the system.
The preparatory stage findings broadly reflect the patterns observed at the foundational stage.
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and Kerala continue to record strong performance across both Grade
3 and Grade 5, indicating that early gains in foundational literacy and numeracy are being sustained
as children progress. States such as Jharkhand, Bihar, and Meghalaya, which performed poorly at
the foundational level, remain among the lower performers at the preparatory stage, suggesting
persistent learning gaps. These trends underline the importance of strengthening foundational
learning at the earliest stages, as deficits at the start of schooling are likely to persist and widen in
subsequent grades.
C3. Middle Stage (Grade 9)
(i) Language Competency 
Figure 3.59: Average Language Competency at Middle Stage
Source: PARAKH 2024
At this stage, nationally, 54% of students can perform at the grade level. This indicates that more
than half of the students can, at a higher level, assess language and possess above-average reading
skills and comprehension. As indicated in Table 3.15, at the national level, 54% of the students at
the middle stage have the ability to summarise contents and identify the main points from various
text sources such as editorials, news reports, etc., highlighting an average performance in reading
and comprehension, a crucial literacy skill.  SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Table 3.15: Language Competencies at Middle Stage
Competency CodeCompetency DescriptionNational Average
C-1.1
Identifies main points and summarises from a careful listening or
reading of the text
54%
Source: PARAKH 2024
(ii) Mathematical Competencies
Figure 3.60: Average Mathematics Competency at Middle Stage
Source: PARAKH 2024
Mathematics presents as the most significant challenge at this stage, where 37% students are able
to perform at grade level.
Table 3.16: Mathematics Competencies at Middle Stage
Competency CodeCompetency DescriptionNational Average
C-1.2
Discovers, identifies, and explores patterns in numbers and describes rules for
their formation (e.g., multiples of 7, powers of 3, prime numbers), and explains
relations between different patterns
39%
C-1.4
Explores and understands sets of numbers, such as whole numbers, fractions,
integers, rational numbers, and real numbers, and their properties, and visualises
them on the number line
31%
C-1.5 Explores the idea of percentage and applies it to solve problems 28%
C-1.6
Explores and applies fractions (both as ratios and in decimal form) in daily-
life situations
31%
C-2.2
Extends the representation of a number in the form of a variable or an algebraic
expression using a variable
44%
C-2.3
Forms algebraic expressions using variables, coefficients, and constants and
manipulates them through basic operations
38%
C-2.5 Develops own methods to solve puzzles and problems using algebraic thinking37%
C-3.2
Outlines the properties of lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals and polygons and
applies them to solve related problems. 
37%
C-3.5
Understands congruence and similarity as it applies to geometric shapes and
identifies similar and congruent triangles.
40%
C-4.1
Discovers, understands and uses formulae to determine the area of a square,
triangle, parallelogram and trapezium and develops strategies to find the areas
of composite 2D shapes
39%
C-5.1
Collects, organises and interprets the data using measures of central tendencies
such as average/mean, mode and median
41%
C-6.1
Applies both inductive and deductive logic to formulate definitions and conjectures,
evaluate and produce convincing arguments/proofs to turn these definitions and
conjectures into theorems or correct statements.
29%
Source: PARAKH 2024 97
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The data from Table 3.16 reflects a clear pattern of cumulative learning gaps in mathematics, where
insufficient conceptual clarity at the foundational stage continues to affect student performance in
higher grades. Grade 9 students not only face challenges in advanced topics such as algebra, geometry,
and theorems but also struggle with everyday mathematical applications, including percentages,
fractions, and ratio-based reasoning. This suggests that early learning deficits have not been adequately
addressed as students’ progress through the system.
A particularly critical concern is the limited development of mathematical reasoning and abstraction.
Fewer than one in three students are able to apply logical thinking across problem types. The ability
to formulate, test, and validate mathematical statements, central to secondary-level mathematics,
is not being adequately cultivated.
(iii) Science Competencies
Figure 3.61: Average Science Competency at Middle Stage
Source: PARAKH 2024
Students showed a below-average performance in science nationally, with 40% students able to
perform at their grade level. 
Table 3.17: Science Competencies at Middle Stage
Competency CodeCompetency DescriptionNational Average
C-1.1 Classifies matter based on observable physical and chemical characteristics36%
C-1.2
Describes changes in matter and uses particulate nature to represent the
properties of matter and the changes
38%
C-1.4
Observes and explains the phenomena caused due to differences in pressure,
temperature, and density
37%
C-2.1
Describes one-dimensional motion using physical measurements through
mathematical and diagrammatic representations
41%
C-2.2
Describes how electricity works through manipulating different elements in
simple circuits and demonstrates the heating and magnetic effects of electricity
33%
C-2.3 Describes the properties of a magnet 41%
C-2.4
Demonstrates rectilinear propagation of light from different sources, verifies
the laws of reflection through manipulation of light sources and objects and
the use of apparatus and artefacts
45%
C-3.1 Describes the diversity of living things observed in the natural surroundings 47%
C-3.2 Distinguishes the characteristics of living organisms from non-living things.  34%
C-4.1
Undertakes a nutrition-based analysis of food components with special reference
to Indian culinary practices and modern understanding of nutrition, and explains
the effect of nutrition on health
53%
C-4.3
Describes biological changes during adolescence, and measures to ensure
overall well-being
37%
C-7.3
Represents real-world events and relationships through diagrams and simple
mathematical representations
38%
Source: PARAKH 2024 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 98
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
The analysis of science learning outcomes for Grade 9, as shown in Table 3.17, reveals persistent
challenges in both conceptual understanding and the ability to apply scientific knowledge to real-
world contexts. Across domains, physical sciences, life sciences, and basic principles of electricity
and motion, student performance falls short of the expected benchmarks. While relatively better
outcomes are observed in nutrition and biodiversity-related competencies, foundational gaps
are evident in understanding differentiating living and non-living organisms, and classifying matter
based on physical and chemical properties. Competencies that involve abstract reasoning, such as
interpreting motion, understanding magnetism, or demonstrating simple circuits, are not adequately
developed. This points to a gap in how science is taught, with limited emphasis on experimentation
and active discovery.
(iv) Social Science Competencies
Figure 3.62: Average Social Science Competency at Middle Stage
Source: PARAKH 2024
40% students at the middle stage can perform at grade level in social science, leaving the majority
of the students performing below expected competency. 
Table 3.18: Social Science Competencies at Middle Stage
Competency CodeCompetency DescriptionNational Average
C-1.1 Collects and interprets multiple sources of information to
understand the historical, cultural, geographical and socio-
political aspects of human life
32%
C-1.2 Represents and analyses data related to various aspects
of human life given in the form of text, tables, charts,
diagrams, and maps
53%
C-2.1 Explains and analyses major changes in the past and their
impact on society
39%
C-2.2
Recognises elements of the continued prevalence of certain
beliefs, relationships, practices, and activities in human society,
not with standing major changes in society
38% 99
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Competency CodeCompetency DescriptionNational Average
C-3.1 Analyses the effect of various changes in early human
society from nomadism to settled life and early civilisation
and changes in human habitation, family structures and
relationships, the nature of work,
people’s socio-cultural beliefs and concepts over time that
significantly impacted human societies
36%
C-4.2 Assesses the influence of social, cultural, and political
institutions on an individual or group or community or
society in general 
46%
C-6.1 Explains key natural phenomena such acclimate, weather,
ocean cycles, soil formation, the flow of rivers, and how they
are spatially distributed
33%
C-6.2 Identifies the distribution of resources such as water,
agriculture, raw materials, and services across geographies.
38%
C-6.3 Analyses Indian perspectives on and efforts towards
conservation and sustainability in society, and advocates
the importance of the same, and what more needs to be
done in these directions including in the context of global
climate change
46%
C-6.4
Correlates the existence of different patterns of livelihoods
with different types of landforms, availability of resources,
and climatic conditions and changes
39%
C-7.1
Explains India’s unity in diversity by recognising commonalities
in its rich and diverse cultural elements, languages, art,
philosophical ideas, values, clothing, cuisines, traditions,
festivals, trade, commerce, and health practices including
Ayurveda and yoga
36%
C-7.2
Discovers the topographical diversity of the Indian landmass
- from the semi-arid zone in the west, areas of heavy rains in
the north-east, to long coastal areas in the south, the snow-
clad mountains in the north, and the rich biodiversity
34%
C-8.2
Explains the process of formation of the Indian Constitution
and understands the ideas and ideals of the Indian National
Movement enshrined in it, as well as those drawn from India’s
civilised heritage
45%
C-8.3 Explains the working of the three tiers of local self-
government and appreciates its significance in upholding
democracy at the grassroot level
39%
C-9.1 Explains the key elements of trade and commerce nd its
impact on individual life and society.
50%
Source: PARAKH 2024 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 100
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
The Social Science data in Table 3.18 for Grade 9 indicate considerable variation in student
achievement across disciplines such as history, geography, political science, and economics. Students
tend to perform better on tasks involving structured information like reading tables or explaining
basic trade concepts. However, they struggle with analytical tasks, such as interpreting historical
change, examining resource distribution, or linking environmental shifts to livelihood patterns.
There is also limited engagement with themes requiring critical thought such as the evolution of
institutions, constitutional processes, or the interplay of social identities. Many students find it
difficult to synthesise information from different contexts or to trace the broader significance of
events and systems.
(v) Observations by Gender, Location, Management and Social Category
Figure 3.63: Performance at Middle Stage b-y Gender
Source: PARAKH 2024
As evident in Figure 3.63, nationally, girls outperform boys in Language and Social Science with boys
doing marginally better than girls in Mathematics and Science.
51%
36%
39% 39%
58%
38%
42% 41%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Language Mathematics Science Social Science
RuralUrban
Figure 3.64: Performance at Middle Stage by Location
Source: PARAKH 2024
Students in urban areas do better than their rural counterparts across all subjects, as can be seen in
Figure 3.64. This reflects the increasing significance of targeted interventions in schools in rural areas.  101
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Figure 3.65: Performance at Middle Stage by Social Category
Source: PARAKH 2024
Persistent learning gaps between social categories are highlighted in Figure 3.65, highlighting that
students from the ‘Others’ social category routinely score better in language and mathematics
than their SC, ST, and OBC peers.
Figure 3.66: Performance at Middle Stage by School Management
Source: PARAKH 2024
Figure 3.66 shows that Central Government run schools do significantly better, further reinforcing
the importance of systematic support and shared resources. Learning parity across schools can be
bridged, and learning gains could be accelerated by sharing best practices from central government-
managed schools.  SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
(vi) Performance across States and UTs
Table 3.19: PARAKH 2024 Scores for Middle Stage (2024) (In percentage)
Indian States/UTsLanguage Mathematics Science Social Science
India54 37 40 40
Andaman and Nicobar Islands57 35 41 41
Andhra Pradesh50 35 36 37
Arunachal Pradesh60 34 39 42
Assam53 35 38 38
Bihar52 39 41 40
Chandigarh70 43 49 49
Chhattisgarh53 35 40 39
Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu 65 39 45 45
Delhi65 40 46 44
Goa62 37 44 42
Gujarat50 32 38 37
Haryana54 36 41 39
Himachal Pradesh65 42 47 46
Jammu and Kashmir50 32 38 36
Jharkhand50 34 38 38
Karnataka51 33 37 37
Kerala74 45 53 51
Ladakh59 35 41 41
Lakshadweep54 33 40 37
Madhya Pradesh52 36 39 39
Maharashtra59 38 42 43
Manipur52 35 39 39
Meghalaya47 29 33 34
Mizoram47 31 34 34
Nagaland58 30 37 39
Odisha59 41 43 43
Puducherry50 32 36 35
Punjab69 52 54 52
Rajasthan56 44 46 45
Sikkim60 32 41 42
Tamil Nadu49 32 36 35
Telangana54 36 39 38
Tripura53 35 38 37
Uttar Pradesh48 34 38 37
Uttarakhand50 34 39 37
West Bengal53 35 40 38
Source: PARAKH 2024 103
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
For the Middle Stage (Grade 9), Table 3.19 shows notable differences in performance across States
and UTs. When compared with the Foundational and Preparatory Stage results, a few States, such
as Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan, have consistently ranked among
the better performers, suggesting strong systems and the ability to maintain learning levels over
time. On the other hand, States like Jharkhand, Gujarat, and Jammu & Kashmir have remained in
the lower group across all stages, pointing to challenges that need sustained, long-term attention.
These patterns are consistent with the findings from the foundational and middle stages: States
that perform strongly in the early grades tend to maintain their advantage in later years, while
those with weaker outcomes at the start continue to struggle as students’ progress. The national
averages are also a cause for concern, pointing to systemic challenges that extend beyond the
lowest-performing states.
3.4.2 Teacher Availability and Deployment
Teacher availability and deployment have a significant impact on the quality of education provided.
Low-income and disadvantaged students are disproportionately affected by teacher attrition and
unavailability, which in turn, has a detrimental impact on the retention rates and transition rates
of school students. 
(i) Teacher Vacancies 
India has a teaching workforce of approximately 1.01 Crore, serving across 14 lakh schools nationwide.
While steady progress has been made in improving the Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR), significant
shortfalls in teacher availability continue to affect the delivery of quality education, particularly in
rural and underserved regions. These areas face high levels of teacher attrition, often driven by
regional disparities and infrastructural challenges, which in turn adversely impact learning outcomes,
student retention, and grade-to-grade transition rates. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
Table 3.20: State-wise Teacher Vacancies in India (Government Schools)
S. No.State/UTTeacher Vacancies
1.Andaman and Nicobar IslandsNo vacancy reported
2.Andhra PradeshNot specified
3.Arunachal Pradesh 1,254 Elementary; 564 Secondary; 140 Senior Secondary
4.Bihar2,08,784 Elementary; 36,035 Secondary; 33,035 Senior Secondary
5.ChandigarhNot specified
6.ChhattisgarhNot specified
7.Dadra and Nagar Haveli 115 Elementary; 4 Secondary
8.DelhiNo vacancies reported
9.Goa306 Elementary; 311 Secondary; 231 Senior Secondary
10.Haryana7,626 Elementary; 4,070 Secondary; 3,847 Senior Secondary
11.Himachal Pradesh3,654 Elementary; 565 Secondary
12.Jammu & KashmirNot specified
13.Jharkhand80,341 Elementary; 18,343 Secondary; 881 Senior Secondary
14.Karnataka29,473 Elementary; 8,690 Secondary
15.KeralaNo vacancies reported
16.LakshadweepNot specified
17.Madhya Pradesh47,122 Elementary; 2,877 Secondary; 2,020 Senior Secondary
18.Maharashtra8,254 Elementary; 660 Secondary; 65 Senior secondary
19.Meghalaya0 Elementary; 0 Secondary; 16 Senior Secondary
20.Mizoram122 Elementary; 9 Secondary
21.NagalandNo vacancies reported
22.PuducherryNot specified
23.Punjab1,546 Elementary; 961 Secondary; 3,916 Senior Secondary
24.Rajasthan3,856 Elementary; 1,365 Secondary; 14,949 Senior Secondary
25.SikkimNo vacancies reported
26.Tamil Nadu170 Elementary; 4,278 Secondary; 693 Senior Secondary
27.TelanganaNot specified
28.Tripura6,006 Elementary; 843 Secondary; 1,171 Senior Secondary
29.Uttarakhand3,932 Elementary; 1,737 Secondary; 1,329 Senior Secondary
30.West Bengal5,530 Elementary; 33,369 Secondary; 38,899 Senior Secondary
Source: PAB Minutes 2025-26
The teacher vacancies mentioned in Table 3.20 shows a critical gap in the availability of qualified
teachers across several Indian states, particularly at the elementary, secondary, and senior secondary
levels. States such as Bihar, Jharkhand, and Madhya Pradesh report exceptionally high vacancy
levels, with Bihar alone accounting for over 2.08 lakh vacancies at the elementary level, 36,035 at
the secondary level, and 33,035 at the senior secondary level, indicating an acute shortage that
demands immediate policy attention. Other states, including Karnataka, Haryana, and Maharashtra,
also report significant shortfalls, indicating the systemic nature of the challenge.  105
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal AnalysisSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
(ii) Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR)
Pupil-Teacher Ratio is the average number of pupils (students) per teacher at a specific level of
education in a given school year. The PTR, according to the UDISE+ 2024-25 Report for all stages, is
presented in Table 3.21. PTR at the primary stage stands at 20:1, which is well within the permissible
limits prescribed by the RTE Act (30:1 for primary and 35:1 for upper primary).
35

Table 3.21: Stage-Wise PTR (2024-25)
StagePTR
Primary20
Upper Primary17
Secondary15
Higher Secondary23
Source: UDISE 2024-25
Table 3.22: State-Wise PTR by Stage (2024-25)
State/UTPrimary Upper Primary Secondary Higher Secondary
India20171523
A & N Islands98610
Andhra Pradesh21151030
Arunachal Pradesh97914
Assam19131219
Bihar26192627
Chandigarh22151023
Chhattisgarh18151412
Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu28261921
Delhi29281720
Goa2314816
Gujarat24242725
Haryana21171011
Himachal Pradesh13869
Jammu & Kashmir1291222
Jharkhand26243047
Karnataka21171828
Kerala22181320
Ladakh5358
35 Government of India, Press Information Bureau. (2017, February 9). Student-Teacher Ratio. Press Information Bureau.   SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 106
State/UTPrimary Upper Primary Secondary Higher Secondary
Lakshadweep171588
Madhya Pradesh16141415
Maharashtra24242037
Manipur139914
Meghalaya18121015
Mizoram126811
Nagaland97816
Odisha16151637
Puducherry1412915
Punjab2015916
Rajasthan18121115
Sikkim6657
Tamil Nadu20181221
Telangana1812924
Tripura16151114
Uttar Pradesh20222235
Uttarakhand15131014
West Bengal21271821
Source: UDISE 2024-25
Table 3.22 shows the State-level data for both primary and upper primary also broadly remain
within these limits. However, disparities emerge at the secondary stage, for instance, Jharkhand
reports a PTR of 47:1, Maharashtra 37:1, Odisha 37:1, underscoring teacher shortages beyond the
coverage of the RTE framework.
As per UDISE 2024-25, there are 1,04,125 single-teacher schools in the country. Further, UNESCO
(2021) reported that 89% of such schools in 2018-19 were located in rural areas, highlighting uneven
teacher distribution and limited access to subject-specific instruction in underserved regions.
3.5 Funding
Investment in school education is a foundational driver of long-term economic growth and national
development. As per World Bank estimates, an additional year of average schooling is associated with a
0.37% increase in a country’s GDP growth. In recognition of this link, the Kothari Commission (1964)
recommended allocating 6% of GDP to education, an objective subsequently endorsed by the National
Policy on Education (1968) and reaffirmed by NEP 2020. 107SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Chapter III School Education in India: A Temporal Analysis
5.5
4.7
4.2
5.4
5.9
3.3
4.6
5.4
3.9
5.42
Brazil
Canada
Italy
France
United Kingdom
Japan
India
Germany
China
United States of America
Figure 3.67: Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) (2021)
Source: World Bank
Figure 3.67 indicates government expenditure on education as a share of GDP in 2021 for the world’s
largest economies. India, at 4.6%, remains below the levels of the United Kingdom and the United States
(5.9% each), Germany (5.4%), and France (5.4%).
36
India’s allocation is higher than that of Japan (3.3%) and
China (3.9%).























*RYHUQPHQWVSHQGLQJRQ(GXFDWLRQDVVKDUHRI*'3RYHUWKH\HDUV
Figure 3.68: Central and State Government spending on Education as % share of GDP over the years
Source: Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education 2019-20 to 2022-23 (2025)
Note: This includes total expenditure on Education by Ministry of Education and other Departments
by the Central and State/UT Governments.
Figure 3.68 presents the trend in public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP over the past
decade. The share has remained within the range of 3.87% to 4.24%. In the subsequent years, expenditure
has largely remained around 4% of GDP. Sustained and calibrated enhancement in public investment will
be critical to advancing long-term improvements in access, equity, quality, and system resilience across the
education sector.
36 World Bank. (2025). Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP). World Bank. Chapter IV
CHALLENGES AND
BOTTLENECKS SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 110
Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
Chapter IV
Challenges and Bottlenecks
The thematic challenges presented in this chapter are based on insights from the National Workshop on Quality
Education organised by NITI Aayog in February 2025, which engaged Central and State Government officials,
representatives from NGOs and civil society organisations, teachers, parents, and grassroots education workers.
These have been further informed by a detailed analysis of UDISE+, NAS, PARAKH, and ASER datasets.
This chapter is structured under two broad sections: Systemic Challenges and Academic Challenges, which
together capture the key barriers to improving the quality of school education in India.
Figure 4.1: List of Challenges
4.1 Systemic Challenges
4.1.1 Fragmented Schooling Structures and Discontinuity
The Indian school system shows significant fragmentation across levels, resulting in hampering
the continuity of schooling and the efficiency of educational delivery. These challenges are not
isolated but are embedded in the design and distribution of schools across the country and lead
to persistent gaps in access, retention, and learning. The problem can be described through the
following five key pillars: 111
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
(i) Discontinuity in School Structures and the Pyramidal Model
India’s schooling system is shaped like a pyramid, with the highest number of primary schools at
the base, tapering significantly at higher levels. As per UDISE+ 2024-25, there are 7.3 lakh primary
schools in the country. However, this number reduces sharply at the upper primary level (4.34
lakh) and further drops to just 1.42 lakh secondary schools and 1.64 lakh higher secondary schools.
This decline in the number of schools as one moves up the grades directly limits the availability of
education at different stages for many children.
Figure 4.2: Number and Percentage of Schools by Stage
Source: UDISE 2024-25
Adding to this is the lack of schools offering continuous education across grades. The existence
of multiple school types as depicted in the table 3.2, ranging from primary-only to institutions
offering standalone grades such as (1-8), (6-8), (1-10), (6-10), (9-10), (11-12) leads to dropouts at
the transition stages, usually after Grade 5, Grade 8, and Grade 10. Only ~5% of schools in India
offer continuous schooling from Grades 1 to 12. This fragmentation without any established linkage
between schools for transitioning requires students to shift schools at key stages, depending on
local availability, which further contributes to declining retention rates and limits the likelihood of
progression to higher stages of education.
(ii) Existence of Small and Under-Enrolled Schools
A significant proportion of schools in India operate with very low student strength. As mentioned
in Table 4.1, more than one-third of schools have less than 50 students, with around 5.1% having
enrolment below 10, and another 8% in the 11-20 range.
Table- 4.1: Percentage of Schools across various Enrolment brackets
<1011-2021-30 31-4041-5051-6061-7071-8081-9091-100101-200201-300301-400401-500>500
5.18 9.17.96.35.55 4.13.53.319.98.5 4.5 2.7 6.8
Source: UDISE 2024-25
The small size of these schools has made their operation economically inefficient and administratively
challenging, particularly with respect to teacher deployment and the provision of essential physical
infrastructure. [NEP 2020, Clause 7.2] The large number of such schools also complicates efficient
teacher deployment and makes service delivery less cost-effective. While these institutions were SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 112
Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
originally set up under the RTE Act, 2009, to improve access in remote areas, continuing to operate
them without a strategic consolidation plan has led to fragmented service delivery and reduced
per-student investment.
(iii) Single-Teacher Schools
Across many parts of the country, particularly in remote and sparsely populated regions, schools
continue to function with only a single teacher managing the entire institution. According to the
latest UDISE+ 2024-25 data, more than 1 lakh schools in India operate with just 1 teacher, accounting
for over 7% of all schools. This results in little to no value addition for the students studying in
those schools.
In such schools, the sole teacher is expected to shoulder multiple responsibilities, including classroom
instruction across multiple grades, administrative work, mid-day meal preparation, record-keeping,
coordinating with parents, and other tasks.
37
Multi-grade classrooms are often the norm, where
children from different grades sit together. This severely limits grade-specific engagement. Teachers
are compelled to divide their attention across multiple grades. Table 4.2 shows the number of Zero
Enrolment and Single Teacher Schools across all States and UTs.
Table 4.2: Zero Enrolment and Single Teacher Schools
States/UTs
Schools with
Zero Enrolments
Teachers in
schools having
Zero Enrolments
Schools with
Single Teachers
Enrolments in Single
Teacher Schools
All India7,99320,817 1,04,125 33,76,769
Andaman &
Nicobar Islands
00489
Andhra Pradesh1312,912 1,97,113
Arunachal Pradesh 21155626,912
Assam002,820 92,699
Bihar5171,865 1,75,500
Chandigarh0000
Chhattisgarh005,973 2,13,237
DNH & DD0000
Delhi0091,089
Goa0062771
Gujarat63782,936 1,05,134
Haryana001,066 43,400
Himachal Pradesh 002,964 46,329
Jammu & Kashmir 146611,371 32,303
Jharkhand107319,172 4,36,480
Karnataka2703087,349 2,23,142
Kerala471963920
Ladakh101854306
Lakshadweep0000
Madhya Pradesh4632237,217 2,29,095
37 Diwan, R. (2012). Indian small schools: A review of issues and related concerns (Occasional Paper No. 40). NUEPA 113
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
States/UTs
Schools with
Zero Enrolments
Teachers in
schools having
Zero Enrolments
Schools with
Single Teachers
Enrolments in Single
Teacher Schools
Maharashtra008,152 1,50,146
Manipur35603839115
Meghalaya741521,414 49,807
Mizoram32271173,056
Nagaland0026292
Odisha311,089 47,940
Puducherry0000
Punjab1392,431 76,942
Rajasthan2152936,117 1,72,071
Sikkim0036319
Tamil Nadu3114323,671 95,353
Telangana2,2451,0165,001 62,288
Tripura003406,492
Uttar Pradesh81569,508 6,24,327
Uttarakhand39332,959 38,608
West Bengal3,81217,9656,482 2,35,494
Source: UDISE 2024-25
(iv) Persistence of Zero-Enrolment Schools and Implications for System
Efficiency
As can be seen in Table 4.2, close to 7,993 schools across the country reported zero student
enrolment, with the highest numbers seen in West Bengal (3,812) and Telangana (12,245). While these
schools appear operational in administrative records, they no longer serve any student population.
These schools, despite zero enrolment, continue to receive financial and human resources due to
the lack of updating of records, showing the difference between on-ground reality and planning.
(v) Multi-Grade Classrooms without Instructional Support
The above problems and challenges consolidate and result in further challenges. Due to the difference
in enrolment across schools and the skewed allocation of resources, there are schools that lack
infrastructure and human resources, where one teacher teaches multiple grades in the same space.
However, most teacher training programmes do not include methods or strategies for handling
multigrade settings. As a result, teachers are often left to manage diverse learning needs without
adequate support, leading to uneven learning outcomes and reduced classroom effectiveness. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 114
Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
4.1.2 Infrastructure Gaps
Infrastructure is one of the most important pillars in ensuring continuity, equity, and quality in
school education. While there has been a constant push for the development of physical and digital
infrastructure, gaps in basic and advanced infrastructure persist across the country, particularly
affecting students in underserved and geographically challenging regions. These gaps are evident
in the following ways:
Figure 4.3: Infrastructure Gaps
(i) Inadequate Access to basic facilities
Electricity availability has grown by nearly 1.6 times from 55.96% in 2014 to 91.9%, marking a
substantial expansion in access across the country. Yet, a significant proportion of schools continue
to operate without electricity which is necessary for creating conducive environment for learning.
According to UDISE+ 2024-25, 1.19 lakh schools lack access to functional electricity. Access to
water and hygiene facilities is also inconsistent. The share of schools with drinking water facilities
has increased from 96.5% in 2014 to 99% in 2025. 14,505 schools still lack functional water sources,
and nearly 59,829 lack hand-wash facilities, compromising student health and hygiene. These gaps
translate to schools not being physically fit for children to continue, and hamper education and
basic public health, especially in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic.
38
(ii) Gaps in Gender-sensitive Sanitation and Menstrual Hygiene Infrastructure
The lack of adequate sanitation facilities continues to impact school attendance, particularly among
adolescent girls. Over the past decade, India has made steady progress, with the share of schools
having functional toilets increasing from 85.17% in 2014 to 94% in 2024-25, as reported by UDISE.
Despite these gains, 98,592 schools still lack functional girls’ toilets, and 61,540 schools have no
usable toilets. Inadequate menstrual hygiene facilities, such as toilets, disposal units, private changing
areas, and access to sanitary products, often lead to absenteeism and dropout among girls at
the secondary level
39
. These shortcomings also contribute to social discomfort. health issues and
discourage regular attendance. Expanding sanitation infrastructure and ensuring its usability will
be central to creating safer and more inclusive school environments.
38 Clean India, clean schools. UNICEF
39 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Breaking the silence: Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) in India. 115
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
(iii) Lack of Functioning Labs for STEM Education
Secondary schools across the country lack access to functional science labs despite the policy
push towards systemic STEM education. According to UDISE+ 2024-25, 51.7% of government
secondary schools are equipped with science laboratories, thereby limiting opportunities for practical,
inquiry-based learning in nearly 50% of schools. This deficit weakens conceptual understanding in
core subjects like Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, and undermines efforts to promote scientific
temper and problem-solving competencies as envisaged under NEP 2020. Even though integrated
science laboratories remain a key recommendation in the national frameworks, the implementation
has been inconsistent across states. The absence of practical exposure leads to the instruction
remaining confined to textbook explanations and theoretical models, which affects learning outcomes
amongst students.
40
(iv) Underutilised Library Infrastructure
As per UDISE, the share of schools with libraries has grown from 82.19% in 2014-15 to about
89.5% in 2024-25. While this reflects steady progress in expanding access to learning resources,
the key challenge lies in ensuring their effective use. In many schools, libraries often function more
as storage areas than as active learning spaces. Many lack trained personnel, updated books, and
age-appropriate materials, which limits their contribution to improving learning outcomes. This
reflects a systemic challenge in which school libraries are rarely integrated into the instructional
framework or leveraged as spaces that support independent learning and critical thinking.
The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) had cautioned against this disconnect, noting that
the absence of proper staffing and curation weakens reading habits among students
41
. Bridging this
gap will require renewed attention to the educational purpose of libraries, through better staffing,
regular reading activities, and the integration of digital resources, to ensure that every child benefits
from access to a functional and engaging learning space.
(v) Inadequate Integration of Digital Infrastructure in Pedagogy
As per UDISE+ 2024-25, 64.7% of schools are equipped with computers, and 57.9% have them
available for teaching and learning purposes. In 2014-15, the corresponding figure was 26.42%, showing
a substantial increase in coverage over the past decade. Internet connectivity is now available in
63.5% of schools, a significant eightfold increase from 8.05% in 2014-15. Despite this progress, the
digital divide remains visible, as illustrated in Map 2.30, particularly across States such as Bihar, West
Bengal, Manipur, Mizoram, and Meghalaya, where many schools continue to lack basic ICT facilities.
This limits exposure to technology-enabled teaching, reduces access to online learning material,
and restricts opportunities for students to build digital literacy, an essential skill in the 21
st
century
42
.
This also affects school administration, as institutions without connectivity often depend on manual
systems or external facilities to update platforms such as UDISE+ and SDMIS, leading to delays and
data inconsistencies. More broadly, limited digital readiness constrains the implementation of NEP
2020’s goals on personalised learning, real-time monitoring, and data-driven governance.
40 Central Board of Secondary Education. (2023). National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF-SE), Part C: “Science Education” (Chapter 4). Ministry of Education,
Government of India
41 Report of the Secondary Education Commission, October 1952-June 1953 (A. L. Mudaliar, Chair). Ministry of Education, Government of India. Chapter 7: Dynamic Methods of Teaching
— “The Place of the Library in the School”.
42 Sharma, R. (2023). Expanding the scope of digital initiatives for transforming 21st century school education. Indian Journal of Educational Technology, 5(I), 210-229. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 116
Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
4.1.3 Gaps in Equity and Inclusion
Despite notable gains in access, marginalised students, particularly from Socio-Economically
Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs), girls, CwSN, and migrant communities continue to face overlapping
and structural barriers to participation, retention, and learning. These challenges are not uniform but
are layered across social, geographic, and economic dimensions. This section examines the nature
and extent of exclusion across key demographic groups and identifies policy levers to strengthen
equitable learning pathways.
Figure 4.4: Gaps in Equity and Inclusion
(i) Additional Barriers for SEDGs
Students from historically disadvantaged communities, often face a compounded burden of poverty,
low parental education, and limited access to early learning support. While elementary enrolment has
improved significantly, disparities persist in retention, transition to secondary and higher secondary
stages, and learning outcomes. As observed in PARAKH 2024, students from SEDGs lag behind
their peers in all major subjects. For instance, for the middle stage, in mathematics, 33% of SC,
33% of ST students and 39% OBC students demonstrated proficiency, compared to 48% among
students from the “Other” category, i.e., the General category. Similarly, in language, SC, ST and
OBC students scored 48%, 49% and 59% respectively, while Others scored 60%, highlighting equity
gaps in foundational learning outcomes. NEP 2020 and NCF-SE 2023 emphasise differentiated
pedagogy, locally contextualised learning materials, and bilingual approaches to ensure foundational
equity
43
. Without bridging these learning gaps in early stages, the disparities compound sharply at
the secondary level, particularly among SEDG learners.
(ii) Gender-based Constraints in Continuity and Progression
Through systemic work on attaining gender equality in education, the challenge has now shifted to
retention rather than enrolment of girls in school. While enrolment parity has largely been achieved,
dropout rates rise in upper primary and secondary stages due to household responsibilities, early
marriage, mobility concerns, and safety issues. In low-income families, gender norms often lead to
a preference for investing in boys’ education. The absence of gender-sensitive infrastructure, such
43 National Council of Educational Research and Training. (2023). National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF-SE 2023), Part B: Inclusion in Schools (Chapter 4). Ministry
of Education, Government of India. 117
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
as separate functional toilets and safe transport, further deters regular attendance and undermines
girls’ educational continuity.
(iii) High Financial Burden of Secondary Education
The transition from elementary to secondary education marks a significant financial inflection point for
many families. While elementary schooling is largely free in government schools, secondary education
often involves substantial out-of-pocket costs like books, uniforms, transport, and examination fees,
alongside growing reliance on private tuition. According to estimates, the per-child expenditure
in government secondary schools is three to five times higher than at the primary stage
44
. These
cumulative costs weigh heavily on households with limited and unstable incomes.
At the same time, economic vulnerability drives adolescents, particularly from rural and low-income
backgrounds, into the workforce or domestic responsibilities. According to PLFS 2020-21 estimates,
31% of out-of-school adolescents (14-17 years) were working, while another 25% cited household
duties. For girls, this often translates into early withdrawal from school to take on unpaid care work,
deepening existing gender inequities. The result is a quiet but persistent pattern of dropout, shaped
as much by affordability as by the economic choices families are forced to make.
(iv) Uneven Access to Secondary Education in Difficult Geographies
Access to secondary education remains more concentrated in urban areas, while many rural and
remote regions face limited school availability. In several parts of the country, especially those with
difficult terrain such as the Northeast and Himalayan states, long travel distances, rough roads, and
irregular transport make regular attendance challenging for students. These physical barriers also
impact teacher deployment and retention, resulting in uneven access to and learning opportunities.
The dispersed settlement pattern in many parts of rural India, characterised by numerous small and
low-density habitations, further complicates efforts to establish schools within easy reach of every
community. Addressing these constraints through innovative school mapping, residential facilities,
and transport support remains essential to achieving equitable access to secondary education.
(v) Physical Infrastructure Gaps hindering CwSN
Over the past decade, schools have made visible progress in improving physical accessibility. As per
UDISE+ 2024-25, 79.1% of schools now have ramps, a 32% rise from 59.77% in 2014-15, and 33.4%
have functional toilets for CwSN, nearly doubling from 16.64% in 2014-15. Many schools still lack
basic infrastructure such as barrier-free classrooms, tactile paths, or height-adjusted furniture. These
omissions make daily school routines, from reaching classrooms to using restrooms, difficult for
children with locomotor or visual impairments. In many cases, the absence of safe, accessible spaces
silently discourages attendance and participation, especially among adolescent girls with disabilities.
(vi) Lack of Identification and Awareness of Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are still largely overlooked within mainstream school systems in India. Conditions
such as dyslexia, dyscalculia, and related disorders go undetected due to limited early screening, low
awareness among teachers, and the absence of dedicated support structures. In many cases, students
are misidentified as weak learners, leading to stigma, frustration, and academic disengagement.
Classroom environments are typically not designed to support diverse cognitive needs. Tools
44 Bordoloi, M., & Pandey, S. (2022, November 10). Challenges in access to secondary education in India. CPR India. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 118
Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
for differentiated instruction are unavailable in most settings, and teacher training programmes
seldom equip educators to identify or respond to such challenges. Although inclusive education has
expanded in scope, the primary focus has been on physical and sensory impairments. As a result,
children with learning disabilities continue to be excluded from meaningful participation, despite
having the potential to succeed with the right support.
In addition, teachers often lack the necessary preparation and support to identify and respond to
diverse learning needs. Limited exposure to inclusive pedagogy in both pre-service and in-service
training further constrains classroom inclusion
45
.

(Inclusion and Equity in Indian Education through
the Lens of NEP 2020 AND NCF 2023, 2025).
(vii) Migration-linked Exclusion
Migrant children form a large but often invisible segment of India’s school-age population. As per the
Census 2011, there were 9.29 crore migrant children in India. Migration among children is rarely
voluntary; over half (50.8%) moved with their households, often without prior notice, disrupting
schooling and social integration. These disruptions are particularly harsh for girls. 52.7% of migrant
girls aged 10-19 were already married, undermining their educational continuity and long-term agency.
Simultaneously, over 1.98 crore migrant children aged 0-14 were engaged in labour or business
activities, often out of economic compulsion, further marginalising them from structured learning.
46
Most schools lack migrant-responsive provisions such as mobile learning units, or curriculum
portability across states. With no institutional mechanisms for tracking, bridging, or supporting
migrant learners, these children are left with little support to continue their education. The absence
of parental awareness and community support structures compounds this exclusion, as migrant
families are often disconnected from local schooling processes, mid-year admissions, or entitlements
under Samagra Shiksha.
4.1.4 Gaps in Governance and School Leadership
School education in India struggles with weak governance and limited leadership support at every
level. Unclear hierarchies, unfilled positions, and rigid inspection practices leave little room for
schools to plan, adapt, or improve independently.
(i) Fragmented Governance Structure with Lack of Local Autonomy
Education governance in India is split across multiple levels - Centre, State, District, Block and
Panchayats with overlapping jurisdictions and poorly defined roles. State education departments
lack a structured organisation with overlaps, often missing crucial functions and inadequately planned
team sizes. Most positions lack clear roles and responsibilities, causing day-to-day operational
and management challenges
47
. School leaders’ function within confusing hierarchies, with minimal
autonomy to respond to local needs. Headmasters are often reduced to passive implementers of
top-down directives, with little say in shaping school priorities or adapting initiatives to their context.
Without space for local problem-solving or strategic planning, meaningful school transformation
becomes difficult to achieve.
45 Sengupta, A., & Kumar, H. (2025). Inclusion and equity in Indian education through the lens of NEP 2020 and National Curriculum Framework for School Education-2023. University
News, 63(42), October 20-26. Association of Indian Universities.
46 Young Lives & UNICEF India. (2020). Understanding child migration in India. UNICEF India.
47 NITI Aayog. (2023). Learnings for large-scale transformation in school education: Project SATH-E NITI Aayog. 119
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
(ii) Unfilled Administrative Positions and Capacity Gaps
A major barrier to effective education governance is the severe understaffing at the block and
district levels. There are large-scale vacancies as high as 50-60% in block and district offices, severely
limiting their effectiveness and efficiency in governing the schooling system
48
. For instance, Cluster
Resource Persons (CRP) are intended as academic mentors but are burdened with administrative
tasks, limiting them from performing their primary role.
(iii) Weak Institutional Systems for Leader Selection and Capacity Building
There is a lack of a robust framework for the professionalisation of school leadership. Selection
processes are inconsistent and opaque, often driven by seniority or local influence rather than
leadership aptitude or merit. In many cases, the senior-most teacher is appointed as school head
without undergoing any structured orientation, competency screening, or prior training. Systems
for ongoing capacity building through mentorship, leadership development, or performance-based
progression are either underdeveloped or missing altogether. This weakens the leadership pipeline
and limits the ability of schools to respond to evolving educational challenges.
(iv) Inspection-Driven Supervision Practices
School supervision in many instances continues to follow a traditional compliance-driven model,
with an emphasis on inspection, procedural checks, and adherence to administrative norms. This
approach often leads school heads and teachers to focus on preparing visible indicators of orderliness
during visits, rather than engaging in substantive reflection on teaching-learning practices. The role of
inspecting authorities is generally limited to oversight, with limited emphasis on providing academic
guidance or capacity-building support. As a result, the feedback loop remains largely procedural,
with fewer opportunities for developmental dialogue that could strengthen instructional quality
and overall school improvement.
(v) Underutilised Data Systems for Evidence-Based Policy
While India has made substantial investments in educational data infrastructure, gaps persist in
the use of the data for planning, monitoring and governance
49
.

Despite the effort involved in the
compilation of data, it is not consistently reviewed and analysed meaningfully to aid in evidence-
based decision-making or improve educational practices.
(vi) Weak Local Governance and Community Institutions
School Management Committees (SMCs) are mandated under the RTE Act, 2009 in specified
categories of schools to enable meaningful community participation and ensure that parents serve
as primary stakeholders in school oversight
50
.

States have also set up bodies such as SDMCs, VECs
and VSS under earlier programmes to support similar functions. However, these committees face
challenges such as irregular meetings, limited clarity on mandated roles, and low participation of
women and parents from disadvantaged groups, despite the representational norms laid out in the
Act. Many committees do not receive adequate support to prepare School Development Plans as
required under Section 22 of RTE, monitor learning progress or address day-to-day operational issues,
and they have limited access to data and financial information needed for informed decision-making.
48 NITI Aayog (2023), Project SATH-E.
49 NITI Aayog (2023), Project SATH-E.
50 Ministry of Education, Government of India. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 - Section-wise rationale (Rationale on Section 21). SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 120
Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
Grievance redressal systems at the school level are not well-developed, limiting the ability of
communities to address issues related to attendance, safety, or service delivery. Further, weak linkages
with the school-complex framework proposed under NEP 2020 restrict the role of community
institutions in academic planning and resource coordination. These gaps limit the effectiveness of
SMCs and related bodies as platforms for accountability, transparency and school improvement.
4.1.5 Challenges in Teacher Workforce Management
A lot of educational indicators and outcomes depend on the capacity of teachers and the enablers
provided to the teachers for effective service delivery. While national-level pupil-teacher ratios
have improved, disparities in deployment, training quality, and working conditions continue to affect
classroom instruction, especially in rural and tribal regions. Structural issues such as multi-grade
teaching, inadequate professional development, and weak pre-service education undermine the
effectiveness of the teaching workforce.
(i) Inadequate Deployment and Ineffective Staffing Norms
Despite national progress in meeting RTE-mandated PTR norms, several States continue to face
teacher shortages, especially in rural and tribal areas. States such as Jharkhand, Dadra and Nagar
Haveli and Daman and Diu, Maharashtra and West Bengal report PTRs significantly above the
national average, affecting individualised attention and quality of instruction. Uneven deployment
of teachers across regions, levels, and subjects perpetuates systemic imbalances and often results
in multi-grade classrooms, especially in remote locations. In many rural and small schools, a single
teacher is responsible for teaching multiple grades simultaneously, undermining age-appropriate
pedagogy. This is largely due to the proliferation of under-enrolled schools combined with rigid
staffing policies that fail to account for local needs. The persistence of single-teacher schools further
exacerbates instructional challenges, particularly at the foundational level.
(ii) Challenging Working Conditions and Administrative Overload
Teachers in government schools, particularly in rural areas, face challenging working conditions,
including inadequate housing, limited transportation access, and infrastructural deficits. Additionally,
the burden of non-teaching duties such as surveys, election work, or administrative reporting reduces
instructional time and detracts from their core academic responsibilities. The RTE Act mandates
a minimum of 800 instructional hours and 200 working days per year for primary classes, while
upper primary grades require 1,000 instructional hours and 220 working days annually. However,
nearly 14% of planned teaching days go unutilised because teachers are engaged in activities such
as surveys, election duties, record-keeping, and mid-day meal supervision.
51
This frequent diversion
from academic tasks reduces effective teaching time and disrupts continuity in learning, particularly
in schools already grappling with staff shortages.
(iii) Weak Pre-Service Teacher Education
The quality of pre-service teacher education varies widely across States and institutions, creating
inconsistencies in how teachers are prepared for classroom realities. While the NCFTE (2009,
2014) offers a broad curricular framework, its implementation remains uneven because institutions
are permitted to modify up to 30% of the model curriculum
52
. As a result, both coursework and
practicum experiences differ considerably across universities. Many teacher education programmes
still lean heavily on theoretical instruction, with limited emphasis on competency-based learning,
51 Sankar, D., & Clermont, J. (2014). How much and what kind of teaching is there in primary schools? World Bank.
52 NCTE Notification 2019 121
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
inclusive pedagogy, or applied classroom practice. Practical training is often short, irregular, or poorly
supervised, leaving new teachers uncertain about managing real classrooms. Many Teacher Education
Institutions (TEIs) still prioritise theoretical instruction over competency-based learning, inclusive
pedagogy, and reflective practice
53
. There is a widespread weakness in faculty quality, curricular
execution, and the conduct of internships, indicating that large segments of the system are unable
to prepare teachers for real classroom demands
54
.
(iv) Insufficient Subject Expertise
There is a persistent gap in subject-matter knowledge within India’s teacher preparation system.
A major factor contributing to the limited subject-specific preparation is the absence of reliable,
comprehensive data on sanctioned subject-wise teacher positions and vacancies, which makes it
difficult for States to plan recruitment or design targeted professional development. TEIs also show
significant shortcomings in subject-focused preparation, with many lacking essential instructional
resources such as curriculum laboratories, libraries, and qualified subject mentors. As a result, student-
teachers have limited opportunities to develop strong content knowledge or pedagogical skills.
Furthermore, most pre-service teachers continue to be trained through generic B.Ed. programmes
that provide insufficient disciplinary depth.
These weaknesses are visible in both pre-service and in-service performance
55
. Evidence from the
SATH-E

States shows that many teachers themselves score below 60-70% in subject papers of the
grades they teach, indicating weak foundational knowledge in Mathematics, Science, English, and
Hindi
56
.

National teacher eligibility data reflect a similar pattern. Only about 10-15% of candidates
score above the 60% qualifying threshold in TET/CTET examinations, and average marks in primary-
level mathematics hover around 46%. Fewer than 2% of candidates score above 70%. These outcomes
highlight systemic weaknesses in subject preparation that limit teachers’ confidence and effectiveness
in delivering grade-appropriate instruction.
57
(v) Limited Professional Development and Mentoring
In-service professional development remains fragmented, with many teachers experiencing training
as occasional, lecture-based sessions rather than sustained, practice-centred learning. Teachers
working in rural or hard-to-staff areas often lack access to structured mentoring, peer support,
or professional learning communities that enable them to reflect on teaching practices or learn
collaboratively. Newly appointed teachers, especially those in their first postings, commonly receive
little induction support and are left to navigate classroom and community contexts with limited
guidance. This contributes to stress, early career burnout, and difficulties in adapting pedagogies
to local needs.
(vi) Weak Academic Support Systems
The academic capacity of SCERTs, DIETs, and district-level training institutions remains a major
constraint. Many SCERTs and DIETs continue to function with significant faculty vacancies. Some States
report over 50% positions unfilled along with insufficient library, ICT, and research infrastructure.
These institutions struggle to fulfil their core roles in curriculum design, teacher mentoring, research,
and resource development. Weak coordination between SCERTs, DIETs, HEIs, and TEIs further
53 NCERT. Voice of Teachers and Teacher Educators (VTTE Journal) - Articles on practicum quality and field engagement.
54 Azim Premji University (2021). Issues in Education, Volume 1 - Teachers and Teacher Education.
55 See Section 1A.4: Academic Recommendations of this report.
56 NITI Aayog (2021). Systemic Transformation of School Education: The SATH-E Experience.
57 CETE (2023). The Right Teacher for Every Child. State of Teachers Teaching and Teacher Education for India Report 2023. TISS, Mumbai SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 122
Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
limits coherence between pre-service and in-service education, resulting in fragmented support
for teachers across their careers.
58
(vii) Low Professional Status
Teacher motivation and professional identity are closely tied to the value placed on their work
and the support systems available for their growth. Across school systems in India, compensation
structures vary widely, and many teachers especially those in private and low-fee schools experience
insecure employment conditions and limited benefits. These disparities contribute to a perception
of teaching as a low-prestige profession, particularly in early childhood education and special
education, where large sections of the workforce continue to be undervalued.
(viii) Inadequate Compensation and Temporary Employment
The increasing reliance on contractual and temporary appointments has further created a
fragmented employment landscape. Contract teachers often have short-term service conditions,
limited entitlements, and few opportunities for professional development, despite carrying the same
responsibilities as regular staff. This has implications for stability and long-term retention, especially
in rural and underserved districts where teacher shortages are already acute.
(ix) Limited Career Progression
There is an absence of clear and structured career pathways for teachers. Most States do not have
formal progression routes such as senior teacher, master teacher, or mentor-teacher roles, which
limits opportunities for academic leadership and professional advancement. Without well-defined
ladders for growth, teachers have fewer incentives to deepen their practice, engage in mentoring,
or contribute to system-wide improvement. These factors collectively dilute motivation, weaken
professional identity, and reduce the attractiveness of teaching as a long-term career.
4.1.6 Increased Dependency on Private Education Systems and
Change in Perception of Government Schools
India’s school education system has seen a notable shift toward private institutions, particularly at
the secondary level. This change reflects parental aspirations for better outcomes, but the private
sector’s rapid growth also raises concerns around quality, equity, and regulation.
(i) Higher Enrolment in Private Schools Despite Poor Outcomes
Private schools now constitute 44.01% of all secondary institutions (UDISE+ 2024-25), and enrolment
in government schools has declined from 71% in 2005 to 49.24% in 2024-25. This shift is driven by
the perception of private schools offering English-medium instruction, discipline, and employability.
However, evidence suggests these expectations are not consistently matched by learning outcomes.
35% of Grade 5 students in low-fee private (LFP) schools are unable to read a Grade 2 text, and
60% cannot solve a basic division problem
59
.
(ii) Quality Gaps in Infrastructure and Teaching Workforce
Many LFP schools fall short of infrastructure norms under the RTE Act, lacking basic amenities
such as toilets, playgrounds, and clean drinking water. Teacher recruitment is often informal, with
underqualified or untrained individuals filling full-time teaching roles. Working conditions remain
58 UNESCO. (2021). No teacher, no class: State of the education report for India 2021. UNESCO New Delhi.
59 Central Square Foundation. (2022). State of the Sector Report: Private Schools in India. 123
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
precarious, with low pay, job insecurity, and limited access to professional development directly
affecting classroom quality and student outcomes.
(iii) Absence of Robust Oversight and Public Accountability
Private schools, especially low-fee private institutions, operate in a largely under-regulated space.
There is no national system for periodic accreditation, performance benchmarking, or public
disclosure of learning outcomes. Most States lack robust mechanisms to monitor compliance with
minimum norms under the RTE Act 2009, including infrastructure, teacher qualifications, and fee
regulation. In the absence of transparent school-level data such as pupil-teacher ratios, assessment
results, or teacher credentials, parents often base their decisions on proxies like English-medium
instruction or digital boards. This opacity not only undermines informed parental choice but also
limits the government’s ability to ensure minimum standards and equity in educational provisioning.
4.2 Academic Challenges
4.2.1 Misalignment in Pedagogy, Curriculum, and Learning Outcomes
Figure 4.5: Misalignment in Pedagogy, Curriculum, and Learning Outcomes
The lack of alignment between curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment continues to be a foundational
challenge in India’s school education system. Though policy frameworks such as the National
Curriculum Framework 2023 set standards for learning competencies and goals, these are not
consistently translated into classroom practice
60
. In many schools, the curriculum is reduced to
textbook delivery, pedagogy remains didactic, and assessments focus largely on rote recall rather
than conceptual understanding or application.
(i) Overemphasis on Syllabus Coverage over Foundational Learning
Classroom instruction is primarily dominated by the pressure to finish textbooks, often at the
cost of foundational learning. Students with limited early learning exposure struggle to keep pace
with age-grade curricula, resulting in widening learning gaps year after year. ASER 2024 reports that
nearly 50% of Grade 5 children in rural India cannot read a Grade 2 text, yet instruction advances
rigidly through syllabi without accounting for actual learning readiness
61
. NEP 2020 advocates
for developmentally appropriate curriculum, but its implementation is uneven across States and
districts. This mismatch between teaching pace and student levels is a key contributor to academic
disengagement and eventual dropout.
60 The revised NCF 2023 translates the goals of NEP 2020 into actionable frameworks suited for practitioners (Ministry of Education, Government of India, 2023.)
61 Press Information Bureau, Government of India. (2025, February 4). Leap in rural school enrolment: Key Findings (ASER) 2024 SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
(ii) Non-contextual and Disconnected Curriculum
Curricular content in many States is standardised and detached from the lived experiences of
students, particularly those from rural, tribal, or SEDG backgrounds. Textbooks often present
unfamiliar settings, language, and examples, making it difficult for learners to connect with what is
taught
62
. This lack of relevance not only limits participation but also reinforces rote learning habits.
While NEP 2020 and NCF 2023 emphasise contextualisation and cultural relevance, implementation
is uneven, limiting the curriculum’s ability to foster inclusive and meaningful learning.
(iii) Teaching Practices not Aligned with Frameworks
Curriculum frameworks have evolved but teaching practices have not adapted at the same pace
63
.
Most teacher training, both pre-service and in-service fails to address everyday challenges such as
managing multi-grade classrooms, responding to varied learning levels, or implementing differentiated
instruction. According to PARAKH 2024 findings, 54% of teachers have read the NCF-SE, reflecting
limited engagement with recent reforms. In the absence of developmental pedagogies and continuous
support, teachers often default to lecture-based, one-size-fits-all approaches that overlook learner
diversity and widen inequities in outcomes.
(iv) Assessment Systems Misaligned with Learning Needs
Classroom evaluation still revolves around high-stakes, recall-based examinations. Students may
perform adequately on written tests that assess factual recall and procedural knowledge, but their
basic competencies in applying concepts is not well developed. Moreover, formative tools are poorly
implemented, feedback loops are weak, and student-level data rarely informs pedagogy. As a result,
assessments are used more for certification (assessment of learning), rather than as mechanisms
to inform instruction or support student growth (assessment for learning).
(v) Limited Readiness of Curriculum and Teacher Capacity for AI Integration
The rapid expansion of AI-based tools has outpaced the capacity of curricula and teacher preparation
systems to keep up. The current structure follows a syllabus-driven approach, with a focus on
comprehensive content coverage and effective recall. Although emerging AI-enabled platforms
are reshaping learning by offering adaptive pathways, real-time feedback, and deeper insights into
student progress, neither professional development nor curriculum design has evolved in step with
this technological shift. Capacity-building programmes are still short, generic, and detached from
classroom realities. Teachers rarely receive sustained mentoring or practical support to meaningfully
integrate AI into daily practice or to teach foundational AI concepts and digital reasoning skills to
students. As a result, students graduate without the critical understanding of AI and data that will
define future workplaces and civic participation
64
.
In October 2025, the Ministry of Education announced that Artificial Intelligence and Computational
Thinking will be introduced from Grade 3 onwards as a basic universal skill, aligned with NEP 2020
and NCF-SE 2023. CBSE and NCERT will develop the curriculum, supported by NISHTHA-led
teacher training. While this marks a significant policy step toward future readiness, classroom-level
preparedness, infrastructure, and teacher capacity remain uneven, limiting immediate, effective
integration
65
.
62 Santhakumar, V., & Devi, R. (2019, January 29). The need for intercultural education in India: Lessons from QUEST, Maharashtra. Azim Premji University.
63 Singh, N. (2021). Teaching Practices and Learning outcomes in India. Educational Trend (A Journal of RIE, Ajmer - NCERT), 2(1), 22-25.
64 Saxena, N. (2025). Lead, guide, step back: Redefining the teacher’s role in an AI-dominated world. University News, 63(41), October 13-19. Association of Indian Universities.
65 Press Information Bureau. (2025, October 30). Curriculum on AI to be introduced in all schools from Class 3 onwards [Press release]. Ministry of Education, Government of India. 125
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
(vi) Emerging Risks, Ethical Gaps, and Uneven Readiness for AI Adoption
The ecosystem lacks clear ethical, procedural, and data-governance frameworks for AI use. There are
no clear standards on data privacy, authorship, or responsible use, which discourages experimentation
and institutional adoption. Educators also face uncertainty about how to balance AI-enabled efficiency
with human values such as honesty and empathy, creativity, and contextual judgment qualities that
remain central to effective teaching and learning.
There is a growing concern around overreliance on AI-driven tools, which can affect children’s
cognitive development, attention span, and problem-solving ability. Sustained reliance on AI assistance
can reduce neural engagement, memory retention, and a learner’s sense of ownership over their work.
Without appropriate guidance, excessive exposure to algorithmic decision-making may gradually
diminish independent thinking, reflective learning, and the discernment capacity, particularly among
younger students who are still developing critical reasoning and self-regulation skills
66
.
4.2.2 Weak Inference and Interpretation Skills in Early Grades
National assessments show that core competencies in reading, arithmetic, and applied problem-
solving are below desired levels across grades. ASER 2024 and PARAKH 2024 findings indicate
limited application of classroom knowledge to real-life contexts, and weak proficiency in essential
mathematical concepts. These deficits are further compounded by disparities linked to social
background and gender, including unequal access to digital tools and skills.
(i) Persistent Gap between Recognition and Application of Skills
PARAKH 2024 findings convey that students show competence in recognising patterns or performing
straightforward operations, but low performance in applying these skills to real-life contexts. Fewer
than 55% of Grade 3 students can handle basic money transactions or spatial measurement, and
fewer than 30% of Grade 6 students demonstrate adequate fraction competency. This indicates that
classroom learning remains overly procedural, with limited transfer to problem-solving beyond the
textbook, an area NEP 2020 identifies as essential for competency-based learning.
(ii) Structural Weaknesses in Key Mathematical Concepts
Only 29% of students can represent or compare fractions, 38% can perform basic unit conversions,
and 41% can describe location and movement or interpret maps accurately, as per PARAKH 2024
survey findings. Proficiency is also low in pattern extension in two and three-dimensional shapes
and devising strategies for estimation of distance, perimeter, and area. These competencies form the
conceptual bridge to algebra, geometry, measurement, and data handling in secondary education. Gaps
here create a cumulative bottleneck, making it harder for students to access advanced STEM content.
(iii) Equity Gaps across Social Groups and Genders
According to PARAKH 2024 observations, students from SEDG achieve lower outcomes in both
language and mathematics from the foundational stage onwards, with the gap persisting through
higher grades. These differences stem from unequal access to early learning opportunities, limited
home learning support, and reduced exposure to enrichment resources, resulting in a cumulative
disadvantage over the years. Similar inequities in digital readiness have been pointed out in ASER
66 Kosmyna, N., Hauptmann, E., Yuan, Y. T., Situ, J., Liao, X.-H., Beresnitzky, A. V., Braunstein, I., & Maes, P. (2025). Your brain on ChatGPT: Accumulation of cognitive debt when using an AI assistant
for essay writing tas SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
2024
67
. Though most adolescents have a smartphone in the household, girls are less likely than boys
to have personal control over a device and hence demonstrate lower proficiency in key digital
safety skills. Limited autonomy and capability in using digital tools reduce their opportunities for
effective participation in technology-enabled learning.
4.2.3 Gaps in Student Well-being and Holistic Development
Figure 4.6: Student Well-being
(i) Incomplete Integration of Fitness and Physical Health, Nutrition with
Learning
Physical and nutritional health has been identified as a priority in Indian school education missions
for a long time, including schemes like Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM POSHAN) and the
School Health and Wellness Programme. Access to nutrition and basic health services has increased
in schools, but significant gaps in delivery remain. Many children face unaddressed health issues
such as anaemia, poor vision, malnutrition, obesity, stunting, and other lifestyle-related conditions
that directly affect regular attendance and learning engagement. According to NFHS-5, 59.1% of
adolescent girls in India are anaemic, yet most schools are not equipped to respond adequately
to such needs.
Although 75.5% of schools reported conducting medical check-ups in the last academic year,
coverage is uneven, with only 32.7% of schools in Bihar conducting such screenings (UDISE+
2024-25). Health education is not consistently integrated into the school day, and teachers often
lack the training to recognise health-related learning barriers. Coordination between schools and
local health systems is typically ad hoc, with limited follow-up after screenings. This results in poor
health outcomes, which further impact attendance, enrolment and continued learning for students.
(ii) Weak Institutional Focus on Mental Health and Emotional Safety
Despite increasing recognition of student mental health challenges ranging from examination stress
to post-pandemic isolation, school systems lack formalised mechanisms to address emotional well-
being. In most schools, access to trained counselors is limited, and socio-emotional learning is yet
to find a place in teacher training or classroom practice. Well-being is often treated as a personal
issue rather than a shared institutional responsibility. While national initiatives such as “Pariksha Pe
67 Chavan, M. (2024). The promise of technology. In Annual Status of Education Report 2024 (pp. 15-16). ASER Centre.ASER 2024 127
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Charcha”
68
have helped initiate dialogue, implementation at the school level is still uneven. In the
absence of sustained school-level frameworks, signs of emotional distress frequently go unnoticed,
affecting students’ attendance, learning outcomes, and overall growth.
(iii) Insufficient Emphasis on Life Skills and Values Education
Life skills such as decision-making, empathy, teamwork, financial literacy, and digital safety are rarely
embedded within school routines or curricula. Values education initiatives, while mentioned in
policy documents, are inconsistently translated into classroom practice. As a result, many students
complete schooling with academic credentials but without the resilience, adaptability, and ethical
grounding required for higher education, employability, and social responsibility. The absence of
structured programmes for social and emotional learning leaves gaps in preparing students for the
complexities of modern life.
(iv) Limited Focus on Arts, Creativity, and Self-Expression
Despite recognition in NEP 2020 that arts, music, theatre, and cultural activities are critical for
fostering creativity and holistic growth, these dimensions remain marginal in school practice. In
most government schools, arts education is limited to one or two annual functions, often without
dedicated instructors or structured pedagogy. The lack of specialist teachers, inadequate facilities,
and the absence of curricular time allocation reduce opportunities for students to explore talents
and build confidence. This undermines the development of critical life skills such as innovation,
problem-solving, and collaboration, which are essential for 21
st
century learning.
(v) Digital Well-being and Safe Technology Use
The accelerated adoption of digital tools following the pandemic has amplified concerns around
screen overuse, cyberbullying, online safety, and misinformation. While ICT integration in schools has
expanded, systematic approaches to digital well-being remain weak. Students often lack guidance on
responsible technology use, privacy safeguards, and balancing online and offline activities. The digital
divide: unequal access to devices, connectivity, and digital literacy further compounds inequities,
limiting meaningful engagement for large sections of learners. Without structured digital literacy
and well-being frameworks, risks of social isolation and learning disparities increase.
(vi) Weak Community and Parent Engagement in Well-being
Student well-being is often approached as an intra-school matter, with limited engagement of parents
and communities. Awareness programmes on adolescent health, nutrition, and mental well-being
are sporadic and lack systematic follow-up. In the absence of strong partnerships between schools,
parents, and local community organisations, early signs of distress frequently go unnoticed. This
weakens the collective ecosystem of support necessary for addressing issues that extend beyond
the classroom and ensuring continuity between home and school environments.
4.2.4 Challenges in Early Childhood Care and Education
Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) faces persistent systemic and structural challenges
that hinder its effectiveness. These range from governance and workforce limitations to weak
institutional linkages and inadequate funding, ultimately impacting school readiness and foundational
learning outcomes.
68 Press Information Bureau. (2025, February 9). Pariksha Pe Charcha: Empowering students, transforming lives [Press release]. Ministry of Education, Government of India. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
Figure 4.7: Challenges in Early Childhood Care and Education
(i) Fragmented Governance and Ambiguity in Systemic Ownership
NEP 2020 identifies ECCE as the foundational stage of learning. However ECCE continues to operate
under bifurcated administrative structures, with the Ministry of Women and Child Development
(MWCD) managing Anganwadis under Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and the
Ministry of Education (MoE) supporting Balvatikas through Samagra Shiksha. This institutional
separation results in overlapping mandates, unclear accountability, and a lack of coordination. As
per the Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961, “care of pre-school children
including pre-primary education” is allocated to MWCD.
69

Section 11 of the RTE Act (2009) obligates States to provide free pre-school education, yet its
implementation varies widely due to the absence of a unified operational framework and limited
inter-ministerial convergence. This ambiguity in governance and policy execution hampers the
expansion of quality ECCE at scale.
(ii) Gaps in Professional Capacity
Many Anganwadi workers and ECCE functionaries lack formal training in early childhood pedagogy,
child development, and age-appropriate learning methods. Pre-service preparation is minimal, and
in-service training is irregular, often focused on administrative compliance rather than classroom
practice. Without a strong professional development framework, ECCE delivery remains uneven,
and the vision of NEP 2020 for high-quality early learning is compromised.
(iii) Overburdened Workforce
Anganwadi workers are responsible for a wide range of duties including nutrition tracking,
immunisation support, and administrative reporting, leaving limited time and attention for early
69 Government of India. (1961). Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961 (as amended up to January 31, 2017) Cabinet Secretariat. 129
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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education. As a result, the pedagogical component of ECCE is frequently deprioritised in practice.
The imbalance between health-nutrition and education objectives weakens learning outcomes and
limits holistic child development.
(iv) Poor Learning Preparedness and Limited School Readiness
Foundational gaps continue to persist at the ECCE level, particularly among children enrolled in
Anganwadis. Data from Building Strong Foundations: Examining Early Childhood Education in India,
2023 show that a significant proportion of children perform below expected levels on key indicators
of school readiness
70
. For instance, only 15% of students were able to match two familiar objects
sharing the same initial sound in a phonemic awareness task, and 30% could accurately identify larger
and smaller numbers within a set of single-digit numerals. Teachers also reported minimal differences
in foundational skills between children who had attended ECCE centres and those who had not.
(v) Weak Linkages Between ECCE and Formal Schooling
The absence of systemic integration between Anganwadis and primary schools leads to a
discontinuous learning experience. Children entering Grade 1 often lack foundational skills due
to poor alignment between ECCE and early primary curricula. This disconnect undermines school
readiness and diminishes the long-term benefits of early learning, particularly for children from
disadvantaged backgrounds.
(vi) Cascading Impact of Weak ECCE and Foundational Literacy
Figure 4.8: Cascading Impact of weak ECCE
Children who enter Grade 1 without adequate ECCE often lack cognitive, linguistic, and socio-
emotional readiness required for formal schooling. This weak foundation hampers the acquisition
of foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) in the early grades. As students move ahead, these
initial gaps widen into deep learning disparities, leading to academic struggle, disengagement, and
low achievement
71
. Recent assessment findings in PARAKH 2024 reinforce this pattern, students
lacking strong FLN skills in the early years consistently underperform across subjects in later
grades. Without timely interventions, weak ECCE and FLN become systemic barriers, limiting the
potential for meaningful learning and equity throughout the school system.
4.2.5 Challenges in Vocational Education
Vocational education has gained increasing policy attention in recent years. NEP 2020 (16.4) sets
an ambitious target that “by 2025, at least 50% of learners through the school and higher education
system shall have exposure to vocational education,”. Yet, within the school system, vocational
pathways faces structural and systemic challenges that limit their reach and effectiveness. The intended
70 Central Square Foundation. (2023). Building strong foundations: Examining early childhood education in India.
71 UNICEF & UNESCO. (2024). The right to a strong foundation: Global report on early childhood care and education. UNICEF. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 130
Chapter IV Challenges and Bottlenecks
shift from a stand-alone vocational model to an integrated skilling-with-schooling approach has
remained partial and uneven across States and school types. Further, the absence of disaggregated
vocational education data in UDISE+ 2024-25 constraints systematic assessment of vocational
education, making it necessary to rely on policy reviews and secondary sources to assess progress
and persistent gaps.
(i) Marginalisation within the School Curriculum
Vocational subjects occupy a peripheral role in most schools. Where introduced, they are often
treated as optional or non-academic, with limited instructional time and little integration into the
broader curriculum. In practice, vocational courses are frequently sidelined in timetables, receive
minimal attention in assessment systems, and are rarely linked to progression pathways. This marginal
position weakens their visibility, reduces student uptake, and reinforces the perception of vocational
education as a secondary track rather than a mainstream component of schooling.
(ii) Infrastructural Deficits
The integration of skilling into regular schooling requires school infrastructure to support sustained
hands-on and experiential learning. The majority of schools offering vocational courses lack the
infrastructure needed to deliver meaningful training. Functional workshops, specialised laboratories,
and industry-grade equipment are absent in most cases. Where facilities exist, they are often
outdated, poorly maintained, or underutilised due to inadequate operational budgets. These gaps
severely limit opportunities for hands-on learning and practical exposure.
(iii) Shortage of Skilled Trainers
Integrated skilling requires vocational trainers to be embedded within the school system as stable
instructional resources. In practice, vocational trainers are often engaged through short-term
contractual arrangements, with limited induction into school pedagogy and weak integration into
the broader teaching ecosystem. The implementation review (2023) by MoE noted that more
than 40% of sanctioned vocational trainer posts are vacant in several States, and many of those in
position did not meet the required industry experience norms. These gaps weaken the quality and
relevance of vocational courses, reduce student interest, and limit the employability value of the
training received.
(iv) Limited Career Guidance and Negative Societal Perceptions
The integration of skilling with schooling also depends on shifting student, parental, and institutional
perceptions. Despite policy emphasis on integrating vocational education into the mainstream from
Grade 6 as per NEP 2020 Clause 16.4-16.6, vocational pathways in schools are often viewed as
fallback options for students perceived to be academically weaker. This stigma, embedded in both
societal attitudes and parental expectations, discourages many capable students from opting for skill-
based subjects. The absence of structured career guidance within schools further compounds the
problem. Most students and parents remain unaware of the breadth of opportunities in vocational
domains, particularly in emerging sectors such as renewable energy, digital services, and advanced
manufacturing. The lack of aspirational role models or widely publicised success stories in vocational
fields weakens motivation. Without a clear articulation of career prospects, earnings potential, and
pathways for further education, vocational education remains marginalised, limiting its uptake and
long-term viability. 131
Chapter IV Challenges and BottlenecksSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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(v) Absence of Market Linkages and Regional Relevance
There is a significant disconnect between school-based vocational subjects and actual employment
opportunities in local or regional markets. Most programmes do not reflect current skill demands,
emerging sectors, or traditional livelihoods of the region. Schools rarely collaborate with industries,
MSMEs, or community-level enterprises. As a result, students receive minimal real-world exposure,
and the vocational curriculum often fails to translate into employability or entrepreneurial readiness.
(vi) Fragmented Certification and Lack of Progression Pathways
The integration of skilling with schooling is constrained by fragmented certification and weak
progression pathways. The absence of uniform national standards, portable industry-recognised
credentials, and consistent credit transfer mechanisms limits the credibility and portability of school-
based vocational qualifications. Variations in assessment and certification across States and sectors
further affect recognition. Inadequate alignment between scool curricula, higher and technical
education, and Sector Skill Council frameworks restricts seamless transition into advanced skilling,
diploma, or degree programmes, reducing long-term employability and discouraging sustained
participation
72
.
72 Press Information Bureau. (2024, July 22). New skilling initiatives and revamping the existing ones should continue to be of high priority to the Government-Economic Survey 2023-24.
Ministry of Finance. Chapter V
POLICY
RECOMMENDATIONS
WITH
IMPLEMENTATION
ROADMAP AND
PERFORMANCE
SUCCESS INDICATORS SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 134
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
The recommendations in this section draw on the deliberations of the National Workshop on Quality Education
organised by NITI Aayog in February 2025. They are informed by insights from Central and State Government
officials, policymakers, educationists, practitioners, and industry representatives, and guided by the provisions of
NEP 2020. The proposals set out both short and long-term priorities, with a focus on practicality, scalability, and
measurable impact. Good practices from States have also been incorporated to ensure contextual relevance and
replicability. In this context, the recommendations also align with the broader need for a sustained, nationwide
‘Sushikshit Bharat Abhiyaan’ to enhance learning outcomes, equity, and institutional capacity across school education.
Together, these recommendations aim to strengthen the overall governance architecture and enhance the quality
of teaching and learning processes across the school education system. The section is structured under two broad
themes: Systemic and Academic, which collectively address institutional reforms and pedagogical enhancement
in a cohesive manner.
The implementation roadmap is envisaged as a flexible and adaptable framework, allowing States and UTs
to contextualise implementation strategies in accordance with their institutional capacities, socio-economic
conditions, and educational priorities.
Chapter V
Policy Recommendations with Implementation
Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators 135
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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5.1 Systemic Recommendations
5.1.1 Reform School System and Ensure Structural Continuity
NEP 2020 calls for a coherent, developmentally aligned schooling structure that ensures academic
continuity, efficient use of resources and equitable access across geographies. Experience from
the SATH-E programme
73
shows that structural reforms are most effective when implemented
through a phased, data-driven and institutionally anchored approach at the district level. States may
therefore adopt a two-part strategy that strengthens school provisioning and establishes school
complexes as functional academic and governance units.
Figure 5.1: Pyramidical to Cylindrical Schooling Structure
(i) Strengthen School Provisioning through Composite Schools and Evidence-
Based Rationalisation
The transition from a pyramidal school structure to a more cylindrical configuration, as illustrated
in Figure 5.1, is central to creating continuous and developmentally aligned learning pathways. A
cylindrical structure enables students to move through primary, upper-primary, secondary and higher
secondary stages within coherent institutional arrangements, reducing unnecessary transitions and
supporting smoother academic progression. Organising schools in this manner also supports the
delivery of the 5+3+3+4 curricular design and allows for more balanced distribution of infrastructure,
staffing and academic resources.
In line with NEP 2020 (Clauses 4.1 and 7.4), and drawing on lessons from SATH-E, States may
undertake a phased and evidence-based approach to strengthen school provisioning. Composite
schools covering at least Grades 1-10, and preferably 1-12, should be expanded, particularly in
Aspirational Districts and areas with high dropout. Alongside this, school rationalisation may be
carried out to reorganise under-enrolled, single-teacher, multi-grade and non-functional schools,
while ensuring safe access for all learners, using the consolidation typologies illustrated in Figure
73 See Section 1A.4: Academic Recommendations of this report. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 138
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
5.2 as suggested by SATH-E. Selected anchor schools may be upgraded as exemplar institutions
to attract voluntary enrolment, supported by teacher redeployment to ensure balanced staffing
across both upgraded and consolidated schools.
Figure 5.2: School Consolidation Models as suggested under SATH-E
74
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Conduct GIS and UDISE+ based mapping to identify transition gaps, small and under-enroled
schools, and feasible consolidation clusters.
¨Issue State guidelines on composite school expansion and rationalisation criteria.
¨
Pilot composite school models and consolidation plans in selected districts, following SATH-E’s
diagnostic and phased implementation approach as can be seen in the Figure 5.3.
¨
Review teacher deployment norms to support shared staffing and balanced teacher allocation
across upgraded schools.
¨Begin infrastructure assessments and targeted upgrades for prioritised anchor schools.
¨Conduct community sensitisation on the benefits of continuous schooling pathways and
rationalisation, targeted towards dropout prone groups.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Scale composite schools across districts based on pilot learnings.
¨Implement phased rationalisation, ensuring transport, hostel arrangements where required.
¨Integrate rationalisation and composite school plans into district annual work plans under
Samagra Shiksha.
¨
Strengthen district and block support mechanisms for academic and administrative follow-up.
¨Develop dashboards linked to UDISE+ to track transitions, enrolment and infrastructure
improvements.
¨Integrate EWS into Student Database Systems (SDMIS/CTS) and attendance applications.
74 NITI Aayog. (2023). Learnings for large-scale transformation in school education: Project SATH-E (Report). 139
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Institutionalise composite schools as the default provisioning model .
¨Embed rationalisation cycles into annual district planning based on UDISE+ trends and
demographic shifts.
¨Align infrastructure investments and staffing systems with composite school structures for
long-term sustainability.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨State Education Departments, SCERTs
¨DIETs, District Education Office/Block Education Office
¨
SMC, School Development and Management Committee (SDMC), Parents, Local Community
Stakeholders
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of schools upgraded to composite institutions
¨Reduction in schools with <20 enrolment
¨Reduction in single-teacher and multi-grade schools
¨Increase in average enrolment per school
¨Percentage of anchor schools upgraded with essential infrastructure
D Central Government Initiative
PM SHRI Schools (PM Schools for Rising India) scheme
75
Approved in September 2022, it is a centrally sponsored initiative to upgrade over 14,500 existing
government and government-aided schools as exemplar institutions showcasing all components of NEP
2020. With a five-year outlay of ₹27,360 crore (Central share ₹18,128 crore), these schools will feature
modern infrastructure, green practices, ICT-enabled classrooms, vocational education, and flexible,
competency-based pedagogy, while mentoring neighbouring schools. Selection is through a three-stage
challenge process, with up to two schools per block/urban local body. The scheme aims to improve learning
outcomes, foster 21
st
century skills, and nurture holistic development, benefiting over 18 lakh students
directly and influencing many more through mentorship.
75 Ministry of Education, Government of India. PM SHRI Schools. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
Project SATH – E, NITI Aayog
Project SATH-E (Sustainable Action for Transforming Human Capital – Education), initiated by NITI
Aayog in 2017, aimed to demonstrate how a State system could improve learning outcomes through
coordinated academic and administrative reforms. Three States: Jharkhand, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh
implemented the programme, each adapting the broader reform agenda to their own needs. The project
focused on strengthening classroom learning through competency-based teaching, running State-wide
Learning Enhancement Programmes, improving assessments, training teachers at scale, reorganising small
schools, and building stronger monitoring systems. Each State also rolled out its own learning programme:
Dakshata Unnayan in Madhya Pradesh, Ujjwal-Utthan in Odisha, and Gyan Setu in Jharkhand.
The interventions carried out under SATH-E led to noticeable improvements in learning levels and in the
way school systems functioned. Close to 2.3 crore students received organised remedial support, and
the introduction of regular, data-based reviews supported by nearly 1.5 lakh monthly school inspections
which strengthened academic oversight. The State programmes also showed encouraging results: Madhya
Pradesh reported that roughly 30% of students moved from lower achievement bands to the highest
group. Odisha recorded 10-15% gains. Jharkhand achieved 12% improvement across major competencies.
Collectively, these results indicate that steady, well-coordinated academic interventions combined with
stronger governance mechanisms can produce measurable progress at scale.
E State Good Practice
School Rationalisation Programme, Rajasthan
76
This initiative addressed inefficiencies in Rajasthan’s fragmented school network, where nearly 35% of
schools had fewer than 30 students per grade and struggled with poor infrastructure, teacher shortages,
and weak learning outcomes. The state consolidated 2,866 primary and 2,997 upper primary schools
into larger, better-resourced institutions based on proximity and RTE norms.
Adarsh Vidyalayas (composite schools offering Classes 1 to 12 at the Gram Panchayat level) were introduced
to ensure vertical progression, improve retention, and enable optimal teacher deployment. Administrative
structures were streamlined, with headmasters appointed for merged clusters, thereby strengthening
accountability and governance. Rationalisation reduced the number of single-teacher and single-classroom
schools, improved infrastructure, ensured specialist teachers, and provided students with access to diverse
peer groups and richer learning environments. By concentrating funds in fewer functional schools, the
reform also improved cost-efficiency. Rajasthan now has the highest number of composite (1-12) schools.
(ii) Operationalise School Complexes as Institutional Anchors for Equity,
Continuity, and Resource Efficiency
To strengthen academic continuity, ensure equitable resource allocation, and enhance the efficiency
of school governance. School complexes should be operationalised as envisaged in NEP 2020, Clause
7.6. The concept envisions grouping one secondary or senior-secondary school with all schools
offering lower grades within a defined neighbourhood (typically within a 5 to 10 kilometre radius),
including nearby Anganwadis.
By aggregating academic and administrative functions across schools, school complexes enable
optimal deployment of subject-specific teachers, science and ICT labs, libraries, sports infrastructure,
76 NITI Aayog. Best practice detail. NITI for States. 141
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and vocational education offerings such as skill labs. They can also facilitate peer learning among
teachers, joint professional development, and enhanced monitoring and mentorship systems. This
model becomes particularly critical in rural, remote, and tribal regions where standalone schools
may not have the resources to offer complete educational experiences.
Figure 5.3: Resource sharing via Nodal Schools
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Develop state-specific operational frameworks for school complexes, including criteria for
selecting nodal schools, institutional linkages, and governance mechanisms.
¨Identify and notify clusters of proximate schools (1-2 secondary schools with surrounding
foundational, preparatory, and middle-stage schools) in each block.
¨
Issue formal administrative orders linking schools under each complex and initiate joint planning
processes through School Complex Committees (SCCs) or Block Resource Groups (BRGs).
¨Ensure convergence of schemes (e.g., Samagra Shiksha, PM SHRI, ICT labs, Atal Tinkering Labs
(ATLs), vocational education) within complexes.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Build common infrastructure in nodal schools to serve cluster needs, multi-purpose halls,
science labs, ATLs for fostering innovation and design thinking, libraries, sports grounds, and
DIKSHA-based digital access points.
¨Establish cluster-level academic monitoring and teacher development cells supported by
SCERTs/DIETs.
¨Roll out teacher-sharing frameworks across schools in a complex, particularly for STEM and
language teachers.
¨
Develop school complex-wise data dashboards within UDISE+ to track attendance, retention,
learning outcomes, and resource usage. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Align teacher deployment, infrastructure funding, and performance management systems with
school complex structures.
¨
Create mechanisms for sustained professional collaboration among teachers within complexes
through school visits, peer observation, and cluster-based in-service training.
¨
Establish ATLs in all nodal secondary schools under school complexes to promote innovation,
problem-solving, and applied STEM learning for students across cluster schools.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨State Education Departments
¨District Education Offices/Block Resource Centres
¨SCERTs/District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs)
¨SMC/SDMC
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of secondary schools functioning as nodal institutions for operationalised
school complexes
¨
Percentage of teachers participating in shared deployment or professional development activities
within complexes
¨Percentage increase in access to specialised infrastructure (e.g., science labs, libraries)
through shared use
¨Percentage improvement in transition and retention rates between school stages within
complex clusters
D State Good Practice
Lighthouse School Complexes, Nagaland
77
The Lighthouse School Complexes (LSCs) in Nagaland, developed under the World Bank-supported
NECTAR project, aim to transform education through a hub-and-spoke model aligned with the
NEP 2020 vision of school complexes. By 2026, at least one model LSC would be established in
each of the state’s 16 districts, serving as a hub of academic excellence for neighbouring “spoke”
schools. Each complex would provide shared governance, infrastructure, academic resources,
and teacher training, ensuring consistent quality and school improvement across districts.
The initiative addresses critical challenges such as poor infrastructure, limited resources, fragmented
governance, and low teacher capacity, particularly in remote and tribal areas. LSCs focus on holistic
and inclusive education, strengthen community participation, and promote local knowledge, while
enabling smoother student transitions across school stages to reduce dropouts. Facilities have
been upgraded with smart classrooms, CwSN-friendly infrastructure, libraries, and digital tools.
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) and platforms like the SMILE app enable continuous
teacher professional development and data-driven decision-making. By pooling funds, infrastructure,
and human capital, the model fosters collaboration, resource efficiency, and the creation of quality
learning environments across the state.
77 Lighthouse School Complexes Nagaland. State policy and implementation. 143
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5.1.2 Strengthen School Infrastructure
Figure 5.4:Strengthen school infrastructure
(i) Ensure Universal Access to Foundational Infrastructure
To ensure equitable and uninterrupted access to education, every school must be equipped with
foundational physical infrastructure that enables a safe, inclusive, and conducive learning environment.
This includes universal access to electricity, drinking water, boundary walls, gender-segregated
functional toilets, and hygiene facilities, with special focus on underserved and remote areas. As
envisioned in the principles of NEP 2020, a good educational institution is one that ensures every
learner feels welcomed, safe, and supported, provides a stimulating and inclusive learning environment,
and offers diverse and holistic learning experiences.
This principle can be operationalised by adopting a minimum infrastructure benchmark and ensuring
time-bound provisioning of essential facilities across all schools. States may also undertake annual
infrastructure audits using UDISE+ data and GIS-enabled verification to ensure real-time visibility,
prioritised upgrades, and effective utilisation of funds under Samagra Shiksha and the Swachh
Vidyalaya Abhiyan.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Conduct a nationwide gap assessment using UDISE+, GIS, and school inspection data to identify
schools lacking electricity, toilets, water supply, boundary walls, and ramps along with basic
physical infrastructure like classroom size, desks, balckboards and playgrounds.
¨
Prioritise infrastructure provisioning in Aspirational Districts, tribal blocks, and areas with high
dropout rates, leveraging convergence with Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), Swachch Bharat Mission
(SBM), and Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF)- National Bank for Agriculture and
Rural Development (NABARD).
¨
Conduct a state-wide audit of electricity and Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) facilities,
prioritise gaps by district, and initiate immediate works in schools lacking basic access, with
quarterly progress reviews at the school complex level. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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¨Mandate boundary walls and adequate classroom space in all government schools as a criterion
for safety, especially for girls and younger children.
¨Operationalise an infrastructure quality assurance system under Samagra Shiksha, including
online dashboards for real-time monitoring.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Upgrade all identified schools to meet minimum infrastructure norms, including disability access,
energy-efficient lighting, and WASH facilities.
¨
Institutionalise coordination mechanisms between Education, Rural Development, Health, and
Public Works Department to ensure timely completion and maintenance.
¨
Launch community-led infrastructure monitoring initiatives, involving SMCs and local Panchayats
for asset upkeep and grievance redressal.
¨
Institutionalise an annual school infrastructure audit cycle through convergence with JJM, Swachh
Bharat, MGNREGA, and state rural development schemes.
¨
Ensure effective utilisation of Samagra Shiksha provisions for WASH maintenance by strengthening
district-level plumbing, repair, and response systems, and by improving monitoring of routine
maintenance and functionality.
¨Establish gender inclusive and disability-inclusive infrastructure as a core component of
accreditation and quality assurance frameworks.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Embed infrastructure provisioning into school development plans and mandate annual
infrastructure audits linked to funding decisions.
¨Develop climate-resilient infrastructure prototypes for flood/drought-prone areas to ensure
continuity of schooling.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨Ministry of Jal Shakti
¨Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD)
¨Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA)
¨State Education Departments
¨State Rural Development Department and PWD
¨District Education Office
¨PRIs and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
¨SMCs, SMDCs, Parents
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of schools with functional electricity and drinking water connections
¨Percentage of schools with gender-segregated toilets
¨Reduction in girls’ absenteeism at the secondary level due to infrastructure barriers
¨Annual WASH audit completion rate and grievance resolution time
¨Percentage of infrastructure data validated through UDISE+ and GIS mapping 145
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D State Good Practice
Rupantaran, Uttarakhand
78

Launched in 2018 in Almora, Rupantaran began as a community-driven effort to improve
government school infrastructure and has expanded to 160 schools across all 13 districts.
The initiative focuses on creating child-friendly, vibrant, and hygienic learning environments by
upgrading classrooms, furniture, washrooms, and drinking water facilities, as well as playgrounds
and libraries. Schools were also equipped with smart TVs, internet, AV rooms, and dedicated
spaces for music, yoga, and recreation. A flexible funding model enabled strong participation from
community and local leadership. The result has been a three-to four-fold increase in enrolment,
improved attendance, and renewed public trust in government schools.
(ii) Integrate Digital Infrastructure into Teaching, Learning, and School
Governance
Digital infrastructure must be treated as a core component of educational provisioning, not an add-
on. Every school should have functional computing facilities, reliable internet connectivity, and digital
teaching-learning tools to support 21
st
century competencies and system-wide efficiency. NEP 2020
envisions use and integration of technology to improve multiple aspects of education. There is also
a need to invest in the creation of open, interoperable, and evolvable Digital Public Infrastructure
(DPI) in the education sector that can be used by multiple platforms and point solutions, to address
India’s scale, diversity, complexity, and device penetration. (Clause 24.4b)
To realise this vision, schools must be supported with both hardware and the necessary ecosystem,
teacher training, technical support, and integration into classroom practice. National programmes
such as PM eVidya, BharatNet, and Gati Shakti should be converged to accelerate infrastructure
rollout and enable equitable digital access across school levels.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Identify and prioritise schools lacking computers or internet using UDISE+; target underserved
regions for first-phase provisioning.
¨Ensure convergence with BharatNet and PM Gati Shakti to deliver broadband access to all
secondary and higher secondary schools.
¨Provide baseline ICT training for all teachers (not limited to ICT instructors), supported by
DIETs and SCERTs, to avoid idle infrastructure.
¨Ensure provisioning of at least one functional digital classroom per secondary school with
internet access, a display device, and charging infrastructure.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Develop state-specific digital blueprints covering hardware provisioning, uptime protocols,
cybersecurity, and localised content integration.
¨
Expand digital access within classrooms, including Wi-Fi connectivity, smart boards, and device-
to-student ratios aligned with national benchmarks.
¨Institutionalise Digital Infrastructure Maintenance Grants under Samagra Shiksha to ensure
functionality of devices, power backup, and hardware repairs.
78 National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration. (2023). National Award for Innovations and Good Practices in Educational Administration 2020-21 & 2021-22. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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¨Expand teacher training on ICT-based pedagogy through blended models, integrating it into
CPD frameworks by SCERTs and DIETs.
¨Promote the use of learning management systems (LMS), assessment dashboards, and smart
attendance systems in composite and secondary schools.
¨Introduce digital literacy modules into the school curriculum, aligned with NCERT’s ICT
curriculum guidelines.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Achieve universal digital infrastructure coverage across all secondary and senior secondary
schools, with clear provisioning norms per school category.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨Ministry of Electronics and IT / BharatNet
¨State Education Departments, SCERTs
¨District Education Office, DIETs
¨PRIs, ULBs
¨SMCs, SDMCs, Parents
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of schools with at least one functional digital classroom with internet
¨Percentage of teachers trained in digital pedagogy and LMS usage
¨
Percentage of schools actively uploading data on UDISE+/SDMIS without third-party assistance
¨Student digital literacy levels in Grades 6-10 (via NAS or state assessments)
D State Good Practice
Gyankunj Initiative, Gujarat
79
The Gyankunj Initiative by the Government of Gujarat is a large-scale school digitalisation
programme aimed at enhancing the quality of education and transforming classroom teaching-
learning in government schools by integrating technology. Launched in 2017, it has successfully
made digital technology more widely accessible, bridged the digital divide and equipped students
for a technology-driven future. The initiative has been implemented across 1,609 schools in 33
districts, impacting over 2.85 lakh students in classes 5 to 8. Classrooms were equipped with
smart boards, projectors, laptops, and internet connectivity to facilitate interactive, visually
engaging teaching. The initiative also introduced over 3,000 animated videos, digital content
covering 450+ textbook units, virtual science labs, and gamified learning tools to support deeper
comprehension. Teachers received regular training and access to a 24/7 digital support system to
ensure effective integration of these tools. By providing 10,000 tablets to select schools, Gyankunj
encouraged student-led digital learning and skill development. The initiative has enhanced student
engagement, improved subject clarity, and fostered digital literacy, while empowering teachers
with innovative pedagogical methods.
79 Samagra Shiksha Gujarat. Gyankunj smart classroom programme. 147
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(iii) Strengthen Laboratories, Libraries, and Resource Centres for Experiential
Learning
Academic infrastructure, particularly science laboratories and school libraries, must be revitalised to
enable experiential learning, promote inquiry, and support independent thinking across all schooling
stages. These are not peripheral add-ons, but essential to delivering the pedagogical intent of the
curriculum and achieving the learning outcomes envisioned under NEP 2020, Clauses 4.9 and 4.24.
Laboratories must become accessible, well-maintained, and pedagogically embedded components
of secondary schooling. Simultaneously, libraries should be reimagined as active learning spaces,
integrated with regular reading programmes, and staffed with trained facilitators.
States may adopt a two-pronged strategy: (a) Expand access to functional labs and curated libraries,
especially in government secondary and senior secondary schools, and (b) Strengthen institutional
capacity to sustain them through staff, resources, and academic integration.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Conduct state-wide audits of school labs and libraries to identify gaps in equipment, space,
materials, and staff.
¨Notify minimum lab infrastructure standards under Samagra Shiksha for universal adoption
across states.
¨
Launch targeted school library revival drives in collaboration with SCERTs, public libraries, and
community networks.
¨
Curate graded and multilingual library resources aligned with curricular themes and reading levels.
¨Reactivate libraries as reading centres in selected schools with curated books and reading corners.
¨Upgrade CwSN-inclusive schools with dedicated resource rooms equipped with assistive
devices and teacher aides.
¨Launch science clubs and reading programmes to foster a culture of inquiry and self-
learning in schools.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Institutionalise annual lab and library grants under Samagra Shiksha for upgrades, consumables,
and materials.
¨Issue library operational guidelines: minimum reading hours, activity calendars, and student
access rules.
¨Ensure every secondary/senior secondary school has at least one functional STEM lab with
clear maintenance protocols.
¨
Recruit/designate trained librarians and lab assistants; orient teachers in activity-based pedagogy.
¨Integrate library and lab use into school quality assessment frameworks and state
inspection protocols.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Collaborate with NCERT and the National Digital Library to provide curriculum-aligned materials
and virtual science resources. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L, NCERT
¨NUEPA
¨State Education Departments
¨SCERTs, DIETs
¨District Education Office
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of secondary schools with at least one functional science lab
¨Percentage of schools with operational libraries integrated into weekly timetables
¨Library usage metrics - average books borrowed per student per month
¨Student participation in lab activities and science exhibition
D State Good Practice
We Love Reading campaign, Andhra Pradesh
80
The Government of Andhra Pradesh launched the “We Love Reading” campaign to address low
foundational literacy among students in Classes 3 to 9. ASER 2018 showed that over 77% of
Grade 3 and 42% of Grade 5 students could not read a Grade 2-level text, undermining learning
across all subjects. Recognising this as a critical barrier to curriculum engagement and long-
term academic success, the state designed a year-long programme in four phases: Preparatory,
Foundational, Advanced, and Valedictory, each with targeted activities, tasks, and assessments.
Baseline reading tests grouped students by skill level rather than grade, enabling differentiated
instruction and targeted interventions.
Schools created reading corners, set up book banks, introduced two daily library periods in English
and Telugu, and opened community reading centres. Reading Melas were organised for students
to showcase progress and celebrate achievements, while Book Banks encouraged community
donations to expand access to age-appropriate material. Over 45,000 schools participated, with
72% establishing functional libraries. The initiative improved reading proficiency, strengthened
classroom participation, and built student confidence. By embedding community engagement
and creating a culture of reading, the campaign not only addressed immediate learning deficits
but also laid a strong foundation for sustained literacy growth.
5.1.3 Reform Governance and Enhance Administrative Capacity
(i) Rationalise Governance Structures and Enhance Local Autonomy
Effective school transformation requires a rationalised governance structure where roles are clearly
defined, and local actors are empowered with decision-making authority. NEP 2020 Clauses 7.6 and
7.8 highlight the importance of decentralisation through school complexes and call for empowering
school leaders to respond contextually to local needs.
80 Samagra Shiksha, Andhra Pradesh. (2021). “We Love Reading” campaign: Foundational reading literacy programme (State-specific programme). Government of Andhra Pradesh. 149
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A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Redesign institutional structures at Central, State, and District levels by mapping and clarifying
the roles and responsibilities of education departments, directorates, SCERTs, DIETs, District
Education Officers (DEOs), Block Education Officers (BEOs), Cluster Resource Person (CRPs),
and Block Resource Persons (BRPs).
¨Develop and notify functional role manuals to avoid duplication and establish clear
accountability mechanisms.
¨Issue State guidelines for operationalising the school complex system, specifying procedures
for joint planning, teacher sharing, resource pooling, and community engagement.
¨Notify autonomy provisions for school heads covering school calendar adjustments, use of
grants, and initiation of localised programmes.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Establish District Education Planning Cells to support school complexes with data-driven
decision-making and coordination between departments.
¨
Conduct regular capacity-building programmes for PRIs and SMCs to strengthen their oversight,
planning, and learning monitoring capabilities.
¨Monitor school complex operations annually to assess utilisation of autonomy and
collaboration outcomes.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨State Education Departments
¨SCERTs and DIETs
¨PRIs and ULBs
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of States with updated functional organograms and role manuals
¨Percentage of school complexes with formal autonomy provisions notified
¨Percentage of PRI/SMC members trained in governance and monitoring SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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D State Good Practice
Performance Incentive Grants, Nagaland
81
The Performance Incentive Grants (PIG) initiative under the NECTAR project in Nagaland is
actively driving community involvement in school governance. Under PIG, financial grants are
provided to SMCs and SMDCs of government schools, empowering them to plan and execute
developmental activities according to local needs. To ensure effective implementation and capacity-
building, SMCs and SMDCs undergo mandatory training in governance, project management,
and financial monitoring before receiving funds. Grants are disbursed in instalments over two
years, with regular progress and performance reviews after each phase.
The approach encourages the committees to formulate annual school development plans, maintain
records, and oversee and supervise implementation, CPD workshops, needs assessment, and
mentoring sessions, further strengthening local leadership. Community participation is enhanced
as SMCs/SMDCs mobilise local resources, engage with parents, and monitor school improvement
projects. Regular monitoring by the Project Management Unit and district administrators
ensures accountability and quality, with schools receiving subsequent grant instalments only
based on progress and verified outcomes. Through PIG, more than 1,900 SMCs and SMDCs
across Nagaland have directly contributed and driven grassroots change, resulting in enhanced
learning environments, cultivating a sense of ownership among community members, and building
sustained local engagement in school governance.
(ii) Strengthen Institutional Capacity and Administrative Cadres
An effective education system requires not just policies but a strong institutional capacity to deliver
on them. Yet, Block and District Education Offices in many States suffer from acute vacancies,
unclear functional mandates, and weak academic-administrative coordination. NEP 2020 emphasises
restructuring and strengthening the education departments and institutions at all levels to ensure
effective implementation of reforms. (Clauses 27.1 & 27.2)
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Conduct a comprehensive vacancy mapping of all administrative positions from the Block to
the State level, including Cluster Resource Coordinators (CRCs), Block Education Officers
(BEOs), and MIS personnel.
¨
Fill critical vacancies at block and district levels through time-bound recruitment drives, prioritising
academic support and field-level monitoring posts.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Launch state-wide training and certification programmes for CRPs, BEOs, and other district/block
officers in collaboration with NUEPA and SCERTs, focusing on school leadership, instructional
coaching, data analytics, financial management, and academic planning.
¨Initiate a digital Human Resource Management Information System (HRMIS) for real-time
vacancy tracking, transfer/posting management, and performance review.
81 Nagaland Education Project. (2024). Performance incentive grants. 151
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Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Institutionalise career pathways with provisions for lateral movement between administrative
and academic roles to build a versatile cadre.
B Actors Responsible
¨NUEPA
¨State Education Departments
¨Department of Personnel and Administrative Reforms
¨SCERTs and DIETs
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of sanctioned administrative posts filled at block/district level
¨Percentage of CRPs trained and actively engaged in academic mentoring
¨Percentage of officers completing annual training modules
¨Existence of functional HRMIS and performance appraisal systems
(iii) Reform School Supervision and Academic Support Structures
India’s school supervision framework remains rooted in a compliance-driven legacy model that
prioritises administrative checklists over academic engagement. This approach often fails to strengthen
teacher capacity or drive improvements in classroom practice. At the same time, there are early
indications of a gradual shift towards more outcome-oriented approaches. For instance, the Central
Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has introduced the School Quality Assessment and Assurance
Framework (SQAAF), which places greater emphasis on learning outcomes, pedagogical processes,
teacher professional development, and school leadership, alongside compliance parameters. Several
State Boards are also undertaking reforms to reorient inspection and review mechanisms towards
academic support, though these efforts remain uneven across jurisdictions. Overall, there is a need
to reframe supervision as a developmental, mentorship-oriented process that empowers school
leaders and teachers. The transition from inspection to continuous instructional support is essential
to foster a culture where school visits serve as opportunities for academic guidance, reflective
practice, and collaborative problem-solving as envisioned in NEP 2020. (Clause 8.1)
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Review and revise the current school supervision guidelines to shift the focus from compliance
to academic mentorship and instructional support.
¨
Build the capacity of CRPs and academic coordinators in instructional leadership, mentorship
techniques, and teacher support.
¨Develop standardised academic planning templates, peer observation formats, and teacher
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Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Strengthen DIETs to function as district level academic nodal institution.
¨
Revamp CRP workloads to enable regular classroom visits, follow-up support, and continuous
mentoring for teachers.
¨Introduce digital platforms for real-time logging of school visits, documentation of classroom
practices, and sharing of resources, enabling evidence-based instructional support.
¨Establish periodic refresher training and mentorship certifications for school support
staff and CRPs.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Embed instructional mentoring as a core responsibility in school evaluation systems.
B Actors Responsible
¨State School Education Departments
¨SCERTs and DIETs
¨Block and District Education Offices
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of teachers receiving mentoring support
¨Percentage of school visits focused on academic support and mentorship
¨Percentage of CRPs providing regular in-classroom mentoring
¨Number of trained academic mentors deployed at the block/district levels
¨Frequency of peer observation and joint lesson planning sessions
(iv) Develop Effective School Leadership through Structured Training and
Decentralised Empowerment
School leaders shape both the academic direction and the working culture of their schools. There
is a clear need to strengthen the role of principals as leaders of change. Instructional leadership
has a strong and measurable influence on student achievement, emphasising the importance of
targeted investment in school leadership
82
. A comprehensive leadership development strategy
should combine structured training, continuous professional development, and greater autonomy
to enable school heads to lead academic improvement, foster inclusive environments, and engage
meaningfully with communities.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Institutionalise structured induction training for all newly appointed school heads with modules
on academic leadership, inclusive practices, and school planning.
¨
Deliver leadership programmes through NISHTHA, NUEPA, and SCERTs, supplemented with
online components.
82 UNESCO. (2024). Global Education Monitoring Report 2024/25: Leadership in education: Lead for learning. Paris: UNESCO 153
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¨Introduce periodic 360-degree assessments to inform customised development plans for
school heads.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Develop and adopt a national competency framework for school leadership aligned with NEP
2020 and NCF-SE.
¨
Empower school heads with operational autonomy in areas such as budget planning, resource
allocation, teacher deployment, and innovation in pedagogy.
¨
Establish a leadership progression pathway with performance-linked roles (e.g., Vice Principal,
Mentor Principal).
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Strengthen SCERTs to serve as hubs for training, mentoring, and research.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨NUEPA and National Centre for School Leadership (NCSL)
¨SCERTs and State Education Departments
C Performance Success Indicators
¨
Percentage of school heads completing NEP 2020 aligned leadership training within the first year
¨Percentage of schools reporting enhanced decision-making autonomy for heads
¨Measurable improvement in school performance metrics (e.g., student retention, learning
outcomes) in schools led by trained principals
(v) Strengthen State School Standards Authorities (SSSAs) and Operationalise
State School Quality Assessment and Assurance Frameworks (SQAAF)
NEP 2020 recommends the establishment of independent State School Standards Authorities in
every State/UT as a single regulator for all public and private schools. (Clauses 8.4, 8.5). To support
transparent, objective, and continuous quality assurance, States must consider developing and
operationalising a State School Quality Assessment and Assurance Framework (SQAAF) as the
primary mechanism for assessing school quality and performance.
This SSSA would be responsible for setting and enforcing minimum standards related to school safety,
infrastructure, teacher qualifications, and learning outcomes, and for overseeing their implementation
through SQAAF-based assessments and accreditation processes. In line with NEP 2020, SSSAs have
already been constituted in a number of States, covering approximately 12 State Boards, providing
an initial foundation for further expansion and strengthening.
Academic functions, including curriculum design, pedagogy, and teacher professional development,
should remain with bodies such as SCERTs and examination boards. This clear separation of SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
regulatory and academic roles would reduce conflicts of interest and ensure that school quality
assurance is credible, consistent, and uniformly applied across all schools.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Extend the establishment of SSSAs to all remaining States/UTs building on existing models and
operational experiences from States where such authorities are already in place.
¨Develop and notify a SQAAF with measurable indicators aligned to NEP 2020, covering
infrastructure, safety, governance, teacher capacity, student well-being, and learning outcomes.
¨SSSA should be staffed with personnel possesssing expertise in school regulation, data analytics,
and quality assurance.
¨Set up an online school accreditation and public disclosure portal for all schools, linked to
UDISE+ data.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Institutionalise annual SQAAF-based school accreditation and quality review cycles, linked to
school improvement and development plans.
¨
Establish independent inspection and review panels trained in SQAAF protocols, clearly separated
from routine administrative supervision.
¨Collaborate with SCERTs to link SSSA findings with targeted academic interventions and
teacher professional development.
¨Develop quality grievance redressal mechanisms for parents, students, and teachers.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Embed SSSA and SQAAF functions within State education legislation, ensuring financial autonomy,
accountability, and continuity.
¨Introduce periodic external audits of SSSA and SQAAF processes to maintain transparency,
credibility, and consistency.
¨Integrate SQAAF-based school quality ratings into public dashboards to enable informed
decision-making by communities, policymakers, and parents.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨State Education Departments
¨SSSA, SCERTs
¨Examination Boards
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of States/UTs with constituted and operational SSSA 155
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¨Percentage reduction in time taken to resolve school quality-related grievances
¨Percentage of SSSA recommendations integrated into school and state improvement plans
5.1.4 Institutionalise a “Whole-of-Society” Approach through State
and District Task Forces on School Quality
Improving the quality of schooling at scale requires coordinated action beyond the education
department alone. Learning outcomes are shaped by factors spanning health, nutrition, social
protection, infrastructure, skills, technology, community engagement, and local economic contexts.
NEP 2020 underscores the need for cross-sectoral convergence, partnerships with civil society, and
engagement with philanthropic and private actors to strengthen school education outcomes. To
operationalise this vision in a structured and accountable manner, States may institutionalise State and
District Task Forces on School Quality as permanent coordination and problem-solving platforms.
These Task Forces should function as strategic convergence mechanisms, not parallel administrative
layers. Their core mandate would be to align policies, pool financial, technical and human resources,
unblock implementation bottlenecks, and accelerate school quality improvements across both
government and private schools through a “whole-of-society” approach.
(i) Establish State and District Task Forces on School Quality
Design and Mandate State Task Force on School Quality
• Chair: Chief Secretary
• Members:
¨
Secretaries of School Education, Higher Education, Women & Child Development, Social Welfare,
Tribal Welfare, Health, Rural Development, Urban Development, Skill Development, IT
¨
Chairpersons/Heads of SCERT, SSSA, State Boards, and NUEPA/partner academic institutions
¨Representatives from leading civil society organisations, education-focused philanthropies,
industry associations, and CSR foundations
• Core Functions:
¨Provide strategic direction for school quality reforms aligned with NEP 2020
¨Approve cross-departmental convergence plans and pooled financing mechanisms
¨Review state-level learning, retention, and equity indicators on a periodic basis
¨Facilitate partnerships with philanthropy, industry, and knowledge institutions
¨Resolve inter-departmental policy and implementation bottlenecks
Design and Mandate District Task Force on School Quality
• Chair: District Magistrate
• Members:
¨District Education Officer, ICDS, Health, Social Welfare, Tribal Welfare, Labour, Skill
Development officers
¨DIET Principals, Block Education Officers
¨Representatives of NGOs, CSR partners, local industry, and community-based organisations
• Core Functions:
¨
Align national and state priorities with district and cluster level needs and translate them into
specific action plans SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
¨Coordinate multi-departmental support for schools and school complexes
¨Mobilise local CSR, philanthropic, and community resources aligned to SDPs
¨Monitor implementation progress and address last-mile challenges
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Issue a Government Order formally constituting the State and District Task Forces with clear
mandates, membership, and meeting cycles.
¨
Define a limited set of priority school quality outcomes (e.g., foundational learning, secondary
transitions, teacher availability, infrastructure gaps) to focus Task Force action.
¨Establish a shared School Quality Dashboard at State and District levels using UDISE+,
and NAS/PARAKH.
¨Map existing government schemes, CSR initiatives, and philanthropic programmes to identify
convergence and funding gaps.
¨
Pilot District Task Force on School Quality in selected districts (including Aspirational Districts)
to demonstrate value and refine operating protocols.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Institutionalise quarterly review cycles at the district level and annual reviews at the state level,
with action-tracking mechanisms.
¨Create District Convergence Plans that align departmental budgets, CSR funds, and external
technical assistance with SDP and school-complex priorities.
¨Formalise partnership frameworks (MoUs) with universities, industry bodies, and CSOs for
mentoring, teacher support, career guidance, and infrastructure augmentation.
¨
Build district-level technical support units to support data analysis, coordination, and follow-up.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Embed Task Force functioning into state education governance architecture, linked to annual
planning and budgeting cycles.
¨Introduce outcome-linked financing and performance reporting for convergent initiatives
supported by Task Forces.
¨Institutionalise independent learning and process evaluations to assess the impact of whole-
of-society interventions on school quality.
B Actors Responsible
¨Chief Secretary
¨District Collector
¨State School Education Department
¨Line Departments (WCD, Health, Social Welfare, Tribal Welfare, Rural/Urban
Development, Skill, IT)
¨SCERTs, DIETs, SSSAs
¨Civil Society Organisations, Philanthropic Foundations, Industry and CSR Partner 157
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C Performance Success Indicators
¨Number of States and Districts with formally notified and operational Task Forces
¨Frequency and regularity of Task Force meetings with documented action points
¨
Proportion of district SDPs and school-complex plans supported through convergent funding
or partnerships
¨
Measurable improvements in priority school quality indicators (learning outcomes, transitions,
infrastructure gaps) in Task Force-supported districts
5.1.5 Strengthen School Management Committees (SMCs/SDMCs)
and Institutionalise Bottom-Up Planning
School Management Committees (SMCs) are the backbone of community participation in school
governance as mandated under the RTE Act, 2009. Under SSA, village- and school-level committees
have been constituted across all States and UTs, though their nomenclature varies: Village Education
Committee (VEC), School Development and Management Committee (SDMC), School Monitoring
Committee (SMC), Vidyalaya Shiksha Samiti (VSS), Vidyalaya Kalyan Samiti (VKS), Jan Bhagidari
Vikas Samiti (JBVS) and others. The RTE Act institutionalised SMCs and assigned them statutory
responsibilities related to oversight, financial management and preparation of School Development
Plans (SDPs).
To strengthen bottom-up planning and local accountability, SMCs and related committees require a
clear institutional framework, sustained capacity-building and structured linkage with school-complex
and district-level planning processes. Enabling these bodies to function as effective forums for local
planning and oversight, and supporting them to prepare SDPs in a systematic manner, will ensure
that school priorities are clearly articulated and addressed. A well-functioning SDP process can serve
as a common reference point for coordination between schools, communities, Panchayats, local
bodies, the education administration and external partners, improving the alignment of resources
with identified needs and enhancing the overall responsiveness of the system. Strengthening SMCs
must also include clearer guidance on facilitating regular parent-teacher interaction, ensuring that
families are better equipped to support children’s learning at home
83
.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Issue updated State guidelines specifying the roles, responsibilities, meeting norms and
representational requirements for SMCs in line with RTE provisions.
¨Conduct community sensitisation activities at village and school levels to build awareness of
SMC roles, the importance of parental participation and the purpose of SDPs.
¨Provide simple, standard formats for preparing SDPs that cover priority areas such as
infrastructure, sanitation, teacher availability, safety, ECCE readiness, digital use and inclusion.
¨Conduct orientation sessions for SMC/SDMC/VEC members through BRCs/CRCs, focusing
on reviewing school data, identifying gaps and prioritising actions.
¨
Introduce structured meeting processes, including agenda-setting, minute-keeping and follow-
up tracking, to support regular and purposeful engagement.
83 Raj Kumar. (n.d.). Improving education outcomes in government schools: Strengthening the parent–teacher–technology triad. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
¨Display key information publicly funds received, utilisation, enrolment, attendance and essential
infrastructure status to strengthen transparency and enable informed community participation.
¨Maintain school grievance registers with a clear block-level escalation path.
¨Provide SMCs with monthly EWS risk reports and household-visit protocols.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Set up a defined process for block and district offices to review SDPs within fixed timelines
and integrate priority items into annual planning cycles.
¨
Use SDPs to guide coordination with Panchayats, CSR contributions, local philanthropists and
civil society organisations so that external support aligns with identified needs.
¨Strengthen grievance redressal by linking school-level registers with block-level monitoring
and ensuring timely follow-up.
¨Develop regular capacity-building programmes through DIETs and SCERTs on academic
monitoring, financial oversight and community engagement.
¨
Encourage peer learning among committees at cluster or complex level through shared meetings
and exposure visits.
¨Train SMCs to conduct community mobilisation campaigns focused on preventing dropout.
¨
Encourage simple technology-enabled parent engagement tools to help families support basic
learning at home and share feedback with teachers.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Integrate the SDP process into routine block and district planning cycles to ensure continuity
in addressing school priorities.
¨
Establish structured linkages between SMCs and school-complex committees under NEP 2020
to support coordinated planning and resource-sharing.
¨Institutionalise SMC involvement in EWS-led case management for at-risk children.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨State School Education Departments
¨District Education Offices, BRCs and CRCs
¨SCERTs and DIETs
¨Panchayati Raj Institutions (where applicable)
¨School Heads and SMC/SDMC/VEC/VSS committees
C Performance Success Indicators
¨
Percentage of schools with SMCs constituted as per RTE norms, including required representation
of women and parents from disadvantaged groups
¨Percentage of schools submitting annual SDPs in the approved State format
¨Proportion of SDP priorities integrated into block and district plans
¨Number of SMC meetings held annually per school, with documented minutes and
follow-up actions 159
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Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
¨Percentage of schools maintaining functional grievance registers with documented
resolution timelines
¨Amount and proportion of CSR/NGO contributions aligned to SDP priorities
¨Percentage of school complexes with SMC representation in planning meetings
5.1.6 Elevate Teacher Deployment, Professional Capacity, and Career
Progression
(i) Strengthen Teacher Deployment, Workforce Planning, and Time-on-Task
Governance
Equitable teacher deployment and efficient use of instructional time are essential for improving
learning outcomes. State experiences, including those from SATH-E, show that systematic surplus-
deficit mapping, rationalisation of sub-scale schools, and clearer norms for teacher duties can
significantly improve the effective availability of teachers particularly in rural and underserved
blocks. Strengthening governance around teacher deployment and instructional-time utilisation
must therefore be prioritised as a foundational reform.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Establish a Teacher Workforce Planning Cell at the State level to coordinate vacancy tracking,
deployment reviews, and adherence to staffing norms.
¨
Develop a State Teacher Deployment Dashboard using UDISE+, HRMS, and school-level reports
to map vacancies, surpluses, and subject-specific needs.
¨
Issue clear notifications limiting non-teaching duties during instructional hours, with protocols
for scheduling such tasks outside teaching time.
¨Standardise academic calendars and minimum instructional hours across districts to ensure
consistent teaching time.
¨Conduct annual block-level reviews of multi-grade, single-teacher, and sub-scale schools to
guide redeployment and interim staffing.
¨
Ensure subject availability at the school or school-complex level by pooling specialist teachers
across clusters.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Implement phased school consolidation in under-enrolled and sub-scale schools to improve
subject-wise teacher availability and reduce multi-grade teaching.
¨Automate core school-level administrative tasks (attendance, MDM reporting, assessment
entry) through simple mobile tools to reduce paperwork.
¨Introduce Time-on-Task monitoring, including periodic classroom observations and time-use
reviews, to identify and address instructional time loss.
¨Digitalise recruitment, transfers, and postings to reduce delays, improve transparency, and fill
vacancies promptly especially in underserved areas.
¨
Establish District Instructional Time Review Committees to track instructional-time loss, ensure
adherence to duty norms, and guide corrective action. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Launch a “Mission Teachers 2030” to eliminate subject-wise shortages through fast-track
recruitment, digital screening, and regular TET and competency tests.
¨
Institutionalise periodic external audits of deployment equity and instructional-time utilisation,
ensuring independent oversight and long-term accountability.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨State Education Departments
¨District and Block Education Offices
¨SCERTs and EMIS/IT Cells
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage reduction in schools facing subject-specific teacher shortages
¨Percentage increase in average teacher instructional hours per week
¨Percentage reduction in teacher administrative workload
¨Functionality and usage rates of the Teacher Workforce Management System
(ii) Improve Teacher Preparation, Subject Expertise, and Professional
Development
Teacher effectiveness depends on strong pre-service preparation, continuous professional
development, and a deep understanding of subject-pedagogical mastery. Many States face persistent
gaps in subject expertise, especially in Mathematics, Science, English, Foundational Literacy, and
early childhood education. Strengthening pre-service pathways, modernising TEIs, and establishing
a competency-based CPD architecture are critical for improving instructional quality at scale.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Conduct a diagnostic assessment of teacher subject knowledge (foundation to secondary) to
identify individual and system-wide gaps.
¨
Strengthen practicum in pre-service programmes by designating Model Practice Schools attached
to DIETs and TEIs.
¨Integrate AI-assisted classroom observation tools to strengthen practicum supervision and
structured feedback.
¨
Expand availability of high-quality blended training modules through DIKSHA/NISHTHA, with
micro-learning pathways.
¨Strengthen practicum supervision through minimum observation hours, standard feedback
formats, and structured mentor-teacher engagement.
¨Introduce state-developed modules on inclusive education, FLN, multilingual pedagogy, and
experiential learning for uniform use across TEIs.
Medium-Term (2-5) 161
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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¨Strengthen SCERTs and DIETs for Practice-Based Teacher Education to support TEIs with
practicum design, case materials, and mentor-teacher training.
¨
Formalise collaboration between TEIs, SCERTs, and DIETs for coherence between pre-service
and in-service expectations.
¨Strengthen faculty development programmes focusing on subject pedagogy, classroom
observation, and the use of digital tools.
¨Develop AI-supported practicum platforms to enhance mentor feedback, track classroom
observations, and strengthen school-based practice
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Build research capacity in SCERTs, DIETs, and universities to inform curriculum and training
with local evidence and pedagogic innovations.
B Actors Responsible
¨NCTE
¨SCERTs, RIEs, and DIETs
¨District & Block Resource Centres
¨Universities, Higher Education Institutions, RIEs
¨Model Practice Schools and School Complexes
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Improvement in teacher diagnostic assessment scores
¨Percentage of teacher educators completing annual faculty development modules
¨Percentage of teachers completing competency-based CPD linked to progression stages
D State Good Practice
Kalika Chetarike, Karnataka
84
The Department of State Educational Research and Training (DSERT), Karnataka, conceptualised
and launched Kalika Chetarike as a learning recovery initiative aimed at addressing learning loss
due to prolonged school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic. The programme redesigns
classroom instruction for Class 1-9 around clearly defined competencies rather than textbook-
based syllabi, indicating a systemic shift towards competency-based learning (CBL).
The initiative emphasises that classroom instruction be focused on attaining subject-wise, grade-
specific learning outcomes through activities. Activity books were designed by teachers through a
series of workshops to cover specific learning outcomes aligned with grade-specific competencies.
The programme promotes activity-based learning, encouraging active-participatory learning
through group discussions, practical tasks and reflection-based learning in everyday classroom
practice. It also includes a large-scale teacher training component undertaken by the DSERT.
2 lakh teachers across the State have been trained in activity-based learning, competency-based
learning methods and assessment tools. Kalika Chetarike has successfully made academics more
joyful for students and helped improve classroom engagement and learning levels.
84 United Nations Development Programme. (2023). Kalika Chetarike: Karnataka Department of School Education. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
5.1.7 Strengthen and Expand Digital and Broadcast-Based Learning
for Inclusive Education
Figure 5.5: Digital Broadcast- Based Learning for Inclusive Education
NEP 2020 emphasises the use of technology to improve access, equity, and quality across all stages
of school education. It calls for the integration of digital and broadcast-based platforms with
classroom teaching, ensuring that high-quality learning resources are available in multiple Indian
languages, in accessible formats, and adapted to the needs of diverse learners. The policy envisions
these platforms as both supplementary tools for enrichment and compensatory mechanisms to
bridge gaps faced by learners in remote, under-resourced, or otherwise disadvantaged contexts.
Recent national initiatives have demonstrated the potential of technology-enabled learning to
extend quality educational resources to large numbers of students, including those without reliable
internet access, through a combination of online platforms, dedicated DTH television channels, and
community-based access points. However, the reach and quality of such content vary considerably
across subjects, grades, and languages. The next phase should prioritise systematic expansion,
stronger integration with pedagogy, and sustained quality improvement, with particular focus on
ensuring that the curriculum is well-aligned, accessible, available in multiple languages, and locally
contextualised. Digital learning should become a core element of the schooling process, bridging
learning gaps for children in rural and underserved areas, and providing inclusive formats for children
with disabilities to ensure equitable opportunities for all learners. 163
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (1-2 years)
¨Conduct a national mapping of existing digital and broadcast-based resources to identify
gaps in language coverage, curriculum alignment, grade levels, and accessibility features
(including for CwSN).
¨Strengthen State-Centre coordination to ensure alignment of digital content with NCERT/
SCERT curricula.
¨
Develop guidelines for accessible digital learning that cover universal design principles, captioning,
sign language, audio description, and screen reader compatibility.
¨
Introduce targeted capacity-building for teachers on integrating digital and broadcast resources
into lesson plans.
¨
Pilot community-based access models (e.g., through schools, panchayat libraries, and Anganwadi
centres) to reach students without personal devices or internet connectivity.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Equip every school with reliable ICT infrastructure, power backup, and access to both online
and broadcast learning platforms.
¨
Establish district-level community digital learning hubs to provide after-school and weekend access.
¨Integrate digital learning platforms with State Management Information Systems (MIS) for usage
and impact tracking.
¨Facilitate content translation and localisation to ensure resources are available in all major
Indian languages and adapted to local socio-cultural contexts.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Ensure universal, equitable access to quality digital and broadcast learning across all States/UTs.
¨Embed digital resource creation and pedagogy into pre-service and in-service teacher training.
¨Maintain a dynamic national repository of curriculum-aligned, high-quality, and inclusive digital
content, subject to periodic review.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L, Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET), NCERT
¨Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL)
¨State Education Departments, SCERTs, and State ICT Cells.
¨District/Block Education Offices,
¨PRIs and ULBs
¨Community Organisations.
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of schools with functional ICT labs and reliable connectivity
¨Percentage of teachers regularly using digital resources in classroom instruction
¨Extent of multilingual and accessible content coverage in repositories
¨Percentage increase in usage statistics for online and broadcast learning platforms
¨Measurable improvement in learning outcomes where blended learning models are adopted SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 164
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
D Central Government Initiative
SWAYAM
85
The “Study Webs of Active-Learning for Young Aspiring Minds” (SWAYAM) platform launched on
July 9, 2017 is the Government of India’s initiative, providing free online courses from Class 9 up to
post-graduation. It seeks to democratise access to high-quality educational content and support
blended and distance learning models. Beneficiaries include school and higher education students,
teachers, and lifelong learners. Implemented by the Ministry of Education in coordination with
UGC, AICTE, NCERT, IGNOU, and other national coordinators, More than 14,750+ MOOCs
have been offered through the SWAYAM Platform, and the total number of enrolments in these
courses has crossed 4.8 crores. 37 lakh SWAYAM certificates have been issued.
PM e-Vidya DTH TV Channels
86
Launched on May 17, 2020, PM e-Vidya is a nationwide digital education initiative offering over
200 dedicated free-to-air DTH TV channels, each mapped to grades 1-12 and available in multiple
Indian languages. The programme aims to ensure accessible, equitable, and quality supplementary
education for all students, particularly those in remote areas or without internet access. In 2024,
the government also introduced a dedicated Indian Sign Language (ISL) DTH channel to support
hearing-impaired learners, strengthening the initiative’s inclusive focus. Implemented by the Ministry
of Education in collaboration with NCERT and States/UTs via MoUs, the scheme has expanded
from 12 to 200 channels as of 2024, significantly increasing multilingual and inclusive access.
5.1.8 Promote Equity and Inclusion
Figure 5.6: Equity and Inclusion
85 Government of India, Ministry of Education. SWAYAM: Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds.
86 Press Information Bureau. (2020, September 17). PM eVIDYA: Multimode access to digital education [Press release]. Ministry of Education, Government of India. 165
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
(i) Strengthen Contextualised Support for Socially and Economically
Disadvantaged Students
States must institutionalise targeted academic, financial, and socio-emotional support systems to
ensure equitable progression and learning outcomes for students from SC, ST, OBC, and other
disadvantaged backgrounds. This includes deploying culturally responsive pedagogy, localised
remedial instruction, and need-based scholarships to address foundational learning gaps and facilitate
school completion.
State-level academic support units, data-driven learning interventions, and convergence with welfare
departments are required to design integrated support packages. Scholarship schemes should be
streamlined through integrated digital platforms and DBT pipelines to ensure timely disbursal.
Conditional cash transfers may be introduced in high-burden districts to improve attendance and
transitions at secondary stages. Academic support must be complemented by local mentorship,
peer-led bridge programmes, and multilingual resources tailored to community contexts.
Academic support must be complemented by structured school-level Mentor-Mentee frameworks,
wherein designated teachers are assigned to monitor academic progress, attendance, transition
readiness, and socio-emotional well-being of identified SEDGs students, particularly at critical
transition stages. Such structured engagement can strengthen personalised academic support,
improve retention, and build student confidence through sustained guidance.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Mandate State Academic Support Cells under Samagra Shiksha to design SEDGs focused
interventions.
¨
Roll out remedial learning and bridge courses (Grades 3-9) using bilingual/multilingual content
developed by SCERT.
¨Institutionalise school-level Mentor-Mentee mapping for identified SEDG students in Grades
6-12, with defined interaction protocols, academic review formats, and periodic parent
engagement mechanisms.
¨Integrate and digitise all scholarship schemes under a single-state portal with DBT-
enabled disbursal.
¨Expand mentorship and peer-led learning models in tribal and low-literacy districts.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Deploy district-wise learning dashboards to track disaggregated progress among
disadvantaged groups.
¨
Operationalise counselling and guidance services in all blocks, with culturally aware practitioners
and outreach models.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Transition from application-based to entitlement-based scholarship disbursal, automatically
linked to educational milestones. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
B Actors Responsible
¨Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
¨State School Education Departments
¨SCERTs and District Academic Resource Centres
¨Tribal Welfare and Welfare Departments of States
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Timely scholarship disbursal for eligible SC/ST/OBC students
¨Improved transition rates in Grades 5-6, 8-9, and 10-11 among disadvantaged groups
¨Reduction in SEDGs learning gaps in NAS/PARAKH assessments
¨Percentage of identified SEDG students assigned a designated mentor and receiving periodic
academic review support
D Central Government Initiative
Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS)
87
Established in 1997-98, Eklavya Model Residential Schools provide quality residential education
for Scheduled Tribe (ST) children in remote and tribal-dominated areas. The objective is to
ensure holistic development, academic, physical, and cultural, for students from Classes 6 to
12. Funded fully by the Central Government and implemented by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs
in partnership with State Governments, EMRS has 479 operational schools, with 235 schools
under construction as of July 2025. The model has improved access, retention, and educational
outcomes among tribal students.
(ii) Enhance Gender-Inclusive Systems
Advancing girls’ education requires a comprehensive strategy that goes beyond enrolment to address
retention, progression, and agency. States must integrate gender-sensitive infrastructure, targeted
incentives, and community-level interventions to create enabling environments for adolescent girls
to complete secondary and higher secondary education.
NEP 2020 emphasises that special attention will be given to reduce the barriers faced by girls and
transgender students in gaining access to education. (Clause 6.8) This must translate into practical
actions, such as ensuring safe travel, adequate menstrual hygiene management facilities, and local
support systems that counter social pressures leading to early dropout or marriage. Partnerships
with community-based organisations such as SHGs can enhance gender sensitisation among families
and build a sustained support ecosystem.
87 Government of India, Ministry of Education. SWAYAM: Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds. 167
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Introduce safety-linked transport vouchers or bicycle schemes for girls in remote and high-
dropout zones.
¨Ensure that every secondary and senior secondary school has gender-segregated functional
toilets, Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) facilities (including disposal, water access, and
private spaces), and handwashing stations, through convergence with the JJM and SBM.
¨
Operationalise school-level adolescent support groups and peer mentoring initiatives focused
on girls’ retention.
¨Roll out training modules on gender sensitisation for all teachers and school
management committees.
¨Establish structured career counselling services in secondary schools, complemented by
awareness drives and interactions with local women role models to inspire aspirations and
informed career choices.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Expand Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (KGBVs) in underserved areas.
¨
Develop and implement community-based early warning systems to prevent dropouts due to
marriage or household burden through SHGs and other CBOs.
¨Institutionalise bridge learning and re-entry pathways for girls who have dropped out post
Grade 8 or Grade 10.
¨Introduce school-level MHM awareness modules and training for SMCs.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Embed gender-inclusion indicators within district-level performance reviews and school
quality frameworks.
¨Achieve full convergence between girls’ education programmes and adolescent health
missions Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK), Weekly Iron and Folic Acid
Supplementation (WIFS).
B Actors Responsible
¨State Departments of School Education and Women & Child Development
¨PRIs, ULBs and SMCs
¨Community-based organisations and adolescent health programmes
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage schools equipped with functional girls’ toilets and menstrual hygiene provisions
¨Percentage Reduction in dropout rates among adolescent girls
¨Integration of gender modules in teacher induction and in-service training programmes SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 168
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
D Central Government Initiative
The Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) Scheme
88
Launched on 22 January 2015, it is a centrally funded initiative to improve the survival, protection,
and education of girls. The scheme targets improvements in the Sex Ratio at Birth (SRB), institutional
deliveries, early antenatal registration, secondary-level enrolment, skill development, and menstrual
hygiene awareness, while reducing dropout rates. Between 2014-15 and 2023-24, SRB improved
from 918 to 930, institutional deliveries rose from 61% to 97.3%, early antenatal registration
increased from 61% to 80.5%, and girls’ secondary enrolment rose from 75.51% to 78%.
E State Good Practice
Namo Lakshmi Yojana Scholarship Scheme, Gujarat
89
Launched in 2024, the Namo Lakshmi Yojana offers up to ₹50,000 in financial assistance to girls
from families with an annual income of less than ₹6 lakh, aiming to reduce dropouts in Classes
9-12. Beneficiaries receive ₹10,000 each in Classes 9 and 10 and ₹15,000 each in Classes 11 and
12, disbursed partly as monthly stipends and partly upon passing board exams. With a ₹1,250
crore allocation in 2024-25, the scheme targets around 10 lakh girls through DBT into student or
mother accounts, monitored via Gujarat’s Child Tracking System and linked to 80% attendance.
Early outcomes show a 16% increase in girls’ secondary enrolment and a 27% rise in science
stream uptake, supported by the complementary Namo Saraswati Vigyan Sadhana Yojana.
(iii) Prevent and Address Dropouts through Education Continuity and Re-Entry
Pathways
Ensuring that every child progresses smoothly through all stages of schooling is central to NEP 2020
and SDG-4. Evidence shows that dropout risks rise sharply at key transition points: entry into upper
primary (Grade 6), entry into secondary (Grade 9), and entry into higher secondary (Grade 11). At
these stages, children often face compounded barriers, including weak foundational learning,
social pressures (especially for girls), financial constraints, and the challenge of adjusting to new
curricula and environments. States must therefore adopt a dual strategy: preventing dropouts at
these critical junctures through targeted academic, financial, and social support, while also providing
flexible re-entry pathways for those who have already left school. This approach will safeguard
continuity, raise survival rates, and ensure that no child is denied the right to complete education.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Introduce an Early Warning System (EWS) by adding an “at-risk student” flag in UDISE+
school registers, using indicators such as attendance, learning levels, and basic socio-economic
vulnerability, drawing on approaches piloted in Gujarat.
¨School readiness at entry: Strengthen Balvatikas and provide bridge kits for Grade 1 entrants
without ECCE exposure.
88 Press Information Bureau. (2024). Progress update on Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
89 Department of Education, Government of Gujarat. Namo Lakshmi Yojna Scheme 169
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¨Immediate safety nets: Provide bicycles/transport vouchers for Grade 6 and 9 transitions; ensure
scholarship disbursal before secondary entry.
¨Bridge courses: Run short-term remedial classes at Grade 5 and 8 to prepare students for
the next stage.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Transition tracking: Each block to record how many students move from Grade 5 to 6, 8 to 9,
and 10 to 11, and follow up with those who do not transition to prevent dropouts.
¨Create individualised support plans for at-risk children using EWS case management.
¨Introduce structured Mentor-Mentee systems, peer mentors, and school counsellor support
at Grade 6, 9, and 11 transition points, integrating Early Warning Systems with personalised
academic guidance, adolescent support services, and socio-emotional follow-up.
¨Flexible schooling: Scale up part-time/open schooling for working adolescents, with credit
transfer to mainstream schools.
¨Re-entry packages: Offer accelerated bridge courses along with recognition of prior learning
for out-of-school children.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Institutionalise dropout prevention cells at district level to track risk and coordinate re-entry.
¨Expand the reach and range of National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS), vocational bridges,
and digital platforms as mainstream second-chance options.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨Ministries of WCD, Social Justice, Labour
¨State Education Departments, SCERTs
¨District Education Offices, BRCs/CRCs, School Heads
¨PRIs, ULBs, SMCs
¨NGOs/CSOs
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Reduction in dropout rates at Grade 5, 8, 10, and 12 stages
¨Percentage of at-risk students flagged and supported before transitions
¨Percentage of re-enrolled students completing bridge courses and re-integrating into
mainstream classes
¨Annual block-level “transition survival rate” published and reviewed
(iv) Facilitate Education Continuity for Migrant and Mobile Populations
To address the educational disruption experienced by migrant and mobile children, the system must
shift towards flexibility, portability, and institutional responsiveness. Migration-sensitive interventions
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
NEP 2020 emphasises the need to include all children, including migratory and seasonal children,
through open schooling, special training centres, and flexible entry and exit points. (Clause 3.3) Building
on this vision, a structured approach is required to ensure curriculum continuity, uninterrupted
enrolment, and localised academic support for children affected by migration.
Efforts must also recognise the intersectionality of gender, poverty, and mobility, which
disproportionately impacts girls and those from marginalised communities. A combination of child
tracking systems, flexible schooling provisions, and convergence with labour and social protection
schemes can help create an enabling environment for educational continuity.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Integrate migrant status tracking fields within UDISE+ and school admission registers to monitor
mobility-linked disruptions.
¨Provide flexible admission and re-enrolment policies at the school level, including mid-year
entry and provision for class re-adjustment.
¨Create School-community worker roles (e.g., community volunteers) to support household
outreach, re-entry, and attendance tracking.
¨Create interstate academic transfer protocols.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Develop multi-lingual and mobile learning resources tailored for migrant populations using
digital and community-based platforms.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Scale up successful models such as mobile schools, seasonal learning centres, and bridge education
programmes through government-civil society partnerships.
B Sctors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨Ministry of Women and Child Development
¨State and District Education Departments
¨Labour Department
¨PRIs and ULBs
¨NGOs, civil society organisations,
C Performance Success Indicators
¨UDISE+ capturing migration-linked indicators across all districts
¨Percentage of migrant children provided re-enrolment and transition support
¨Inter-state transfer and recognition protocols implemented in major migration corridors
¨Reduction in dropout rates among identified migrant students across elementary and
secondary levels 171
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(v) Enable Inclusive Schooling for Children with Disabilities and Diverse
Learning Needs
Ensuring equitable education for children with disabilities and diverse learning needs requires a
transition from tokenistic inclusion to meaningful participation. States must adopt a whole-school
approach that integrates barrier-free infrastructure, personalised support systems, and specialised
pedagogical tools. NEP 2020 explicitly states that children with disabilities will be enabled to fully
participate in the regular schooling process from the foundational stage to higher education (Clause
6.10). To operationalise this vision, schools must be made physically accessible, instructionally
adaptable, and emotionally supportive.
Infrastructure gaps may be addressed through universal design principles, while academic inclusion
demands early screening, targeted support for learning disabilities, and teacher training in differentiated
instruction. Furthermore, convergence with health, social welfare, and rehabilitation departments
is essential to deliver comprehensive support for CwSN.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Conduct an accessibility audit of all government schools to assess gaps in infrastructure and
learning accommodations.
¨Ensure that all new school buildings and renovations follow the Harmonised Guidelines and
Space Standards for Universal Accessibility.
¨Operationalise early screening systems at school entry to identify learning disabilities using
tools like the Pre-Assessment Holistic Screening Tool (PRASHAST) developed and validated
by NCERT and NIEPID.
¨
Train teachers in the use of inclusive Teaching Learning Material (TLMs), classroom adaptations,
and managing diverse learning needs through DIET-led modules.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Appoint cluster-level Inclusive Education Resource Persons to support mainstream teachers
and facilitate Individualised Education Plans (IEPs)
¨
Integrate ICT-based assistive technologies and audio-visual aids for children with visual, hearing,
and cognitive impairments.
¨Institutionalise partnerships with NGOs and Civil Society Organisations (CSOs)to provide
in-school therapy, counselling, and parental support networks.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Develop state-level Inclusion Support Cells to coordinate resource material, policy
implementation, and monitoring.
¨Establish model inclusive schools in each district to demonstrate best practices and guide
system-wide replication. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
B Actors Responsible
¨State Departments of School Education and Social Welfare
¨SCERTs, DIETs, and Composite Regional Centres (CRCs)
¨Samagra Shiksha (Inclusive Education Component)
¨PRIs, ULBs
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Increase in the percentage of new schools and major renovations compliant with
accessibility standards
¨Percentage of Screening coverage for learning disabilities in all schools
¨Proportion of clusters with >5 CwSN enrolled that have at least one IERP deployed
¨Percentage Increase in retention and transition rates for CwSN across schooling stages
D Central Government Initiative
DAISY (Digitally Accessible Information System)
90
DAISY is a digital format designed to provide audio and e-text learning resources, ensuring
accessibility for students with visual and other print disabilities. In India, DAISY-based e-content
has been developed by the NIOS and made available through the DIKSHA platform and
YouTube channels.
Under this initiative, 3,345 audio book chapters and 2,031 textbook-based Indian Sign Language
(ISL) videos (of which 541 are uploaded on DIKSHA) have been created, along with a 10,000-
word ISL dictionary, to ensure multi-format accessibility for learners with visual and hearing
impairments. Implementation is supported through Samagra Shiksha, NCERT, and State Welfare
Departments. Several States, such as Andhra Pradesh, have also distributed DAISY players free
of cost to visually challenged students from secondary to higher education levels, with cost
assistance linked to family income.
90 DAISY Consortium India. What is DAISY? 173
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
5.2 Academic Recommendations
5.2.1 Transform Pedagogy, Assessment, and Foundational Learning
(i) Shift from Textbook Completion to Foundational Mastery and Level-based
Instruction
To ensure meaningful learning outcomes, States must reorient pedagogy around actual student
readiness rather than grade-level textbook completion. NEP 2020 calls for a paradigm shift from
rote learning and mere textbook completion to foundational mastery and instruction tailored to
learning levels. This involves prioritising foundational literacy and numeracy as an urgent national
mission, reforming the curriculum to emphasise conceptual understanding and critical thinking
(Clauses 4.4, 4.5).
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Conduct baseline learning assessments at the beginning of the academic year.
¨Introduce dedicated “foundational hours” in school timetables for daily practice in literacy
and numeracy.
¨Provide teachers with simple diagnostic tools and handbooks for implementing level-based
instruction.
¨
Initiate FLN-focused support drives in low-performing districts under the NIPUN Bharat Mission.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Institutionalise Teaching-at-the-Right-Level (TaRL) models across elementary grades.
¨Embed level-based pedagogy in pre-service and in-service teacher training modules.
¨
Redesign school-level assessments to capture learning progress rather than syllabus coverage.
¨Integrate FLN learning progression metrics into the UDISE+ dashboard.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Transition to curriculum structures that allow flexible pacing in the foundational and
preparatory stages.
¨Establish School Academic Monitoring Cells at block level to support implementation
and feedback.
B Actors Responsible
¨PARAKH, NCERT
¨State Education Departments and SCERTs
¨DIETs, BRCs/CRCs
¨NGOs, CSOs 175
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C Performance Success Indicators
¨Proportion of schools implementing foundational learning blocks
¨Percentage of teachers trained in differentiated instruction
¨Year-on-year improvement in FLN indicators (e.g., NAS, ASER)
¨Inclusion of learning progression indicators in state-level dashboards
D Central Government Initiative
Prerana: A Programme for Experiential Learning and Values
Prerana is a week-long experiential learning programme of the Ministry of Education designed to
instill core human values and a sense of national pride in students. The programme is conducted
at the historic Vernacular School in Vadnagar, Gujarat, and has engaged 1,320 students and 660
“Guardian Teachers” from 660 districts across the country. Its curriculum, aligned with the principles
of NEP 2020, is structured around nine core values including dignity, courage, compassion, and
innovation and reflects the emphasis on value-based and experiential learning highlighted in the
policy. Participants undertake hands-on activities such as model building and CGI video creation
and visit historic sites, enabling them to develop critical thinking and social responsibility. The
programme also provides Guardian Teachers with innovative pedagogical skills, enabling them to
serve as change agents in their communities. Prerana alumni have taken part in national events,
interacted with national leaders, and continue to uphold and disseminate the programme’s values
in the spirit of Ek Bharat, Shreshtha Bharat.
E State Good Practice
Graded Learning Programme, Uttar Pradesh
91
Launched in 2018 and scaled statewide by January 2019, the Graded Learning Programme (GLP)
is based on Teaching at the Right Level (TaRL) principles to strengthen foundational literacy and
numeracy in Grades 1-5. Instead of grouping students by age or grade, it assesses each child’s
learning level and regroups them accordingly, with two hours of daily, activity-based instruction
tailored to their proficiency. A 3,500-member resource team trained 2.3 lakh teachers, while a
mobile app enables real-time progress tracking in 1.13 lakh schools across all 75 districts. Within
3 months of launch, 17 lakh children in Grades 4 and 5 advanced to reading Grade 1 Hindi. Over
84 lakh students have benefitted since 2018, making the programme a rapid, scalable model for
improving foundational learning.
(ii) Sustain Foundational Learning and Extending FLN Beyond Grade 3
Foundational learning remains the bedrock of all future educational progress. Students who do
not build strong literacy and numeracy skills in the early years often struggle throughout their
schooling. The NIPUN Bharat Mission has taken initial steps to improve these competencies up
to Grade 3, but long-term success depends on consistent support beyond the foundational stage.
(NEP 2020, Clauses 1.7, 2.2, 4.5) National assessments by PARAKH reveal that many students lose
ground in FLN as they move into higher grades, making it critical to extend structured support
into the middle years.
91 Development Monitoring and Evaluation Office. (2020). Graded Learning Program (GLP) based on Teaching at the Right Level (TaRL) in Uttar Pradesh: Case Study 4. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Strengthen NIPUN Bharat implementation through updated state-level FLN plans and improved
academic support systems.
¨
Define specific FLN targets for Grades 1-5 aligned with the National Curriculum Framework
and linked to PARAKH-led monitoring.
¨
Introduce foundational literacy and numeracy modules in Balvatikas to improve school readiness.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Extend FLN-focused learning and remediation into Grades 4-6, with support from school-level
academic mentors.
¨Integrate FLN tracking into teacher appraisal systems and school improvement planning.
¨
Provide structured training to Cluster Resource Persons (CRPs) and DIET faculty for sustained
FLN support.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Embed FLN as a continuum extending up to Grade 8 in curriculum, pedagogy, and assessments.
¨Develop state-level dashboards using UDISE+ and PARAKH to track FLN outcomes and guide
local interventions.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨PARAKH, NCERT
¨SCERTs, DIETs
¨Cluster Resource Coordinators
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of students in Grades 3-5 meeting grade-level FLN benchmarks
¨Districts with integrated FLN strategies across primary and middle grades
¨Completion rates of teacher training for extended FLN pedagogy
(iii) Contextualise and Localise Curricular Content for Inclusive Learning
To ensure equitable access to meaningful learning, curriculum content must be rooted in students’
social, linguistic, and cultural contexts. NEP 2020 highlights the importance of local and contextual
material in making education more relatable. (Clause: 4.29) States must take the lead in localising
textbooks, integrating regional knowledge systems, and co-creating supplementary content with
SCERTs, local educators, and community-based institutions.
Language of instruction in the early grades may be the child’s home or local language, as recommended
by NEP 2020 (Clause 4.11), to ensure stronger conceptual understanding and continuity of learning.
Curriculum contextualisation may include local illustrations, examples, names, festivals, livelihoods, 177
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and geographies, helping students relate to what they are taught. Additionally, flexible content should
be made available for mobile and migrant learners through multilingual and modular formats that
allow on-demand entry into grade-level content.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Direct SCERTs to assess the curriculum to identify gaps in contextual relevance.
¨Commission district-level teams (led by DIETs and experienced teachers) to co-develop
supplemental reading and activity books in local contexts and languages.
¨Integrate simple place-based activities into the classroom (e.g., mapping local markets, crops,
and festivals).
¨
Develop supplementary learning materials in local dialects with community input for Grades 1-5.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Integrate local knowledge systems, stories, and region-specific content into textbooks during
the next revision cycles in partnership with NCERT and CIET.
¨Expand digital libraries on DIKSHA to include contextualised multimedia content in multiple
regional languages.
¨
Create guidelines for context-sensitive curriculum planning for school complexes and clusters.
¨Launch pilot initiatives in tribal districts and Aspirational Blocks to model localised
curriculum delivery.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Develop a national repository of best practices and case studies on curriculum contextualisation
to guide future reforms.
B Actors Responsible
¨CIET, NCERT
¨SCERTs and State Education Departments
¨PRIs and ULBs
¨Community organisations, local teacher collectives
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of textbooks updated with contextual/localised content
¨Percentage of primary schools using supplementary learning material in local languages
¨Number of community contributors engaged in curriculum development
¨Percentage increase in student engagement and attendance levels in schools with
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
D State Good Practice
Comic Textbooks, Manipur
Manipur has introduced Comic Textbooks for Grades 1 to 5 as an innovative measure to make
foundational learning more engaging and accessible. These visually enriched, story-based textbooks
reinterpret curriculum content into age-appropriate narratives that support comprehension
and sustained interest, while remaining aligned with the competencies and learning outcomes
prescribed in the NCF-Foundational Stage and the broader objectives of NEP 2020. The State
has further expanded this approach by developing Comic Textbooks for Grades 6 to 8 in English,
Manipuri, Mathematics, Social Science, and Science, mapped to the NCF-School Education for
the Middle Stage. These supplementary resources simplify complex concepts through coherent
storylines and illustrations, enhance classroom instruction, and promote independent reading.
Observations from classroom use indicate improved student attention, clearer understanding
of lessons, and better recall, with learners able to associate visual cues with key concepts during
subsequent learning.
(iv) Institutionalise Competency-Based Assessments to Inform Pedagogy
In alignment with NEP 2020, which calls for competency-based assessments that test higher-order
skills such as analysis, critical thinking, and conceptual clarity (Clause 4.34), school systems must
move beyond rote-based evaluation models. Competency-based assessment must be integrated into
classroom practice to enable a continuous, formative understanding of each child’s learning trajectory.
Such assessments should be developmentally appropriate, contextualised to local learning
environments, and designed to inform teaching strategies, rather than merely certify student
achievement. Feedback mechanisms should be built into assessment cycles to support student
growth and facilitate course corrections throughout the academic year.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Introduce classroom-based formative assessment tools aligned to NCF learning goals.
¨
Begin piloting alternative assessment formats in select districts that are aligned with the National
Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF-SE).
¨Build the capacity of teachers to design and utilise assessments that evaluate conceptual
understanding.
¨Introduce structured feedback formats that enable student-teacher learning conversations.
¨Leverage existing platforms like DIKSHA to disseminate sample competency-based
assessment tools.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Develop state-level banks of validated formative assessments by SCERTs in partnership with
NCERT and PARAKH.
¨Link student performance insights to remedial and enrichment programmes.
¨
Mandate structured school-based summative assessments to include minimum 30% application
and reasoning-based questions. 179
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¨Establish school-level Academic Resource Groups to guide assessment planning and usage.
¨
Train school heads and CRC/ BRC officials in data interpretation and usage for academic planning.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Use large-scale learning surveys (PARAKH, ASER and state-level assessments) as tools for
policy feedback, not just ranking.
B Actors Responsible
¨SCERTs, NCERT, PARAKH
¨State School Boards
¨DIETs and District Education Departments
¨BRC/CRC and school-level Academic Resource Groups
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of schools using formative assessments for pedagogy planning
¨Proportion of assessment items aligned to competencies (not recall)
¨Share of students receiving feedback-based academic support
¨Integration of learning assessment data into school improvement plans
5.2.2 Promote Holistic Education and Student Wellbeing
Figure 5.7: Holistic Health and Student Well-Being SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
(i) Institutionalise School Health, Nutrition, and Preventive Care
Good health and nutrition are critical for effective learning and regular school attendance.
When children are unwell or undernourished, their ability to engage meaningfully in education is
compromised. Regular health check-ups, preventive screenings, and adequate nutrition form the
foundation for student well-being and learning readiness as envisaged in NEP 2020, Clause 2.9.
Schools, in collaboration with local health systems, should serve as active platforms for delivering
these services, ensuring the early detection of health issues, timely referrals, and sustained follow-up.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Establish joint School Complex-level implementation committees comprising representatives
from the education and health departments to coordinate PM POSHAN, School Health and
Wellness Programme (SHWP), Anemia Mukta Bharat (AMB), and Rashtriya Bal Swasthya
Karyakram (RBSK) activities.
¨
Deploy two trained Health and Wellness Ambassadors in every school under SHWP to deliver
weekly sessions covering 11 core health promotion themes, with mandatory reporting through
a centralised MIS.
¨Conduct regular anaemia and vision screenings for all students through RBSK mobile health
teams, ensuring on-site distribution of Iron and Folic Acid (IFA) supplements and referral
linkages for follow-up care.
¨Integrate school health records with local Primary Health Centres (PHCs) and the UDISE+
platform to enable early flagging of recurring health issues.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Develop state-level school health dashboards integrated with UDISE+ for real-time tracking
of screenings, nutrition, and immunisation.
¨Add age-appropriate health and nutrition literacy to upper-primary, secondary and higher
secondary curricula.
¨Formalise district-level referral protocols linking schools to designated health facilities, with
case tracking to ensure continuity of care.
¨Implement targeted interventions in districts with high prevalence, using fortified foods,
supplementation, and nutrition education.
¨Establish student-led clubs to promote hygiene, first-aid awareness, and peer education on
nutrition and preventive health practices.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Embed preventive health education modules into pre-service teacher training.
¨Institutionalise biennial school health audits at the school complex level to evaluate service
quality, health outcomes, and programme coverage.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L, NCERT
¨Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, National Health Mission 181
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¨State Education Departments, SCERTs, State Nutrition Missions, State Health Authorities
¨District Magistrates (DMs)
¨PRIs and ULBs
¨Health & Wellness Ambassadors, Local PHCs
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of schools with functional Health & Wellness Ambassadors delivering weekly
health sessions
¨
Percentage coverage rates for annual health screenings (anaemia, vision, dental, immunisation)
and follow-up completion
¨Percentage reduction in anaemia prevalence among students over baseline levels
¨Schools meeting hygiene infrastructure norms (toilets, drinking water, handwashing stations)
¨Integration of health and nutrition literacy into the curriculum and teacher training
D State Good Practice
Shala Swasthya Parikshan, Rajasthan
Rajasthan’s Shala Swasthya Parikshan initiative introduced a rapid, technology-enabled system
for comprehensive health screening of school children. The state digitally screened over 75 lakh
students across more than 70 health parameters, including vision, hearing, nutrition, dental health,
and physical fitness. The mobile app-based system replaced slow manual processes, ensured
accurate documentation, and generated individual health records to support timely referrals,
surgical interventions, and coordinated follow-ups with the Health Department. The data has
informed targeted health and nutrition planning at the state level, and Year 2 efforts include
strengthening questionnaires in alignment with RBSK norms. This large-scale, data-driven model
has significantly improved early identification and management of health issues, establishing a
strong foundation for student well-being and learning.
(ii) Strengthen School-Based Physical Health and Fitness
Physical health and fitness are essential for students’ growth and development. Daily participation in
structured physical activity builds endurance, strength, flexibility, and coordination, while promoting
discipline, teamwork, and resilience. A sports-integrated approach develops important life skills such
as collaboration, responsibility, and self-discipline through organised sports, yoga, fitness training,
and indigenous games. NEP 2020 envisions sports and physical education as a core part of the
school timetable fxsrom the early years through secondary education, ensuring age-appropriate
activities that foster lifelong fitness and character. (Clause 4.8) It calls for embedding movement,
fitness, and wellness practices into the daily rhythm of school life.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Mandate 30-45 minutes of structured physical activity in the daily timetable for all schools, with
flexibility to include sports, yoga, fitness drills, and indigenous games.
¨Train generalist teachers to deliver age-appropriate physical education in schools without PE
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
¨Introduce an annual fitness assessment for all students and teachers to monitor flexibility,
endurance, strength, and coordination.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Appoint qualified Physical Education instructors, with school complex models enabling shared
deployment in smaller schools.
¨Provide multipurpose activity spaces and basic sports infrastructure, prioritising
underserved areas.
¨Incorporate physical fitness indicators into the Holistic Progress Card (HPC).
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Establish State Physical Education or Wellness Cells to oversee curriculum integration,
infrastructure planning, and monitoring.
¨
Partner with sports federations, NGOs, and local clubs to organise sports festivals, competitions,
and coaching camps.
¨Promote activities such as yoga, martial arts, and traditional games alongside modern sports.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L, NCERT
¨Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, Fit India Mission
¨SCERTs
¨SMCs, PE Teachers
¨Community Sports Organisations
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of schools implementing daily structured physical activity
¨Percentage of schools with at least one functional physical activity space
¨Percentage of teachers trained in delivering sports-integrated learning
¨Improvement in student fitness scores over baseline
(iii) Institutionalise Mental Health and Socio‑Emotional Learning Systems
To nurture holistic development and create emotionally safe school environments, States must build
comprehensive mental health and socio-emotional learning (SEL) systems embedded in the daily
operations of every school. This includes structured counselling support, SEL curricula, and proactive
mental health promotion through teacher capacity-building. Initiatives such as the Government of
India’s MANODARPAN have been a positive step in this direction, offering psychosocial support
and reinforcing the importance of mental well-being in the school system. In line with NEP 2020,
there is a need to develop emotional intelligence, stress tolerance, and resilience among students,
positioning mental well-being as a core educational outcome. (Clause 4.28) 183
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A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Integrate components of Government of India’s MANODARPAN initiative across all government
schools, including dissemination of psychosocial support materials, access to helpline resources,
and periodic well-being surveys.
¨Designate one teacher in each school as a ‘Well-being Nodal Teacher’ trained in basic mental
health literacy, with support from district resource teams.
¨
Develop Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) aligned teaching-learning material and sensitisation
modules for teachers and principals.
¨
Introduce structured SEL content, including Human Values Education, meditation and mindfulness,
and resilience exercises in Grades 6-12 via DIKSHA and SCERT modules.
¨Conduct periodic workshops and classroom sessions on exam-related stress management,
focusing on coping strategies, time and anxiety management, relaxation techniques, and peer
support mechanisms, particularly before and during board examination cycles.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Institutionalise school and cluster-based counsellors, ensuring every secondary school cluster
receives rotating or fixed mental health professionals.
¨Integrate SEL into regular classroom practice and teacher training (both in-service and
pre-service).
¨Launch school wellness clubs, peer mentoring programmes, and regular mental health
awareness events.
¨
Converge with adolescent health initiatives like RKSK and school health screenings to identify
and refer at-risk students.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Establish a dedicated cadre of certified school counsellors and psychologists integrated into
state education systems, with defined service norms.
¨Institutionalise a School Happiness and Well-Being Index, capturing student self-reports on
emotional safety, community engagement, stress levels, exam-related stress management, and
peer/teacher relationships, and link results to school improvement plans
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨MoHFW
¨State Education Department, State Health Department
¨SCERTs/DIETs
¨District/Block Education Offices
¨NGOs/CSOs, SHGs
¨PRIs, ULBs SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of schools with two trained Health & Wellness Ambassadors
¨Reduction in self-reported stress and anxiety levels in student surveys over baseline
D Central Government Initiative
Manodarpan, Ministry of Education
92
Manodarpan launched on July 21, 2020 is a coordinated programme aimed at supporting the
mental health and emotional well-being of students, teachers, and families during and beyond the
COVID-19 period. It combines expert guidance, counselling services, and accessible resources
to strengthen psychosocial support across the education system. The initiative provides advisory
guidelines, a dedicated web portal, helplines, and a directory of trained counsellors to ensure
timely assistance. It is supported by NCERT’s nationwide counselling services, interactive sessions,
and wellness resources, alongside CBSE’s tele-counselling for students in India and abroad. Linked
with the School Health Programme under Ayushman Bharat, Manodarpan embeds emotional
well-being within the broader framework of health and wellness education, reinforcing schools
as safe, inclusive, and supportive environments for holistic student development.
E State Good Practice
Anand Sabha, Madhya Pradesh
93
Anand Sabha was launched under the broader vision of the Rajya Anand Sansthan, which is
India’s first State-level Happiness Department. It was piloted in 2023-24 and is set to be formally
implemented across all government secondary and higher secondary schools from the academic
year 2025-26. Students in Grades 9 to 12 will now have weekly 1.5 hour sessions dedicated to
themes such as self-awareness, emotional regulation, family relationships, and social harmony. The
curriculum is structured to evolve with the age and cognitive development of students, focusing
on the ‘self’ and one’s own body in Grades 9 and expanding to themes of family, society, and
nature in higher grades. This initiative aims to respond to the growing mental health concerns
and emotional challenges among adolescents, who often struggle with stress, lack of motivation,
peer pressure, and academic anxiety in a rapidly changing world. Over 3,500 teachers have been
trained as master trainers to further train school teachers in SEL facilitation and integrating
happiness education into the school curriculum.
(iv) Strengthen Holistic Education in Schooling
Holistic education is an approach that nurtures the learner’s intellectual, emotional, social, physical,
moral, creative, and environmental development in an integrated manner. It goes beyond subject
mastery to cultivate the values, attitudes, and competencies needed for lifelong learning, personal
well-being, social responsibility, and active citizenship. NEP 2020 identifies holistic education as central
to transforming India’s school system, aligning it with both national priorities and global frameworks
such as UNESCO’s Four Pillars of Learning and Global Citizenship Education (GCED) principles.
As envisioned in the NEP 2020, values-based education is an integral part of holistic education. It
includes the development of humanistic, ethical, Constitutional, and universal human values of truth
(Satya), righteous conduct (Dharma), peace (Shanti), love (Prem), nonviolence (Ahimsa), scientific
92 NCERT. Manodarpan: Psychosocial support for students.
93 Rajya Anand Sansthan, Madhya Pradesh. Anand Sabha. 185
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temper, citizenship values, and also life-skills. Lessons in Seva (service) and participation in community
service programmes are also integral parts of holistic education. (Clause 11.8)
Embedding holistic education in practice requires curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment to be
interdisciplinary, experiential, and learner-centred; teachers to be equipped and motivated to guide
multi-dimensional learning; infrastructure to support co-scholastic domains alongside academics; and
sustained engagement with families and communities to reinforce learning beyond the classroom.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (1-2 years)
¨Introduce in-service modules on socio-emotional learning, human values, arts integration,
physical education pedagogy, environmental literacy, meditation and mindfulness through SCERT
and DIET platforms.
¨Mandate dedicated instructional time for arts, sports, life skills, and community and rural
service exposure.
¨
Begin phased establishment of essential co-scholastic spaces such as multipurpose rooms that
can serve for art, music, and counselling in schools lacking dedicated facilities.
¨
Conduct awareness programmes that promote balanced learning goals, including exposure to
fundamental duties enshrined in the constitution, global citizenship values, alongside academic
and co-scholastic growth.
¨Collaborate with NGOs, industry, and higher education institutions to provide mentorship,
internships, and experiential learning opportunities.
¨Fully align curricula with SDG 4.7 by ensuring every student demonstrates competencies in
environmental responsibility, intercultural understanding, and democratic participation.
Medium-Term (3-5 years)
¨Scale the existing HPC framework developed under NEP 2020 for universal adoption across
all schools and integrate global citizenship indicators (e.g., intercultural understanding, civic
participation, environmental stewardship), ensuring teacher training, digital tools, and integration
into state assessment systems.
¨
Mandate community service projects in urban and rural areas for secondary and higher secondary
students as part of the curriculum.
¨
Deploy specialised teachers in arts, sports, and cultural skills across schools within each school
complex to address staffing gaps.
¨
Establish state-level awards for schools demonstrating exemplary holistic education practices,
fostering healthy competition and peer learning.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨PARAKH, NCERT
¨State Education Departments, SCERTs
¨PRIs and ULBs
¨SHGs, Community-Based Organisations SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Share of schools meeting minimum infrastructure standards for arts, sports, and counselling
¨Percentage of teachers trained in at least 3 non-academic domains
¨Integration of holistic learning indicators in school assessment systems
¨Percentage increase in student participation in co-scholastic activities within five years
D State Good Practice
Olympic Values Education Programme (OVEP), Chandigarh
Chandigarh implemented the Olympic Values Education Programme (OVEP) following the signing
of an MoU with the International Olympic Committee. OVEP has been extended to all 111
Government schools and presently covers more than 1.5 lakh students. Implementation is
undertaken by 216 master trainers, and over 713 sessions have been conducted since February
2025 in collaboration with the Abhinav Bindra Foundation. The programme employs structured,
sport-based activities including volleyball, kabaddi, football, leg cricket, and guided interactive
exercises to familiarise students with the Olympic values of excellence, respect, and friendship.
Engagement was sustained during the summer break through initiatives such as the Let’s Move
campaign and International Yoga Day. OVEP provides a formal mechanism for life-skills development
and aligns with the NEP 2020, which emphasises holistic and experiential learning.
5.2.3 Strengthen Vocational Education and Skill Integration in
Schooling
(i) Mainstream Vocational Education as an Aspirational and Integrated
Pathway in Schooling
In line with the NEP 2020, substantial progress has been made in integrating vocational education
within the school system. Skill education programmes have been implemented across Grades
6-12 at scale, supported by curriculum expansion by NCERT and CBSE, publication of Kaushal
Bodh textbooks, introduction of “bagless” days for experiential learning, alignment of all vocational
courses with NSQF levels, and large-scale capacity building of vocational trainers. Structured career
guidance mechanisms, including the Career Guidance Book and the My Career Advisor App, have
further strengthened informed student choice.
The next phase of reform must focus on deepening integration, improving quality of delivery, and
strengthening progression pathways, so that vocational education functions as a core, mainstream
component of schooling, seamlessly integrated with academic learning rather than operating in parallel.
This requires moving from exposure-led implementation to systematic instructional integration,
competency-based assessment, credit portability, and clear school-to-skilling and school-to-work
pathways, in alignment with the National Credit Framework (NCrF).
Consistent with the vision of NEP 2020 of dismantling the academic-vocational divide and overcoming
social perceptions associated with vocational streams (Clauses 16.4-16.6), vocational education
must be institutionalised from the middle stage (Grades 6 to 8) onwards, supported by professional
career guidance, regional relevance, industry participation, and flexible progression into higher
education, formal skilling, apprenticeships, and entrepreneurship. 187
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Institutionalise vocational education within school timetables by standardising and strengthening
existing skill periods, experiential modules, and NEP 2020 mandated bagless days, rather than
introducing parallel structures.
¨Undertake district-level mapping of existing vocational and skilling infrastructure, including
school skill labs, ITIs, community training centres, and industry-supported facilities through
the District Skill Committee to rationalise utilisation, identify infrastructure gaps and optimise
resource sharing.
¨
Strengthen and augment existing vocational infrastructure such as toolkits, simulation facilities,
and shared resource centres with phased integration of infrastructure for emerging technologies,
to support hands-on, future-ready practical learning.
¨Rationalise and deploy trained vocational trainers already available under national capacity-
building programmes, and address local gaps through convergence with MSDE, NSDC, and
Sector Skill Councils.
¨Provide orientation and training modules for academic teachers to support integration of
vocational themes and project-based learning across subjects.
¨Operationalise the hub-and-spoke model for vocational skilling, linking schools with nearby
ITIs, skill labs, and shared facilities at the sub-block/school cluster level.
¨
Implement practical competency-based assessments for vocational subjects using rubrics aligned
with NSQF levels.
¨
Align school-level vocational delivery with strengthened NSTIs to support trainer development
and advanced skill exposure.
¨Strengthen school level monitoring of vocational periods to standardise templates and digital
reporting systems.
¨
Support States/UTs in expanding the implementation of Kaushal Bodh in Grades 6-8 through
curriculum integration, teacher orientation, and structured in-service training of existing
school teachers.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Upgrade select secondary schools into “Vocational Hubs” offering a range of regionally relevant
trades, linked to the local employment and entrepreneurship ecosystem.
¨Operationalise the dual certification for school students, enabling formal employment and
skilling recognition.
¨
Expand industry-relevant skill courses in Grades 9-12, increasing the proportion of secondary
and higher secondary schools offering such courses
¨
Facilitate State/UT-level adoption of the NCrF in school education by enabling credit mapping
of vocational courses, integration with the Academic Bank of Credits (ABC) for vocational
streams to enable mobility and progression pathways, including multiple entry and exit points
through credit accumulation and transfer. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 188
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
¨Increase the diversity of vocational offerings based on local ecosystems (geography, industry
presence, and infrastructure availability).
¨
Establish digital repositories of trade-wise lesson plans, demonstration videos, and assessments
via DIKSHA platform.
¨
Launch awareness campaigns showcasing vocational success stories, particularly of first-generation
entrepreneurs and high-earning skilled graduates.
¨
Introduce structured career counselling modules from Grade 8 onwards, integrating information
on skill pathways, hybrid careers, and higher education linkages.
¨Organise school-wide vocational fairs, local skill exhibitions, and district-level internship/
apprenticeship fairs to connect students with industry and service sectors.
¨
Provide vocational learners with access to scholarships, loan schemes, start-up incubation, and
enterprise mentorships as part of school-to-work transition
¨
Provide ongoing professional development for vocational trainers, including industry exposure,
refresher training, and pedagogical support.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Embed vocational education across all schools as part of the foundational education strategy,
with clear learning outcomes, infrastructure norms, and staffing ratios.
¨Fully integrate vocational education pathways with mainstream academic tracks through the
NCrF, ensuring credit portability across school, higher education, and skilling systems.
¨
Facilitate school-to-work transitions by aligning vocational offerings with apprenticeships, formal
skilling programmes, and local entrepreneurship ecosystems.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨State Education Departments and SCERTs
¨NCVET, NSDC, NIOS and Sector Skill Councils
¨Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE)
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of secondary schools with dedicated vocational infrastructure
¨Percentage of students assessed on practical vocational competencies annually
¨Percentage increase in certified vocational trainers in the school system
¨Inclusion of vocational students in NCrF, ABC and skill-linked government schemes
¨Integration of vocational curriculum with State textbooks and learning assessments 189
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
D State Good Practice
Unique Selling Proposition (USP) Initiative, Manipur
Manipur has introduced the USP initiative to provide structured vocational exposure to students in
Grades 6-8 by drawing on the skills of local artisans. Schools collaborate with carpenters, potters,
weavers, gardeners, and other practitioners who conduct hands-on sessions on activities such as
clay work, weaving, planting, and basic carpentry. The initiative enables students to develop practical
skills and an appreciation for local craftsmanship, while also strengthening school-community
linkages. By integrating applied learning into the regular timetable, the programme offers students
a richer learning environment and helps bridge the long-standing separation between academic
instruction and vocational skills.
(ii) Build Market Linkages and Enhance Regional Relevance of School-based
Vocational Education
The NEP 2020 emphasises integrating vocational education into all schools in a phased manner,
with a focus on aligning it with local opportunities through skill gap analysis and regional mapping
(Clause 16.6). To realise this vision, it is crucial to build robust market linkages and enhance the
regional relevance of school-based vocational education. This would ensure that students gain
context-specific skills and exposure to local economies, increasing their chances of employability
and promoting community-based development.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Conduct district-level skill demand mapping and prepare District Skill Development Plans
(DSDPs) in collaboration with State Skill Development Missions (SSDMs), ITIs, and local Chambers
of Commerce.
¨Facilitate school-industry partnerships for at least one trade per school complex, including
exposure visits, guest lectures, and micro-internships.
¨
Identify and integrate local livelihoods and traditional skills into school-level vocational offerings,
linked with the One District One Product (ODOP) initiative.
¨Deploy mobile skilling units to extend training access to remote and underserved areas.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨
Embed regional skill corridors into school development plans with shared training infrastructure
(e.g., repair centres, eco-tourism).
¨
Design modular vocational packages (30-60 hours) based on local economies (e.g., handloom,
agro-processing, digital marketing).
¨Institutionalise industry mentorship and project-based internships as part of annual learning
calendars in Grades 9-12.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Enable pathways for students to transition directly from school-based vocational training to
skilling centres, short-term and long-term skilling programmes, apprenticeships, entrepreneurship,
or higher education. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
B Actors Responsible
¨Ministry of Micro and Small Entreprises (MSME)
¨Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE)
¨State Skill Development Missions (SSDMs)
¨National Skill Development Corporation
¨Local Industries
¨PRIs, ULBs
¨District Education Departments
¨ITIs and Higher Education Institutions
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of vocational courses linked with regional skills
¨Percentage of schools with at least one active industry or livelihood linkage
¨Percentage of students completing industry exposure projects or internships by Year 5
5.2.4 Strengthen ECCE4/7%-./+-22+%4,%1+%+65.21 %
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Figure 5.8: Three Pillars of ECCE Implementation Roadmap
(i) Integrate ECCE with the Formal School System and Ensure Smooth
Transitions
Early childhood constitutes the foundational stage of learning under the NEP 2020’s 5+3+3+4
structure, with Anganwadis and Balvatikas envisaged as integral components of the schooling
continuum. Building on ongoing initiatives under Mission Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0, Poshan 191
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
Bhi Padhai Bhi (PBPB), and the NCF-FS 2022, there is a need to further strengthen institutional
convergence between Anganwadis and primary schools to ensure continuity in care, pedagogy, and
learning outcomes.
The co-location of Anganwadi Centres within Government primary schools and School Complexes,
as already initiated through joint MoE-MWCD advisories and co-location guidelines, provides a
strong foundation for smoother transitions into Grade 1. The focus going forward should be on
operationalising and deepening this integration, so that children enter the formal schooling system
developmentally ready and well supported. (NEP 2020: Clauses 1.1, 1.5)
A Implementation Framework
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Strengthen State and district-level mapping of Anganwadis and Balvatikas with nearby primary
schools, in line with existing co-location guidelines, to prioritise feasible co-location and
functional linkages.
¨
Conduct targeted infrastructure and functionality assessments of co-located Anganwadis and
Balvatikas, aligned with NCF-FS and Saksham Anganwadi standards, focusing on child-friendly
design, safety, sanitation, and inclusive access.
¨
Strengthen curriculum continuity by aligning FLN pedagogy in Grades 1-2 with NCF-FS learning
outcomes and existing ECCE curricula (Aadharshila and Navchetana).
¨
Facilitate access to existing school health, nutrition, and well-being services, where appropriate
and administratively feasible, for children attending Balvatikas in school premises.
¨Mandate at least two structured transition activities annually:
• Joint Anganwadi-school open days.
• Orientation visits for children and parents to familiarise them with the primary school
environment.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Formalise joint coordination mechanisms like SMCs for co-located Anganwadis and primary
schools to promote shared accountability.
¨Leverage APAAR ID and Poshan Tracker-UDISE+ linkages to monitor enrolment, attendance,
and transition of children across the Foundational Stage (ages 3-8).
¨Introduce school readiness bridge modules in Balvatikas and ensure structured sharing of
readiness reports with receiving primary schools.
¨
Utilise existing training ecosystems like DIETs, SCERTs, ITIs, Savitribai Phule National Institute of
Women and Child Development (SPNIWCD) to support skill-based and pedagogical capacity-
building of Anganwadi workers.
¨Ensure periodic reporting to MoE and MWCD on co-location and compliance with
infrastructure standards.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨Integrate Foundational School Readiness Indicators into PARAKH learning assessments. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 192
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L
¨Ministry of Women and Child Development
¨State School Education and ICDS Directorates
¨SCERTs, DIETs
¨PRIs and ULBs
¨SMCs
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of Anganwadis co-located with or formally linked to a primary school
¨Transition activities held in linked centres annually
¨Number of States where SDPs include ECCE components in all School Complexes
(ii) Establish a Unified ECCE Governance and Implementation Framework
NEP 2020 strongly emphasises that universal provisioning of quality early childhood development,
care, and education (ECDCE) must be achieved as soon as possible, and not later than 2030 (Para
1.1). Although convergence mechanisms between the MWCD and the MoE are in place, ECCE
delivery continues to operate through parallel platforms: Anganwadi Centres under Mission POSHAN
2.0 and Balvatikas in schools under Samagra Shiksha, resulting in coordination gaps and uneven
outcomes across States and UTs. Strengthening governance convergence is therefore essential
to ensure coherence, accountability, and system-wide alignment across the Foundational Stage.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Strengthen the existing Joint ECCE/ECDCE Convergence Framework between MoE and MWCD,
defining roles, responsibilities, and accountability mechanisms for both Ministries.
¨Strengthen and fully operationalise the National ECCE Task Force, ensuring regular meetings,
defined workplans, and inter-ministerial convergence in line with NEP 2020. (Clause 1.9)
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Roll out a Unified State ECCE/ECDCE Implementation Plan in each State/UT based on the
NCPFECCE, aligning ICDS and Samagra Shiksha planning cycles.
¨Launch a Common Digital Dashboard to track Early Child Education service delivery across
ministries, integrated with UDISE+.
¨
Introduce an AWC grading system based on infrastructure, ECCE/ECDCE delivery, operational
days, SNP distribution, child nutrition outcomes, home visits, and staff training to incentivise
quality and guide targeted support.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Progressively strengthen the policy and legal framework for ECCE/ECDCE, informed by State
readiness and implementation experience, including consideration of enhanced enforceability
within the existing RTE framework.
¨Institutionalise periodic joint reviews and public reporting on ECCE/ECDCE governance,
convergence outcomes, and service quality to reinforce transparency and accountability. 193
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success IndicatorsSCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L, NCERT
¨MWCD
¨National ECCE Task Force
¨SCERT, State Departments of School Education and WCD
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Joint MoE-MWCD ECCE framework notified and adopted by States
¨Co-location or functional linkage between Anganwadis and primary schools in
Aspirational Districts
(iii) Invest in ECCE Workforce Development and Professionalisation
NEP 2020 states that Anganwadi workers/teachers with qualifications of 10+2 and above shall be
given a 6-month certificate programme in ECCE, others shall undergo a one-year diploma (Clause
1.7). Yet, the absence of professional orientation and training, ongoing mentoring, and structural
career progression pathways for ECCE educators has weakened pedagogical quality. A targeted
investment in professional development, mentoring systems, and institutional support is essential
to realise the policy vision of universal access to high-quality ECCE.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨Implement comprehensive, multi-level training for all Anganwadi Workers (AWWs) through
the PBPB cascade model, ensuring that certifications are aligned with the NSQF to provide
formal recognition of competencies.
¨
Establish Field Mentorship Networks by identifying “Champion AWWs” at the block, and district
levels to provide on-site guidance, motivation, and peer learning support.
¨
Establish ECCE/ECDCE Resource Pools of Master Trainers at the District and Block levels to
provide continuous refresher training and academic support for the delivery of the Aadharshila
and Navchetana curricula.
¨Develop and implement standardised ECCE/ECDCE teacher certification programmes of 6
months to 1 year, delivered through the NCERT-NIPUN Bharat-DIKSHA platform, and aligned
with the NCPFECCE curriculum framework as outlined in NEP 2020 [Clause: 1.7].
¨Ensure the regular conduct of Monthly ECCE/ECDCE Days and Yoga Days across all centres
to foster parent-AWW interactions and promote children’s holistic development.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Develop a National Professional Standards Framework for ECCE educators, aligned with
NPST and NCF-SE.
¨
Develop and implement structured career progression and promotion pathways for AWWs and
Anganwadi Helpers to elevate their professional status and reinforce their roles as early educators.
¨Establish ECCE Teacher Resource Centres co-located within SCERTs or DIETs to support
continuous training, materials, and peer resource groups. SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
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Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
¨Roll out blended learning CPD modules via POSHAN Tracker app, local language DIKSHA
content, and state-run tele-counselling for ECCE teachers.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L, NCERT
¨MWCD
¨NIPCCD
¨SCERTs
¨State ICDS Directorates
¨CRCs
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Percentage of ECCE workforce trained through standardised certification
¨Dedicated ECCE mentor deployed in every CRC by Year 2030
¨Percentage of Balvatikas linked with an ECCE mentor
D State Good Practice
Mission Sunehra Kal - Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi, Uttar Pradesh
94
Launched in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh, this Early Childhood Care and Education
(ECCE) initiative focused on addressing the neglected learning needs of young children aged
3-6 years. While Anganwadi centres in India have predominantly focused on nutritional support,
they have largely neglected early foundational learning, particularly in literacy and numeracy,
resulting in poor school readiness and learning gaps even before a child starts their schooling
journey. Recognizing that early childhood learning and development is the most crucial period
for a child’s physical, cognitive, emotional and social development, the district administration, in
collaboration with ITC and Pratham Foundation, launched this holistic model to integrate play-
based education with health and nutrition services.
Pratham co-developed an age-appropriate curriculum aligned with the government's PAHAL
guidelines, focusing on each of the 5 developmental domains. SCERT provided teaching-learning
materials (TLM), including development toys and books, to 864 Anganwadi centres. Prior to
this, most Anganwadi Workers were trained only in nutrition and mid-day meal delivery. This
programme delivered comprehensive ECCE training, including on child psychology and interactive
teaching methods, creating a pool of master trainers and implementing ongoing mentoring. Over
137 master trainers and all 864 Anganwadi workers received hands-on training. More than 75
Anganwadi Centres were revamped into child-friendly spaces, with new buildings, improved
sanitation, play materials, and BALA (Building as Learning Aid) methodologies.94 ITC Limited. (2017). Sustainability Report 2016–17: Mission Sunehra Kal - Social Investments Programme. Retrieved from https://www.itcportal.com/sustainability/sustainability-
report-2017/social/mission-sunehra-kal.aspx 195
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5.2.5 Integrate Artificial Intelligence for Pedagogical Innovation and
System Readiness
The integration of AI in school education calls for a well-planned and balanced approach that
strengthens teaching, learning, and governance. AI should be viewed as a supportive tool that
enhances classroom instruction, enables differentiated learning, and improves formative assessment
rather than as a substitute for the teacher.
In light of emerging research on the cognitive effects of AI overuse, balanced digital exposure and
age-appropriate safeguards should be incorporated to sustain learners’ attention, creativity, and
independent thinking abilities.
A Implementation Roadmap
Short-Term (0-2 Years)
¨
Introduce AI awareness and literacy modules from the upper-primary stage, focusing on digital
reasoning, problem-solving, and responsible use.
¨Conduct orientation and capacity-building programmes for teachers and school leaders on
integrating AI in classroom teaching and assessment.
¨Develop national and state-level guidelines on ethical AI use, data privacy, authorship, and
transparency in educational contexts.
¨
Initiate pilot sandbox environments in selected school complexes to demonstrate responsible
and context-specific applications of AI tools.
Medium-Term (2-5 Years)
¨Integrate AI pedagogy modules into pre-service and in-service teacher education curricula
through25led adaptive learning tools in digital platforms for formative assessment and
personalised feedback.
Long-Term (5+ Years)
¨
Institutionalise AI-integrated pedagogy across curricula and teacher training frameworks, ensuring
sustainability and continuous professional development.
¨
Constitute State-level AI Ethics and Innovation departments within education departments to
monitor implementation and guide responsible use.
¨Implement cognitive-safety protocols and age-appropriate usage norms across schools to
safeguard attention, creativity, and independent thinking.
¨
Achieve universal access to AI-enabled digital infrastructure with particular focus on underserved
and rural regions.
B Actors Responsible
¨DoSE&L, CIET, NCERT
¨MeitY
¨SCERTs/DIETs
¨TEIs SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 196
Chapter V Policy Recommendations with Implementation Roadmap and Performance Success Indicators
C Performance Success Indicators
¨Share of schools implementing AI-integrated teaching and assessment practices
¨Percentage of teachers trained in AI pedagogy and ethical use
¨Inclusion of AI literacy modules in NCERT/SCERT curricula
¨Existence of national and state-level AI ethics frameworks
¨Improvement in students’ digital reasoning and problem-solving skills in PARAKH/ASER
D State Good Practice
Mukhyamantri Shikshit Rajasthan Abhiyan, Rajasthan
95
Launched in 2023, under the Mukhyamantri Shikshit Rajasthan Abhiyan, this initiative enables
large-scale, low-cost, and real-time assessment of learning outcomes for students. Traditional
assessments are time-consuming, inconsistent in evaluation, and offer no objective diagnosis
for improvement. To address this, the state developed the Shikshak app that allows teachers
to photograph student answer sheets and generate automatic analysis. The app uses Optical
Character Recognition (OCR) and AI algorithms to evaluate responses instantly, aligned to
specific learning competencies in Hindi, English, and Math.
Assessments are conducted 3 times a year across all government schools. This enables teachers
to receive real-time information on learning gaps, allowing them to plan their further lessons to
cater to the needs of the students. Each student also receives a simplified report card indicating
performance by competency level, making it easy for parents to understand and teachers to
plan remediation. The feedback loop has accelerated student progress and helped over 400,000
students to move out of learning poverty and has driven 8-10% annual improvement in learning.
The effectiveness of this initiative is also reaffirmed by the PARAKH report 2024, which finds
that Rajasthan’s students consistently demonstrated above national average proficiency in all
domains and being one of the top 10 performing States across all levels.
Complementing the assessment reforms, the AI-based educational programme “Padhai with AI”
(Study with AI) has further strengthened outcome-oriented learning in government schools.
Initiated in Tonk District under the leadership of the District Collector, the programme integrates
digital learning and AI through a dedicated web portal designed for students’ self-paced learning.
The platform provides remedial practice, drill exercises, and personalised learning pathways,
particularly in Mathematics, enabling students to solve textbook problems, practise similar
questions, and address identified weak areas.
Implemented in 351 government schools with a focused three-month action plan for Class 10
(2025 session), the initiative directly targeted low mathematics performance. The intervention
yielded measurable improvement, with Tonk’s overall pass percentage exceeding the State
average, demonstrating the effectiveness of AI-supported remediation in improving board
examination outcomes.
Together, AI-enabled competency assessments and personalised learning platforms such as
Padhai with AI reflect Rajasthan’s transition toward data-driven governance in school education,
aligned with the objectives of the NEP 2020 moving from rote evaluation to competency-based,
technology-enabled, and student-centric learning ecosystems.
95 Government of Rajasthan, Department of School Education & Literacy. (2025). Mukhyamantri Shikshit Rajasthan Abhiyan (MSRA): Competency-based assessment guidelines. Shaladarpan
Portal. Retrieved from https://rajshaladarpan.nic.in ANNEXURES SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 198
Annexure-I
09:30-10:30 AM Registration & Tea
10:30-10:35 AM Welcome Address Ms. Sonia Pant, PD (Education), NITI Aayog
10:35-10:45 AM Special Remarks Ms. Joyce Poan, Programme Specialist and Chief
of Education, UNESCO New Delhi, South Asia
Regional Office
10:45-12:15 PM Panel Discussion 1:
Getting the Basics Right:
• Ensuring good quality
school infrastructure,
facilities and required
number of teachers
• Strengthening Early
Childhood Education and
Foundational Literacy
and Numeracy
Followed by Q&A
Panellists:
Shri Rahul Singh, Chairperson, CBSE
Ms. Archana Sharma Awasthi, Joint Secretary, DoSE&L,
Govt. of India
Shri Karthik Menon, Lead Operations, PRATHAM
Shri Subir Shukla, Principal Coordinator, IGNUS
Shri Anustup Nayak, Project Director, Central Square
Foundation (CSF)
Moderator: Dr. I.V. Subba Rao, Distinguished
Fellow, NITI Aayog
12:15-12:30 PM Tea Break
12:30-01:30 PM Panel Discussion 2:

Shaping Teachers as
Instructional Leaders
Followed by Q&A
Panellists:
Ms. Kanchan Verma, Director General-School
Education, U.P.
Prof. Dinesh Prasad Saklani, Director, NCERT
Prof. Rishikesh B.S., Azim Premji University
Shri Madhukar Reddy Banuri, Founder Director,
Leadership for Equity
Ms. Urmila Choudhary, Education Director & Co-
founder, Peepul
Moderator: Prof. Shashikala Wanjari, Vice
Chancellor, NUEPA
1:30-01:40 PM Special Remarks Shri Sanjay Kumar, Secretary, DoSE&L, Govt. of India
01:40-01:50 PM Keynote Address Dr. V.K. Paul, Member (Education), NITI Aayog
Annexure-I
National Workshop on Quality Education
28th February 2025
Dr Ambedkar International Centre, New Delhi 199
Annexure-ISCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement
01:50-02:30 PM Lunch Break
02:30-3:30 PM Panel Discussion 3:
Nurturing School
leadership for sustained
systemic improvement:
School Rationalisation, Staff
deployment, Integrated
School Complexes,
Effective community
engagement through School
Management Committees
Followed by Q&A
Presentation 1- Shri Mukesh Kumar, Principal
Secretary (School Education), Gujarat
Presentation 2- Shri Thavaseelan K, Principal
Director, Nagaland
Presentation 3- Shri Mayank Chaturvedi, DC,
Dantewada, Chhattisgarh
Moderator: Ms. Sonia Pant, PD
(Education), NITI Aayog
3:30-3.45 PM Tea Break
03:45-04:55 PM Panel Discussion:4:
Technology for Education
Presentation 1: Shri Jagdish Babu, COO,
EkStep Foundation
Presentation 2: Ms. Nidhi Anarkat, CEO,
NavGurukul Foundation
Presentation 3: Ms. Swati Vasudevan, MD,
Khan Academy
Presentation 4: Shri Ravichandran Venkataraman,
Chairperson, eVidyaloka
Moderator: Shri Neeraj Huddar, Resident
Fellow, NITI Aayog
04:55-05:00 PM Vote of Thanks Ms. Sonia Pant, PD (Education)
05:00 PM High Tea SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA:
Temporal Analysis and Policy Roadmap for Quality Enhancement 200
Annexure-II
The consultation was convened by Dr I.V. Subba Rao, Distinguished Fellow, NITI Aayog on 2 December 2025
at NITI Aayog.
NameDesignation and Organisation
Ms. Saadhna Panday Chief of Education, UNICEF
Shri Ramachandra Rao BegurEducation Program Specialist, UNICEF
Prof. Reetu Chandra Lecturer, NCERT
Ms. Romonika D Sharan Project Director, Policy and Communications, Central Square Foundation
Annexure-II
Consultation with Stakeholders 201
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